VERBAL COMMUNICATION
The statement about Pepsi’s slogan translation is a classic example of a marketing blunde due to
cultural misunderstanding.
The original slogan is: "Come Alive! You're in the Pepsi Generation!" (English) - This aimed to
convey a sense of energy and vibrancy associated with the Pepsi brand.
However, the word “come alive” was translated wrongly into Chinese as “to be resurrected” or
“to come back to life.”
Cultural Impact:
o Ancestor Veneration: In China, ancestor veneration is a deeply ingrained
tradition. Respecting and honoring deceased ancestors holds great importance.
o Misinterpretation: So, when people saw a slogan implying Pepsi could bring back the
dead, it likely came across as strange or even offensive.
→ This Pepsi example perfectly demonstrates why understanding cultural context is vital in
verbal communication.
I. Why do cultures differ in terms of verbal communication?
1. Different aspects of language (reflect culture + lead to cultural misunderstandings)
Language: a system of verbal, nonverbal, and visual symbols that a group pieces together to share
meaning. (p.138)
Language and Power: There are often forceful politics surrounding language: Choosing a national
language can give power and prestige to those who speak it dominantly, while marginalizing others
who speak different languages or dialects.
Language politics between French and English in Quebec, Canada
→ Language is not something we simply participate in as individuals—it is structured by history,
social situations, social relations, and hierarchies.
1.1.Systems of meanings
1.1.1. Semantics: the area of language study that considers what words mean. (p.139)
- Words have 02 parts of meaning:
+ Denotation: the relatively objective dictionary type of definition of a word (p.139)
+ Connotation: the feelings (personal or social) that individuals associate with a word
(p.139)
→ These connotations can differ significantly between cultures.
(Because: Meaning is shaped by personal experiences and cultural context. Our personal
experiences shape how we interpret words, leading to potential misunderstandings when
interacting with someone from a different background.)
e.g.
- In midwestern U.S. American classrooms: students are more informal, some even calling
professors by first name → this might be seen as casual and friendly.
- In other cultures (some Asian countries): communication in business or education
situations or with status superiors demands formality. Students address professors with
formal titles like "Dr." or "Professor" as a sign of respect.
1.1.2. Discourse: the sets of ideas surround a concept. (p.139)
→ Meanings are not neutral and are influenced by social ideologies and power dynamics.
(Because: Cultures and societies create notions in a way that keeps certain sets of ideas in power.)
e.g. definitions of “patriotism”:
- Discourse: Patriotic discourse emphasizes national pride and loyalty. This can be a positive
force for unity, but it can also be used to promote nationalism and xenophobia.
- Power Dynamics: Nationalistic discourse can be used by governments to control
populations and justify war.
- Shifting Meanings: Discourse around patriotism can emphasize civic engagement and
inclusivity, rather than blind loyalty.
1.1.3. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Language may influence how people think within a
culture.
→ Language structures (like verb tenses and vocabulary) can shape how people perceive
reality.
e.g. Time Perception:
- Some languages, like English: have a future tense and a past tense, forcing speakers to
think of time as linear (past, present, future).
- Other languages, like some Indigenous American languages: have a single tense that
encompasses both past and present, possibly leading to a more fluid perception of time.
1.2.Speech Acts and cultural communication
• Pragmatics: the area of language study that navigates what we do with words.
• Speech Acts Theory: outlines the different actions we perform with our words.
(such as: making statements, expressing feelings, or giving commands, etc.)
→ The way we use language to perform actions (speech acts) can differ significantly.
These differences can lead to misunderstandings.
(Because: What counts as enough detail in one culture may not be the same in another culture –
p.141)
Some types of speech acts:
(i) Directives (Requests): Different cultures have different ways of making requests.
e.g.
- Direct Culture (e.g., US): People tend to be more straightforward with requests, using clear
and concise language.
Example: “Can you please hand me that report?”
- Indirect Culture (e.g., Japan): People might use more indirect language or hints, relying
on the listener to understand the underlying request.
Example: “I see that report is on your desk...” (hinting at the need for it)
(ii) Criticism: How we deliver criticism also varies culturally.
e.g.
- Western/Direct Cultures (e.g., US, Canada): Criticism might be delivered directly,
focusing on the behavior and offering suggestions for improvement. Phrases like "I
noticed..." or "I think you could..." are common.
- East Asian/Indirect Cultures (e.g., China, Japan): Criticism can be more indirect, focusing
on preserving harmony and avoiding causing the other person to lose face. This might
involve using vague suggestions or body language to convey the message.
(iii) Apologies: When faced with an embarrassing situation, apologies take different forms
across culture.
e.g.
- Americans: might use humor to lighten the mood when apologising;
- Some Asian cultures: might prioritize repairing the situation or avoiding shame for their
group. Humor might be seen as disrespectful or dismissive, especially for serious
situations.
(iv) Compliments: Compliment styles also differ culturally.
e.g.
- North American Culture: May simply say "Thank you" or acknowledge the compliment.
- Asian Cultures: Might deflect the compliment or downplay it. ("Oh, this old thing?" "It
was nothing.") This is seen as a sign of modesty.
2. Some theories
2.1.Relational orientations:
It refers to how we navigate communication based on 02 main dimensions:
- Power: the level of control one person has over another. We communicate differently with
superiors, colleagues, or close friends.
- Solidarity (relational distance): the degree of closeness or familiarity we feel with
someone. We tend to be more formal with strangers and more relaxed with close friends.
These dimensions interact. For example, we might have a close supervisor or be more casual with
a stranger of the same age.
e.g.
- High Power Distance Culture: Greetings might be more elaborate depending on social
status, with bowing or titles used to show respect.
- Low Power Distance Culture: Greetings might be more casual and informal, regardless of
social status.
2.2.Face theory:
• Face Theory (Goffman): We all have an image of ourselves we want to project in
interactions (like actors on a stage). We strive to protect this “face” and repair any damage
to it.
• All cultures seem to value maintaining 02 aspects of face (Brown & Levinson):
- Negative Face: The feeling of being free and autonomous, not being pressured or imposed
upon.
- Positive Face: The feeling of being liked, respected, and competent.
→ While the concept of face is universal, how cultures handle maintaining face can differ.
e.g.
- Individualistic Cultures: Might focus on taking personal responsibility for mistakes in
apologies. This can be seen as acknowledging fault and showing sincerity.
- Collectivistic Cultures: Might apologize more for the overall situation or inconvenience
caused, even if they weren't directly responsible. This can be seen as prioritizing group
harmony and avoiding blame.
2.3.Cultural scripts
Cultural Scripts (Goddard & Wierzbicka): unwritten rules about expected communication
behaviors in a culture. They define who speaks (roles) and what actions are expected in a
communication routine.
→ Cultures differ because cultural expectations differ.
e.g.
- America: public discussions about problems like pre-marital sex might be seen as normal.
- Russia: such topics may be viewed as private and not suitable for public discourse.
II. How do cultures differ in terms of verbal communication? (aka. cultural
dimensions of difference)
• Directness vs. Indirectness
e.g.
- America (Direct Culture): “The report needs more data analysis. Can you revise it by
tomorrow?” → direct in delivering criticism or making requests.
- Japan (Indirect Culture): “I was wondering if there might be another way to approach this
data analysis?" → indirect, criticism might be phrased as suggestions or questions.
• Formality vs. Informality:
e.g.
- Britain (Formal Culture): Formal written communication is common, even in emails
between colleagues. Formal titles like "Mr." or "Ms." are often used, and sarcasm or humor
might be subtle to avoid appearing unprofessional.
- America (Informal Culture): Communication in workplaces can be more informal, with
colleagues using first names and a relaxed tone. Humor and casual greetings are common.
However, formality might increase in situations like presentations or meetings with clients.
• Differentiated vs. Undifferentiated Codes:
Register: the form and level of formality of speech for people in different societal groups.
e.g.
- Romance Languages (e.g., Spanish, French) – Differentiated codes: These languages have
formal and informal ways to address someone in the second person singular ("you"). For
example, in Spanish, "tú" is informal (used with friends, family, or children), while "Usted"
is formal (used with strangers, superiors, or to show respect).
- Japanese – Differentiated codes: This language has multiple levels of formality, not just
in pronouns but also in verb conjugations and vocabulary. The level of formality used
depends on the relationship between the speaker and listener, the speaker's social status,
and the situation. For instance, a younger person speaking to an elder would use a much
more formal register than two friends talking casually.
- English: While English has some formality variations (e.g., "you" vs. "Sir/Madam"), it
generally lacks the complex system of differentiated codes seen in languages like Japanese
or Spanish, French. The same pronoun ("you") is used for both formal and informal
situations.
• Instrumental vs. Affective Styles:
Communication styles can be:
- Instrumental - goal-oriented and efficient.
- Affective - more emotional and expressive.
e.g. The way offers are made in different cultures reflects this:
- In the US: it's direct: offer-request/decline
- In China: it's more indirect and involves politeness rituals: offer-decline-insist-
accept/decline)
• Exaggerated, Exacting, Succinct Styles:
These describe different cultural preferences in how much detail and elaboration is used in
communication.
- Exaggerated styles: prioritize creativity and embellishment.
- Exacting styles: focus on clear and concise communication.
- Succinct styles: prefer using fewer words and rely on the listener to infer meaning.
e.g.
- African American, Latino and Middle Eastern culture: often use figurative language,
humor, and storytelling to emphasize a point or create a connection. (exaggerated styles)
- Germanic cultures (Germany, Scandinavia) and some Asian cultures (China, Korea):
often value clarity, directness, and avoiding ambiguity. (exacting styles)
- Some Native American and Asian cultures (Japan): often rely on context and nonverbal
cues to convey meaning, using fewer words.
III. How does language shape intercultural conversations?
“Discursive elements” of cultures: broader patterns of communication that shape how
communities understand and act.
3.1.Cultural Myth:
- Cultural myth: a story that teach preferred ways of behaving within a culture.
- They can be based on historical events or evolve over time.
- They are spread through various channels, including popular culture.
- They can be used to promote certain values and ideas.
→ Understanding cultural myths helps us see how communication reinforces cultural values and
guides behavior within a society.
e.g.
+ Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ: This myth tells the story of the origin of the Vietnamese people.
Lạc Long Quân, a dragon king who represents the sea, and Âu Cơ, a fairy representing the
mountains, have 100 children together. Fifty children follow their father to the sea, while the other
fifty follow their mother to the mountains, symbolizing the unity and diversity of the Vietnamese
people.
+ The Legend of Sơn Tinh and Thủy Tinh (The Mountain God and the Water God): This myth
explains the seasonal floods and droughts in Vietnam. Sơn Tinh, the mountain god, and Thủy Tinh,
the water god, compete for the hand of a princess. Sơn Tinh wins with his practical gifts and
resourcefulness, while Thủy Tinh, despite his power, cannot control the floods he unleashes out
of anger.
3.2.Conversational episodes (CEs)
- Conversational episodes/ritual (CEs) definition: routine parts of conversations with
expected beginnings and ends. e.g., greetings, jokes, or ordering food.
- They reflect cultural knowledge: They follow traditions and expectations specific to a
culture.
- They go beyond single speech acts: While a CE might involve speech acts like greetings
or compliments, it's a more extended exchange with more expected back-and-forth turns.
In other words, CEs involve more than one turn of conversation, unlike a single speech act (e.g.,
a greeting). They often have expected follow-up responses.
- They can involve rituals, which can build group identity or social bonds.
→ Understanding CEs helps us navigate communication across cultures by recognizing these
familiar routines and the cultural knowledge they embody.
e.g. Offering and refusing food/drink – a CE in Vietnam:
Offer: Bạn có muốn ăn/uống gì không? (Would you like to eat/drink something?)
Expected Response: Cảm ơn, mình không đói/khát lắm ạ! (Thank you, I'm not very
hungry/thirsty!) - Mình xin phép nhận lời! (I'd be happy to!)
3.3.Social dramas
- Social dramas: conflicts arising from a violated social norm. Discussion about the
violation challenges the norm, and the resolution strengthens, weakens, or validates it for
the community.
- Social dramas can happen on international, national, or local levels.
- 04 phases of a social drama:
+ Breach of the code: violation of a norm
+ Crisis: discussion and outrage
+ Redress: method of resolving the breach
+ Reintegration or dissensus: forgiveness and inclusion.
- Our communication reflects discussions on social controversies, shaping individual and
cultural values.
→ Social dramas both shape cultures and become part of intercultural dialogue.
e.g. The Same-Sex Marriage Debate:
- Breach: Traditional norms defined marriage as between a man and a woman. The
LGBTQ+ community challenged this norm by advocating for same-sex marriage rights.
- Crisis: Public debate and legal battles ensued, with strong opinions on both sides.
- Redress: In many countries, same-sex marriage has been legalized. This signifies a shift in
social norms towards greater LGBTQ+ rights and equality.
- Reintegration/Dissensus: While same-sex marriage is legal in some countries, the debate
continues in others. Reintegration would involve full societal acceptance of same-sex
marriage. Dissensus persists in some areas, highlighting the ongoing evolution of social
norms regarding gender and sexuality.
3.4.Cultural metaphors
- Metaphors: Associations between two things, using a familiar concept to understand a less
familiar one.
e.g.
+ Saving time: Time is treated like a physical resource that can be saved, similar to money.
+ She is a shining star: Success is compared to a star’s brilliance.
+ The argument was a journey: The development of an argument is likened to a trip with twists
and turns.
- Metaphorical Archetypes: Deeply ingrained cultural comparisons with multiple
expressions.
e.g. Light vs. Darkness: This archetype represents good versus evil, knowledge versus ignorance,
or clarity versus confusion. Examples include “enlightenment,” “shed light on the situation,” or
“the dark side of human nature.”
→ The purpose of learning about discursive elements of cultures: to become aware that:
- Language shapes culture and reflects power dynamics: Words and expressions can be used
to marginalize or privilege certain groups or viewpoints. (e.g., metaphors about success)
- It may be essential to:
+ Question existing narratives: We shouldn't passively accept the way things are described.
Consider who benefits and who is disadvantaged by a particular story, metaphor, or
conversation.
+ Rethinking social norms: Breaking established rules (code breach) can be positive if it
promotes social justice.
- Dissensus can serve as a catalyst for progress: Disagreement (dissensus) can be a
necessary step towards achieving social justice.
IV. How do we often navigate cross-cultural communication?
Cross-cultural communication has some challenges:
- People from different cultures have varying expectations for communication behaviors;
- When communication styles clash, we interpret actions based on our own cultural norms,
leading to misunderstandings or negative evaluations.
4.1.Communication Accommodation Theory:
- This theory explains how people adapt their communication styles in different situations.
- Speech codes:
+ Restricted Code: Informal language used by people who know each other well (jargon,
argot).
o Jargon: Specialized vocabulary used in a specific profession.
o Argot: Language used by a particular social group (e.g., slang).
+ Elaborated Code: More formal, detailed language that outsiders can understand.
+ Code-Switching: Effective communicators can switch between restricted and elaborated
codes depending on the situation and audience.
- Factors influencing communication style:
+ Social contexts (party vs. job interview)
+ Relationships (peers vs. superiors).
e.g.
- Social Context: At a party (informal context), someone might use more slang, jokes, and
casual greetings compared to a job interview (formal context) where they would use a more
professional tone and avoid slang.
- Relationships: Talking to a close friend (equal relationship), you might use a more relaxed
and familiar tone compared to talking to your boss (superior relationship) where you might
use a more respectful and formal tone.
4.2.Communication and sites of dominance
- Over-accommodation: Adjusting communication style based on stereotypes can backfire.
e.g.
o Speaking louder and slower to foreigners.
o “Secondary baby talk” with elders (high pitch, simpler vocabulary).
o “Hyper-explanation” by whites towards minorities (simpler grammar, repetition).
These can be perceived as condescending or disrespectful.
- Language and Power: Word choice, turn-taking patterns, and topic selection can reinforce
power structures and marginalize certain groups.
e.g. Gendered Language: Using overly gendered language (e.g., “fireman” instead of
“firefighter”) can exclude women from these professions.
-----SUMMARY------
- Awareness of cultural variations in language is crucial.
- Reflecting on our own communication style can help us be more mindful.
- We can use this knowledge to speak more respectfully and avoid unintentionally
oppressing others.
