Theories of sex determination in

organisms

Theories of sex determination in

organisms
▪ The mechanism of sex determination are similar in both plants and animals.

I. Classical Theories of sex determination:

1. Metabolic theory of sex determination:

▪ This theory was developed by Riddle

▪ According to metabolic theory, sex is conditioned by metabolism of cells.
 ▪ The high rate of oxidation, large quantity of water content and less protein leads
to maleness while reverse in there metabolic activity leads to femaleness.

2. Quantitative theory of sex determination:

▪ This theory is developed by Goldschmidt

▪ According to quantitative theory, the enzyme andrase is responsible for maleness
and gynase for femaleness.
▪ The balance between these two enzymes produces different sexes and intersexes
in varying degree.

II. Modern theories of sex determination:

1. Chromosomal theory of sex determination:

▪ In sexual reproduction in higher organism, male and female gametes are

produced and fuse together to form zygote. These gametes are specialized cell
with haploid number of chromosome. The chromosomes are of two types-
autosomes and sex chromosomes.
▪ Autosomes: it determines the phenotypic body chcaracters. These
chromosomes (22 pairs) in diploid organism do not differs among
male and female. Their number and morphology are conserved in
male and female.
▪ Sex chromosome: it determines sex.
▪ Herman Henking (1891) observed darkly stained chromatin element and named it
as X body which was later found to be sex chromosome and named as X-
chromosome.
▪ Miss Stevens (1905) observed Drosophila melanogaster and found four pair of
chromosomes. In male flies, one pair of chromosome was peculiar, one of them
resembles with the X-chromosome of female while other is unequal in size. Later
Wilson (1909) term this unusual chromosome as Y-chromosome. So, Drosophila
could be described as XX female and XY male.
▪ McClung (1902) suggests the chromosome was responsible for sex determination
▪ In human, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes
▪ Female= (22 pairs of AA chromosomes + XX)
▪ Male = (22 pairs of AA chromosome + XY)
▪ X and Y chromosomes differ from each other. In human Y chromosome is shorter
than X- chromosome while In Drosophila Y chromosome is larger than X-
chromosome.

2. Genic balance theory of sex determination:

 ▪ B Bridge (1925) put forward the genic balance theory of sex determination in
which he stated that the sex of an individual is determined by a balance between
the genes for maleness and those for femaleness present in an individual.
▪ While studying Drosophila, it was found that Y chromosome is mostly
heterochromatin and play no significant role in sex determination, the gene for
maleness is present in autosomes while the gene for femaleness is present in X-
chromosome.
▪ Therefore all the individuals carry the gene for both sex-male and female. But it is
actually the ratio between X-chromosome and the autosomes which governs the
development of male or female sex. The ratio is known as sex index ratio.
▪ Sex index ratio (X/A) = (X chromosome number/ Number of autosome sets)
▪ If the sex index ratio (X/A) is 0.5 or less, it gives male sex
▪ If the sex index ratio (X/A) is 1 or more than 1 then it gives female
sex
▪ If the sex index ration (X/A) is between 0.5 and 1 then it gives
intersex

Ploidy condition No. of X No. of autosomal Sex index ratio Phenotype

in Drosophila chromosome set (A) (X/A) character
Super female
2n (XXX) 3 2 1.5 (XXX)
3n 3 3 1 Female
4n 4 4 1 Female
2n 2 3 0.67 intersex
2n 1 2 0.5 Male
3n 1 3 0.33 Super male
2n 2 4 0.5 Male
▪ This table shows sex expression in Drosophila according to sex index ratio.
▪ Genic balance theory explain the sex determination in Drosophila on the basis of
sex index ratio, where Y-chromosome does not play role in sex determination.
▪ However this genic balance theory of sex determination does not hold true for
human or mammals and also in those individuals where Y chromosomes plays
certain role in sex determination.

3. Haplo-diplo mechanism of sex determination:

▪ In haplo-diplo mechanism of sex determination, females developed from fertilized

egg and are diploid whereas male developed from unfertilized egg by the process
called parthenogenesis and are haploid.
 ▪ This method of sex determination is very common in Insects species such as bees,
ants, wasps.
▪ In a study conducted by Whitings (1945) on wasp species (Habrobracon), it was
found that all females were diploid whereas most of the males were haploid and
developed from unfertilized egg and very few males were diploid.
▪ Diploid male were poorly viable.
▪ Similar type of result can be observed in honey bees, where male drone
developed by parthenogenesis process.

4. Single gene sex determination:

▪ In microorganisms such as Chlamydomonas, Neurospora and Saccharomyces species,

the sex is determined by a single gene. These microorganism have two separate
mating type (+/-strains) which are determined by a pair of allele (gene). Sexual
reproduction takes place when gametes from two opposite strain fused together.
Gametes from same strain do not fuse in such organisms.
▪ Similarly in some plants and animals, sex is determined by a single gene. For
examples, Male and female mosquito differ from each other in a single gene.
▪ An example of single gene sex determination is observed in maize. Maize is a
monoecious plant with both male and female sex organs in same plant. If gene
for both bassen cob and gene for tassel ear are in recessive form, then the
monoecious plant is converted into dioecious plant (female).

5. Cytoplasmic theory of sex determination:

▪ In bacteria eg E. coli, extra chromosomal DNA called sex factor (F-plasmid) is

responsible for sexuality.
▪ The bacteria containing F-plasmid is known as donor (male) and denoted as F+
cell while the bacteria lacking F-plasmid is known as recipient (female) and
denoted as F-cell.
▪ During bacteria conjugation, donor cell transfer its F-factor into recipient cell and
finally F- cell also become F+ cell.
▪ F- factor may integrate with DNA of donor cell and become Hfr cell (high
frequency recombination) and can transfer its genetic material to recipient cell
▪ However, cytoplasmic factor is also responsible for sexuality is some
microorganisms is postulated by this theory.

6. Nutritional theory of sex determination:

▪ It was proposed by Sharp (1934)

▪ According to this theory, sex determination is not only genetic but also depends
upon the nourishment of gametes.
 ▪ For examples; In Equisetum (puzzlegrass), when its spore is grown under good
growth condition, it develops into female whereas when grown under unfavorable
condition, it develops into male.
▪ Similarly, in a marine worm (Dinophilus), size of egg determines the nature of sex.
The small egg develops into male whereas large egg develops into female.

7. Environmental theory of sex determination:

▪ According to this theory, environmental factor plays direct or indirect role in

determining sex of an organism.
▪ Every zygote contains all the responsible gene required for development of sex
and expression of particular sex (male or female) is determined by internal or
external environmental condition.
▪ In certain environmental condition, particular sex gene might get inhibited such
that other sex gene get activated giving one type of sex and similarly in other
environmental condition the process might get revered giving other type of sex.
▪ For example, in reptile like turtles, high temperature (30-35) induce the expression
of female and low temperature (23-28) induce male sex.
▪ Also in plants like Equisetum (puzzlegrass), spore grown under optimum condition
develops into female gametophyte and when grown under unfavorable condition
develops into male.
▪ Other examples: In cucumber and melon, day lights length, temperature etc also
differentiate sex.

8. Hormonal control theory of sex determination:

▪ In certain animals, hormone plays an important role in sex determination

(differentiation).
▪ For examples- A marine worm
▪ The worm Bonellia is morphologically distinct. Male worm is sessile, lives inside
uterus of female worm and smaller in size than female worm which is about 2
inch long.
▪ After fertilization of egg, larvae are releases in water. All larvae are cytogenetically
identical.
▪ Those larvae, which comes in contact with mature female get attached to their
proboscis and develop into male. These male then migrate to female reproductive
organs and live a parasite. But those larvae which do not comes in contact with
mature female develops into female worm.
▪ It has been found that the proboscis of mature female worm secrete hormone
like substance which inhibits the larval gene determining female sex and allowing
male gene to express.
▪ Other example; freemartin or hormonal intersex cattle
▪ If a cattle develops dizygotic twins of opposite sex, there is more chance of
development of sterile female calf (freemartin) and a normal male calf.
▪ Freemartin develops only when foetal membrane of two embryos fused together
such that cross circulation between two embryos occurs.
▪ It was found that during cross circulation, some of the hormone released by male
embryo cross the placenta of female embryo and it inhibits the secondary sexual
characters in female embryo and at the same time induce male characters. Such
that the female embryo after birth become more like male but it is sexually
female.