Class: 12th Notes

Zoology
Chapter: Evolution
Qno:1. Give an account of Urey and Miller’s experiment and its significance:
Ans Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that the first form of life could have originated
from pre-existing non-living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and that formation of life
was preceded by chemical evolution i.e., formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic
constituents. This theory is also known as chemical theory.
Stanley Miller (1953), an American scientist conducted an experiment to test the theory of Oparin
and Haldane on origin of life. He prepared the apparatus which simulated the conditions on the
primitive earth including a "reducing atmosphere" and ocean.
He circulated mixture of methane (CHs), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen H2) and water vapour at 800°C
in the apparatus. He also provided energy through electric sparks from electrodes. These conditions
were believed to prevail in the ancient atmosphere. He observed the formation of amino acids in his
experiment. Similar experiments by other scientists, formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigment and
fats were observed.
Diagrammatic representation of Miller's experiment is as follows:

Qno:2. Define Natural Selection & its types:

Ans “Heritable variations that enable survival of the fittest will leave greater number of progeny”
Stabilising selection Directional selection Disruptive selection
This type of selection favours In this selection, the population This type of selection
individuals having mean value for shift towards one particular simultaneously favours individuals
a character (phenotype) direction and extreme value of a at both extremes of the distribution
character (phenotype) is curve.
It reduces variation and hence does favoured
not promote evolutionary change. As a result, two peaks in
It is seen in response to distribution of a trait are produced.
However, it maintains the mean directional changes in the It is rare in occurrence but
value from generation to environment for a long time. important for evolutionary changes
generation.
Example industrial melanism , Example :
If we draw a graphical curve of penicillin resistance in bacteria ,
population, the peak appears long neck in giraffe shell colour in limpets
higher, narrower and is bell-
shaped. Colour in oysters

Example birth weight of babies

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 Qno:3. a) What is Hardy-Weinberg principle?
(b) Write the mathematical expression of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
(c) What would you interpret if the value of 1 in the equation gets deviated?
c) What would you interpret if the value of 1 in the equation gets deviated?
Ans. (a) According to Hardy-Weinberg principle, the relative frequencies of alleles of various genes in a large
population tend to remain constant generation after generation. In simple words, the principle says that genes and
their alleles (gene pool) remain constant and maintain a state of genetic equilibrium generation after generation.
But it has been assumed that the population is large, randomly mating is promoted and no evolutionary force acts
on the population. The sum total of allelic frequency is 1.
(b) This genetic equilibrium is expressed mathematically using algebraic equation.
In a stable population, for a gene with two alleles, A (dominant) and a (recessive), there will be three possible
genotypes AA (homozygous dominant), AA (heterozygous), and aa (homozygous recessive). If frequency of allele
'A' is denoted as 'p' and allele 'a' is denoted as 'q' then,
𝑝 + 𝑞 = 1This can be expressed by the binomial expression
(𝑝 + 𝑞)2
(𝑝 + 𝑞)2 = 𝑝2 + 2𝑝𝑞 + 𝑞 2 = 1
Where,
𝑝2 =frequency of AA (homozygous dominant) individuals
2pq = frequency of Aa (heterozygous) individuals, and
𝑞 2 = frequency of aa (homogous recessive) individuals.
(c) If value of 1 in the equation deviates, this indicated changing gene frequencies that would imply evolution is in
progress
Qno:4. List any five factors which affect genetic equilibrium of Hardy-Weinberg population and briefly
explain each.
Ans. Hardy-Weinberg principle applies for the population which is facing no evolutionary forces from the
environment. The evolutionary forces are responsible for affecting the genetic equilibrium which includes gene
flow, genetic drift, mutation, natural selection and genetic recombination.
(i) Gene flow: It refers to the movement of alleles from one population to another as a result of interbreeding
between members of the two populations. It causes continual interchange of alleles between organisms.
(ii) Genetic drift: It refers to a change in the population of alleles in the gene pool. It is random and occurs only
by chance.
(iii) Natural selection: It is a process in which heritable variations enabling better survival are enabled to
reproduce and leave greater number of progeny.
(iv) Mutation: Mutation leads to variation which changes frequency of genes and alleles in future generations.
(v) Genetic recombination: Crossing over during meiosis is a major source of genetic variation within population.
Offspring formed from these gametes showing 'new' combination of characteristics are called recombinants.

Qno:5. What is adaptive radiation? Why it is also called as convergent evolution. Give examples
Ans Adaptive radiation refers to the process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area
starting from a point and literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats). Adaptive radiation
can be referred to as convergent evolution, when more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have
occurred in an isolated geographical area (representing different habitats). The placental mammals in
Australia shows convergent evolution as they evolved into varieties of such placental mammals each
of which appears to be similar to a corresponding marsupial, e.., placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf-
marsupial.
Diagrammatic representation of convergent evolution of Australian Marsupials and placental
mammals is follows:

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 Qno:6. What are homologous and analogous organs? Give examples of each
Ans The phylogenetic history can be revealed by comparative study of external and internal structures.
A. Homologous Organs
(a) The organs with same structural design and origin but different functions are called homologous
organs. For example, the forelimbs of some animals like whales, bats, cheetah and humans have
similar anatomical structure, i.., all have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.
(b) Due to different needs, some structures developed differently. This is called divergent evolution.
(c) Homology indicates common ancestry.
(d) Other examples include vertebrate hearts or brains in animals, thorn and tendrils of Bougainvillea
and Cucurbita in plants.

B. Analogous Organs:
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 (a) The organs which are anatomically different but functionally similar are called analogous organs.
For example, wings of butterfly. Due to same function, different structures evolve similarly. This is
called convergent evolution. Other examples include eye of octopus and mammals. Flippers of
penguins and dolphins. Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification). Similar
habitat resulted in selection of similar adaptive features in different groups of organs but towards the
same functions.

Qno:7. Explain the evolution of man:

Ans Human evolution:
(1) Human evolution is the evolutionary process by which human beings developed on earth.
(2) The evolution step involves a sequence of changes in genetic material and adapting to its
surrounding.
(3) They evolved to live their lives to the best of their abilities.
Stages in human evolution:
The various stages in the evolution of man:
Dryopethicus-
(1) The earlier known ancestor of man.
(2) Found in some parts of Africa, Asia, and Europe.
Australopithecus-
(1) Inhabited in the mainland of Asia.
(2) Have large jaws and human-like teeth.
Homo habilis-
(1) Make use of stone tools.
(2) They are able to communicate with each other.
Homo erectus-
(1) More-evolved human beings with large brain sizes.
(2) Invented fire and were carnivorous (eat meat)
Homo sapiens-
(1) These are modern men with 1350cc brain capacity.
(2) Develop the power of thinking, using tools, and being omnivorous.

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