Railway & Airport Engineering

Socio-economic impact of Indian Railway: The Indian Railways plays a crucial role in the socio-economic
landscape of India. Here are some key points outlining its impact:
Economic Growth
1. Employment Generation: Indian Railways is one of the largest employers in India, providing jobs to
millions directly and indirectly.
2. Boost to Industries: It facilitates the movement of goods, helping various sectors like agriculture,
mining, and manufacturing thrive by providing a cost-effective transport solution.
Regional Development
1. Connectivity: Railways enhance connectivity between urban and rural areas, fostering economic
development in less accessible regions.
2. Urbanization: Improved rail infrastructure encourages urbanization, leading to the growth of cities and
towns along railway lines.
Social Impact
1. Access to Education and Healthcare: Better connectivity enables easier access to educational
institutions and healthcare facilities, especially for rural populations.
2. Cultural Exchange: Railways promote cultural interactions by facilitating travel across diverse regions,
fostering national integration.
Environmental Considerations
1. Sustainable Transport: Railways are generally more energy-efficient and environmentally friendly
compared to road transport, reducing carbon emissions per ton-mile.
Challenges and Opportunities
1. Infrastructure Needs: Aging infrastructure and the need for modernization present challenges, but also
opportunities for investment and development.
2. Safety and Efficiency: Addressing safety concerns and enhancing efficiency can significantly impact
public perception and service quality.
Zonal Classification of Railway: Indian Railways is divided into several zones, which are further sub-divided
into divisions. The number of zones in Indian Railways increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1952 and
sixteen in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions, each having a divisional
headquarters. There are a total of sixty-eight divisions. Each of the sixteen zones is headed by a general
manager who reports directly to the Railway Board. The zones are further divided into divisions under the
control of divisional railway managers (DRM).
Sl. Name Abbr Date Route Head Division
No Established KM quarter
1 Central CR 5-Nov-1951 3905 Mumbai Mumbai, Bhusawal, Pune, Solapur, Nagpur
2 East Central ECR 01-Oct-2002 3628 Hazipur Danapur, Dhanbad, Mughal Sarai,
Samastipur, Sonpur
3 East Coast ECoR 01-Apr-2003 2677 Bhubaneswar Khurda Road, Sambalpur and Waltair
(Visakhapatnam)
4 Eastern ER April-1952 2414 Kolkata Howrah, Sealdah, Asansol, Malda
5 North Central NCR 01-Apr-2003 3151 Allahabad Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi
6 North Eastern NER 1952 3667 Gorakhpur Izzatnagar, Lucknow, Varanasi
7 North Western NWR 01-Oct-2002 5459 Jaipur Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur
8 North East Frontier NFR 15-Jan-1958 3907 Guwahati Alipurduar, Katihar, Rangia, Lumding,
Tinsukia
9 Northern NR 14-Apr-1952 6968 Delhi Delhi, Ambala, Firozpur, Lucknow,
Moradabad
10 South Central SCR 02-Oct-1966 5803 Secunderaba Vijayawada, Hyderabad, Guntakal, Guntur,
d Nand ed, Secunderabad
11 South East Central SECR 01-Apr-2003 2447 Bilaspur Bilaspur, Raipur, Nagpur
12 South Eastern SER 1955 2631 Kolkata Adra, Chakradharpur, Kharagpur, Ranchi
13 South Western SWR 01-Apr-2003 3177 Hubli Hubli Bangalore Mysore
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14 Southern SR 14-Apr-1951 5098 Chennai Chennai, Trichy, Madurai, Salem, Palakkad,
Thiruvananthapuram
15 West Central WCR 01-Apr-2003 2965 Jabalpur Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota
16 Western WR 05-Nov-1951 6182 Mumbai Mumbai central, Ratlam, Ahmedabad,
Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Vadodara
Subsidiaries of Indian Railways: There also exist independent organisations under the control of the Railway
Board for electrification, modernisation, research and design and training of officers, each of which is headed
by an officer of the rank of general manager. A number of Public Sector Undertakings, which perform railway-
related functions ranging from consultancy to ticketing, are also under the administrative control of the
Ministry of railways.
There are fourteen public undertakings under the administrative control of the Ministry of Railways:

• Bharat Wagon and Engineering Co. Ltd. (BWEL)

• Centre for Railway Information Systems (CRIS)[ Container Corporation of India Limited (CONCOR)
• Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited (DFCCIL)
• Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Limited (IRCTC)
• Indian Railway Construction (IRCON) International Limited
• Indian Railway Finance Corporation Limited (IRFC)
• Konkan Railway Corporation Limited (KRCL)
• Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation (MRVC)
• Railtel Corporation of India Limited (Rail Tel)
• Rail India Technical and Economic Services Limited (RITES)
• Rail Vikas Nigam Limited (RVNL)
• High Speed Rail Corporation of India (HSRC)
• Burn Standard Company
• Braithwaite and Co. Ltd
➢ Railway Track gauge: The clear minimum horizontal distance between the inner (running) faces of the two
rails forming a track is known as Gauge. Indian railway followed this practice. In European countries, the
gauge is measured between the inner faces of two rails at a point 14 mm below the top of the rail.

Different gauges on indian railways: The East India Company intended to adopt the standard gauge of 1435
mm in India also. This proposal was, however, challenged by W. Simms, Consulting Engineer to the
Government of India, who recommended a wider gauge of 1676 mm (5 '6 "). The Court of Directors of the East
India Company decided to adopt Simms's recommendation and 5'6 " finally became the Indian standard
gauge. In 1871, the Government of India wanted to construct cheaper railways for the development of the
country and 1000 mm metre gauge was introduced. In due course of time, two more gauges of widths 762 mm
(2 '6 ") and 610 mm (2 '0 ") were introduced for thinly populated areas, mountain railways, and other
miscellaneous purposes. The details of the various gauges existing on Indian Railways are given in Table below.

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Various gauges on Indian Railways as on 31.03.2011

Name of gauge Width (mm) Route (km) % of route (km)

Broad Gauge 1676 55188 85.6
Metre Gauge 1000 6809 10.6
Narrow Gauge 762 2463 3.8
- 610
Total All Gauge 64460 100
Broad Gauge: - When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails forming a track
is 1676mm the gauge is called Broad Gauge (B.G)
This gauge is also known as standard gauge of India and is the broadest gauge of the world. The Other
countries using the Broad Gauge are Pakistan, Bangladesh, SriLanka, Brazil, Argentine, etc.50% India‘s railway
tracks have been laid to this gauge.
Suitability: - Broad gauge is suitable under the following Conditions:-

• When sufficient funds are available for the railway project.

• When the prospects of revenue are very bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in plain areas which are densely populated i.e. for routes of maximum
traffic, intensities and at places which are centers of industry and commerce.
Metre Gauge: - When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails forming a
track is 1000mm, the gauge is known as Metre Gauge (M.G) The other countries using Metre gauge are
France, Switzerland, Argentine, etc. 40% of India‘s railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.
Suitability:- Metre Gauge is suitable under the following conditions:-
(i) When the funds available for the railway project are inadequate.
(ii) When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in under-developed areas and in interior areas, where traffic intensity
is small and prospects for future development are not very bright.
Narrow Gauge:- When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two parallel rails forming a
track is either 762mm or 610mm, the gauge is known as Narrow gauge (N.G) The other countries using narrow
gauge are Britain, South Africa, etc. 10% of India‘s railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.
Suitability: - Narrow gauge is suitable under the following conditions:-
(i) When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to the provision of sharp curves, steep
gradients, narrow bridges and tunnels etc.
(ii) When the prospects of revenue are not very bright. This gauge is, therefore, used in hilly and very thinly
populated areas. The feeder gauge is commonly used for feeding raw materials to big government
manufacturing concerns as well as to private factories such as steel plants, oil refineries, sugar factories, etc.

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Choice of gauge: The choice of gauge is very limited, as each country has a fixed gauge and all new railway
lines are constructed to adhere to the standard gauge. However, the following factors theoretically influence
the choice of the gauge:
• Cost considerations: There is only a marginal increase in the cost of the track if a wider gauge is adopted.
In this connection, the following points are important
• There is a proportional increase in the cost of acquisition of land, earthwork, rails, sleepers, ballast, and
other track items when constructing a wider gauge.
• The cost of building bridges, culverts, and runnels increases only marginally due to a wider gauge.
• The cost of constructing station buildings, platforms, staff quarters, level crossings, signals, etc.,
associated with the railway network is more or less the same for all gauges.
• The cost of rolling stock is independent of the gauge of the track for carrying the same volume of
traffic.
• Traffic considerations: The volume of traffic depends upon the size of wagons and the speed and hauling
capacity of the train. Thus, the following points need to be considered.
• As a wider gauge can carry larger wagons and coaches, it can theoretically carry more traffic.
• A wider gauge has a greater potential at higher speeds, because speed is a function of the diameter of
the wheel, which in turn is limited by the width of the gauge. As a thumb rule, diameter of the wheel is
kept 75 per cent of gauge width.
• The type of traction and signalling equipment required are independent of the gauge.
• Physical features of the country: It is possible to adopt steeper gradients and sharper curves for a narrow
gauge as compared to a wider gauge.
• Uniformity of gauge: The existence of a uniform gauge in a country enables smooth, speedy, and efficient
operation of trains. Therefore, a single gauge should be adopted irrespective of the minor advantages of a
wider gauge and the few limitations of a narrower gauge.
Problem of multi gauge system
Inconvenience to passengers: Due to change of gauge, passengers have to change trains mid-journey along
with their luggage, which causes inconvenience such as the following:
(a) Climbing stairs and crossing bridges
(b) Getting seats in the compartments of the later trains
(c) Missing connections with the later trains in case the earlier train is late
(d) Harassment caused by porters
(e) Transporting luggage from one platform to another.
Difficulty in trans-shipment of goods: Goods have to be trans-shipped at the point where the change of gauge
takes place. This causes the following problems:
(a) Damage to goods during trans-shipment
(b) Considerable delay in receipt of goods at the destination
(c) Theft or misplacement of goods during trans-shipment and the subsequent claims
(d) Non-availability of adequate and specialized trans-shipment labour and staff, particularly during strikes
Inefficient use of rolling stock: As wagons have to move empty in the direction of the trans-shipment point,
they are not fully utilized. Similarly, idle wagons or engines of one gauge cannot be moved on another gauge.
Hindrance to fast movement of goods and passenger traffic: Due to change in the gauge, traffic cannot move
fast which becomes a major problem particularly during emergencies such as war, floods, and accidents.
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Difficulties in balanced economic growth: The difference in gauge also leads to unbalanced economic growth.
This happens because industries set up near MG/NG stations cannot send their goods economically and
efficiently to areas being served by BG stations.
Difficulties in future gauge conversion projects: Gauge conversion is quite difficult, as it requires enormous
effort to widen existing tracks. Widening the gauge involves heavy civil engineering work such as widening of
the embankment, bridges and tunnels, as well as tracks; additionally, a wider rolling stock is also required.
During the gauge conversion period, there are operational problems as well, since the traffic has to be slowed
down and even suspended for a certain period in order to execute the work.
Classification of Indian Railway by speed Criteria: Indian Railways classifies its trains based on speed into
several categories. Here's a general overview:
1. Superfast Trains: These trains operate at an average speed of 55 km/h (34 mph) and above. They cover
long distances and have fewer stops compared to regular trains.
2. Express Trains: These trains typically run at an average speed between 50 km/h (31 mph) and 55 km/h
(34 mph). They make more stops than superfast trains but still offer faster travel than ordinary trains.
3. Mail Trains: Similar to express trains, mail trains operate at an average speed between 40 km/h (25
mph) and 50 km/h (31 mph) but may have more halts along their routes.
4. Passenger Trains: These trains run at an average speed below 40 km/h (25 mph) and usually stop at
many stations. They cater to local travel needs.
5. Special Trains: These may include tourist trains or trains running during festivals and can vary in speed
based on their specific service.
6. High-Speed Trains: Recently, Indian Railways has introduced semi-high-speed trains, like Vande Bharat
Express, which can reach speeds of 160 km/h (99 mph) and above.
This classification helps passengers choose the right train based on their speed and convenience preferences.
Permanent Way: The term "permanent way" in railway terminology refers to the fundamental components of
a railway track that provide the foundation for trains to run.
The permanent way is essential for the safety and reliability of railway operations, ensuring that trains can
travel smoothly and efficiently over long distances. Regular maintenance of the permanent way is crucial to
prevent accidents and ensure a safe journey.
Requirement of Ideal Permanent Way

• The gauge should be uniform and correct.

• Both the rails should be at the same level in a straight track.
• On curves proper super elevation should be provided to the outer rail.
• The track should have enough lateral strength.
• The radii and super elevation, provided on curves, should be properly designed.
• The track must have certain amount of elasticity
• All joints, points and crossings should be properly designed.
• Drainage system of permanent way should be perfect.
• All the components of permanent way should satisfy the design requirements.
• It should have adequate provision for easy renewals and repairs.

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Components of permanent way: The Typical components are:
1. Rails 3. Fasteners 5. Sub grade
2. Sleepers (or ties) 4. Ballast (or slab track)
Rails: Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide an unchanging, continuous, and
level surface for the movement of trains. To be able to withstand stresses, they are made of high-carbon steel.
Function: Rails are similar to steel girders. They perform the following functions in a track:
• Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.
• They provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction. The friction between the steel wheel
and the steel rail is about one-fifth of the friction between the pneumatic tyre and a metalled road.
• They serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.
• They bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted to them through axles and wheels of
rolling stock as well as due to braking and thermal forces.
• They carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of the formation through sleepers and
the ballast.
Requirement of Ideal Rail
• The rail should have the most economical section consistent with strength, stiffness, and durability.
• The centre of gravity of the rail section should preferably be very close to the mid height of the rail so that
the maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.
• A rail primarily consists of a head, a web, and a foot, and there should be an economical and balanced
distribution of metal in its various components so that each of them can fulfil its requirements properly.
• The head of the rail should have adequate depth to allow for vertical wear. The rail head should also be
sufficiently wide so that not only is a wider running surface available, but also the rail has the desired
lateral stiffness.
• The web should be sufficiently thick so as to withstand the stresses arising due to the loads bore by it, after
allowing for normal corrosion.
• The foot should be of sufficient thickness to be able to withstand vertical and horizontal forces after
allowing for loss due to corrosion. The foot should be wide enough for stability against overturning. The
design of the foot should be such that it can be economically and efficiently rolled.
• Fishing angles must ensure proper transmission of loads from the rails to the fish plates. The fishing angles
should be such that the tightening of the plate does not produce any excessive stress on the web of the
rail.
• Height of the rail should be adequate so that the rail has sufficient vertical stiffness and strength as a
beam.
Types of Rail
The Rails that are used for construction purpose are as follows:
1. Double headed rails (D.H. 2. Bull headed rails ([Link])
Rails) 3. Flat footed rails ([Link])

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Double headed rails (D.H. Rails): The rail sections, whose foot and head are of same dimensions, are called
Double headed or Dumb-bell rails. In the beginning, these rails were widely used in the railway track. The idea
behind using these rails was that when the head had worn out due to rubbing action of wheels, the rails could
be inverted and reused. But by experience it was found that their foot could not be used as running surface
because it also got corrugated under the impact of wheel loads. This type of rail is not in use in Indian Railways
now-days.
Bull headed rails ([Link]): The rail section whose head dimensions are more than that of their foot are
called bull headed rails. In this type of rail the head is made little thicker and stronger than the lower part by
adding more metal to it. These rails also require chairs for holding them in position. Bull headed rails are
especially used for making points and crossings.
Merits:
• B.H. Rails keep better alignment and provide more smoother and stronger track.
• These rails provide longer life to wooden sleepers and greater stability to the track.
• These rails are easily removed from sleepers and hence renewal of track is easy
Demerits:
• B.H. rails require additional cost of iron chairs.
• These rails require heavy maintenance cost.
• B.H. rails are of less strength and stiffness.
Flat footed rails ([Link]): The rail sections having their foot rolled to flat are called flat footed or vignole`s
rails. This type of rail was invented by Charles Vignole in 1836. It was initially thought that the flat footed rails
could by fixed directly to wooden sleepers and would eliminate chairs and keys required for the B.H. rails. But
later on, it was observed that heavy train loads caused the foot of the rail to sink into the sleepers and making
the spikes loose. These rails are most commonly used in India.
Merits:
• F.F. rails have more strength and stiffness.
• No chairs are required for holding them in position.
• These rails require less number of fastenings.
• The maintenance cost of track formed with F.F. rails is less.
Demerits:
• The fittings get loosened more frequently.
• These rails are not easily removed and hence renewal of track becomes difficult.
• It is difficult to manufacture points and crossings by using these rails.

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Length of Rail: The longer is the rail, the lesser would be the number of joints and fittings required and the
lesser the cost of construction and maintenance. Longer rails are economical and provide smooth and
comfortable rides. Indian Railways has standardized a rail length of 13 m (previously 42 ft) for broad gauge and
12 m (previously 39 ft) for MG and NG tracks.
Rail Joint: A rail joint is an integral part of the railway track as it holds together the adjoining ends of rails in
correct position, both in horizontal and vertical planes.
Ill effect of Rail Joints: A rail joint is the weakest link in the track. At a joint, there is a break in the continuity of
the rail in both the horizontal and the vertical planes because of the presence of the expansion gap and
imperfection in the levels of rail heads. A severe jolt is also experienced at the rail joint when the wheels of
vehicles negotiate the expansion gap. This jolt loosens the ballast under the sleeper bed, making the
maintenance of the joint difficult. The fittings at the joint also become loose, causing heavy wear and tear of
the track material.
Requirement of Ideal Rail joint: An ideal rail joint provides the same strength and stiffness as the parent rail.
The characteristics of an ideal rail joint are briefly summarized here.
• Holding the rail ends: An ideal rail joint should hold both the rail ends in their precise location in the
horizontal as well as the vertical planes to provide as much continuity in the track as possible. This helps in
avoiding wheel jumping or the deviation of the wheel from its normal path of movement.
• Strength: An ideal rail joint should have the same strength and stiffness as the parent rails it joins.
• Expansion gap: The joint should provide an adequate expansion gap for the free expansion and
contraction of rails caused by changes in temperature
• Flexibility: It should provide flexibility for the easy replacement of rails, whenever required0.
• Provision for wear: It should provide for the wear of the rail ends, which is likely to occur under normal
operating conditions.
• Elasticity: It should provide adequate elasticity as well as resistance to longitudinal forces so as to ensure a
trouble-free track.
• Cost: The initial as well as maintenance costs of an ideal rail joint should be minimal.
Types of Rail Joint:
Classification According to Position of Sleepers: Three types of rail joints come under this category.
• Supported Joints: In this type of joint, the ends of the rails
are supported directly on a sleeper called as ‘joint sleeper’.
The support tends to slightly raise the height of the rail
ends. As such, the run on a supported joint is normally
hard. There is also wear and tear of the sleeper supporting
the joint and its maintenance presents quite a problem.
The duplex sleeper is an example of a supported joint.
• Suspended Joints: In this type of joint, the ends of the rails
are suspended between two sleepers and some portion of
the rail is cantilevered at the joint. As a result of cantilever
action, the packing under the sleepers of the joint becomes
loose particularly due to the hammering action of the moving
train loads. Suspended joints are the most common type of
joints adopted by railway systems worldwide, including India.

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• Bridge Joints: The bridge joint is similar to the suspended joint except that the two sleepers on either side
of a bridge joint are connected by means of a metal flat or a corrugated plate known as a bridge plate. This
type of joint is generally not used on Indian Railways.

Classification Based on the Position of the Joint: Two types of rail joints fall in this category.
• Square Joints : The joints in one rail are exactly opposite to the joints in the other rail. This type of joint is
most common on Indian Railways.

• Staggered Joints: The joints in one rail are somewhat staggered and are not opposite the joints in the
other rail. Staggered joints are normally preferred on curved tracks because they hinder the centrifugal
force that pushes the track outward.

Creep of Rail: Creep of rails can be defined as the longitudinal movement of rails with respect to sleepers in a
track. Rails have a tendency to gradually move in the direction of dominant traffic. Creep is common to all
railway tracks, but its magnitude varies considerably from place to place; the rail may move by several
centimetres in a month at few places, while at other locations the movement may be almost negligible.
Causes of Creep: The main factors responsible for the development of creep are as follows.
• Ironing effect of the wheel: The ironing effect of moving wheels on the waves formed in the rail tends to
cause the rail to move in the direction of traffic, resulting in creep.
• Starting and stopping operations: When a train starts or accelerates, the backward thrust of its wheels
tends to push the rail backwards. Similarly, when the train slows down or comes to a halt, the effect of the
applied brakes tends to push the rail forward. This in turn causes creep in one direction or the other.

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• Changes in temperature: Creep can also develop due to variations in temperature resulting in the
expansion and contraction of the rail. Creep occurs frequently during hot weather conditions.
• Unbalanced traffic: In a double-line section, trains move only in one direction, i.e., each track is
unidirectional. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of traffic. In a single-line section, even though
traffic moves in both directions, the volume of traffic in each direction is normally variable. Creep,
therefore, develops in the direction of predominant traffic.
• Poor maintenance of track Some minor factors, mostly relating to poor maintenance of the track, also
contribute to the development of creep. These are as follows:
• Improper securing of rails to sleepers
• Limited quantities of ballast resulting in inadequate ballast resistance to the movement of sleepers
• Improper expansion gaps
• Badly maintained rail joints
• Rail seat wear in metal sleeper track
Prevention of Creep: Creep in railway terminology refers to the gradual longitudinal movement of rails along
the track, which can occur due to thermal expansion, train loads, or other factors. Preventing creep is
important to maintain track alignment and ensure safe train operations. Here are some common methods
used to prevent rail creep:
• Pulling of anchors and anti-creepers should be done.
• The number of sleepers per rail length should be increased.
• Pulling back the rail to its original position.
• One should provide adequate ballast and packing carefully.
• For good grip, steel sleepers are used.
Sleepers: Sleepers are transverse members of the track placed below the rails to support and fix them in
position.
Function of Sleepers: Sleepers serve the following functions:
• To hold the rails to proper gauge.
• To transfer the loads from rails to the ballast.
• To support and fix the rails in proper position.
• To provide elastic medium between the rails and the ballast.
• To provide stability to the permanent way on the whole.
Requirement of good sleeper: The following are the requirements of good sleepers:
• The sleepers should be sufficiently strong to act as a beam under loads.
• The sleepers should be economical.
• They should maintain correct gauge.
• They should provide sufficient bearing area for the rail.
• The sleepers should have sufficient weight for stability.
• Sleepers should facilitate easy fixing and taking out of rails without disturbing them.
• They should facilitate easy removal and replacement of ballast.
• They should be able to resist impact and vibrations of moving trains.
• They should be suitable to each type of ballast.
• If track-circuiting is done, it should be possible to insulate them from the rails.

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Types of Sleepers: Sleepers are of the following types:
1. Wooden Sleepers: These sleepers are regarded to be the best as they satisfy all the requirements of good
sleepers and are the only sleeper suitable for track circuiting. The life of wooden sleepers depends upon
their ability to resist wear, attack by white ants and quality of timber used. Timbers commonly used in
India for sleepers are Sal, Teak, Deodar and chair wood. The standard sizes of wooden sleepers for
different gauges are as follows:
For B.G. – 2740 mm X 250 mm X 130 mm For M; .G. – 1830 mm X 203 mm X 114 mm For N.G. – 1520 mm
X 150 mm X 100 mm
Advantages:
• Timber is easily available in all parts of India.
• Wooden sleepers are suitable for all types of ballast.
• Wooden sleepers require less fastening and simple in design.
Disadvantages:
• The life of wooden sleeper is less as compared to other types of sleepers.
• It is difficult to maintain gauge of the track in case of wooden sleepers.
• These sleepers are subjected to wear, decay, and attack by white ants etc.
2. Steel Sleepers: These sleepers consist of steel troughs made of 6 mm thick sheets, with its both ends bend
down to check the running out of ballast. At the time of pressing of sleepers, an inward slope of 1 in 20 on
either side is provided to achieve required tilt of rails. The standard length of these is 2680 mm.
Steel sleepers are of two types:
1) Key type steel sleepers: n this type of sleepers lugs or jaws are pressed out of metal and keys are used for
holding the rails. These are of two types:
a) Lug type
b) Loose jaw type
2) Clip and bolt type steel sleepers In this type of sleeper, clips and bolts are used for holding the rails. Cracks
are not developed in the sleepers as the holes for the bolts are small and circular. It requires four clips and
four bolts for holding each rail.
Advantages:
• Steel sleepers are light in weight and can be handled easily.
• These require fewer fastenings.
• The life of steel sleepers is more than the wooden sleepers.
• The gauge can be easily maintained and adjusted.
• The scrap value is more than the wooden sleepers.
Disadvantages:
• Initial cost of these sleepers is more than wooden sleepers.
• Cracks are developed at rail seat of these sleepers.
• Steel sleepers are not suitable for track circuiting.
• These are not suitable for all types of ballast.
• These are liable to corrosion.
3. Caste Iron Sleepers: The sleepers made of cast iron, known as cast iron sleepers, have been extensively
used in India as compared to other countries in the world. Cast iron sleepers are of the following types:
a) Pot or bowl sleeper: Pot sleeper consist of two bowls placed under each rail and connected together by
a tie-bar. The total effective area of both the pots is 0.464 sq. m. Each pot is provided with two holes
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foe inspection and packing of ballast. On the top of each pot, a rail seat is provided to hold rails at an
inward slope of 1 in 20. Gibbs and cotters are so casted that by interchanging them gauge is slackened
by 3 mm.
b) Plate sleeper Plate sleepers consist of two rectangular plates of 864 mm X 305 mm in size with short
side parallel to rail. The plates are provided with projecting ribs in the bottom to provide a grip in the
ballast for lateral stability. The plates are held in position by tie-bar. Stiffeners are provided at the top of
the plate to increase the strength. It provides the effective bearing area of 0.464sq. m per sleeper.

c) Box sleeper: These sleepers are not in user these days. Box sleepers are similar to plate sleepers. In this
type of sleeper, a box is provided at the top of each plate to hold the rails.
d) CST-9 sleeper: CST-9 sleeper is more satisfactory than other C.I. Sleepers and is extensively used in
Indian Railways since last thirty years. It is a combination of pot, plate, and box sleeper. CST-9s sleeper
consists of a triangular inverted pot one on each side of rail seat. Rail seat is provided at the top to hold
rails at 1 in 20 inward slope. The pots are connected across the track by means of a tie- bar.
e) Duplex sleeper Duplex sleepers are also known as rail free duplex sleepers and have been used at rail
joints in conjunction with CST_9 sleepers. These sleepers are used at rail joints to prevent cantilever
action between two supports of the CST-9 sleepers. These consist of two plates, each of size 850 mm X
750 mm. The plates are placed with the longer side parallel to the rails and are connected with a tie-
bar.
Advantages:
• The life of C.I sleepers is more.
• The maintenance cost of these sleepers is low.
• Gauge can be easily maintained and adjusted with these sleepers.
• These sleepers are more durable.
• Creep rails can be checked by using these sleepers.
Disadvantages:
• More ballast is required than any other type of sleepers.
• The number of fittings required is more.
• These sleepers are liable to break.
• C.I. Sleepers are liable to break.
• These are not suitable for all types of ballast.
4. R.C.C. Sleepers: Reinforced cement concrete sleepers are of two types:
a) Through type RCC Sleeper: This is also known as one piece or mono-block sleeper. In this type of
sleeper cracks develop on the tension side when stressed. These cracks are very small and almost
invisible but tend to enlarge with the repetition of impact loading, causing failure.
b) Block and tie type RCC Sleeper: This type of sleeper consists of two R.C.C. blocks connected by a metal
tie of inverted T-section. These sleepers are not subjected to any degree of tensile stress as in through
type.
Advantages:
• Concrete sleepers have long life, generally 40to 60 years.
• These are free from natural decay and attack by insects etc.
• These sleepers require less fittings.

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• Track circuiting is possible in these sleepers.
• These sleepers provide more lateral and longitudinal rigidity as compared to other sleepers.
• The maintenance cost is low.
• Due to higher elastic modulus, these can withstand the stresses due to fast moving trains.
Disadvantages:
• Due to heavy weight, handling and transportation of these sleepers are difficult.
• If not handled properly, the chance of breaking is more.
• The renewal of track laid with these sleepers is difficult.
• The scrap value is nil.
5. Pre stressed Concrete Sleepers: Pre stressed concrete sleepers are now-a-days extensively used in Indian
Railways. These sleepers have high initial cost but are very cheap in long run due to their long life. In these
sleepers, high tension steel wires are used. These wires are stretched by hydraulic jack to give necessary
tension in the wires. The concrete is then put under a very high initial compression. These sleepers are
heavily damaged in case of derailment or accidents of trains.
Ballast: Ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, rnoorum, or any other granular material placed and packed
below and around sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers to the formation. It provides drainage as
well as longitudinal and lateral stability to the track.
Function of Ballast: The ballast serves the following functions in a railway track.
• It provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on.
• It holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.
• It provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.
• It provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and lateral stability.
• It provides effective drainage to the track.
Requirement of good ballast:
• It should be durable enough to resist abrasion and weathering action.
• It should have good workability so that it can be easily spread of formation.
• It should be cheaply available in sufficient quantity near and along the track.
• It should allow for easy and quick drainage of the track.
• It should not have any chemical action on metal sleepers and rails.
Types of Ballast:
In India, the following materials are used as ballast.
1. Broken stone: This is the best type of ballast as it possesses all the characteristics of good ballast. It holds
the track to correct alignment and gradient due to its high interlocking action. The stones which are non
porous, hard and do not flake on breaking should be used. Igneous rocks such as granite, quartzite and
trap make excellent ballast. This type of ballast is used for high speed tracks.
2. Gravel: Gravel is the second best material for ballast. This is obtained either from river beds or from gravel
pits and has smooth rounded fragments. Gravel obtained from pits usually contains earth which should be
removed by washing. Gravel obtained from river beds is screened and required size gravel is used. Larger
size gravels are broken into required size. Round edges gravels are broken to increase their interlocking
action.
3. Sand: Sand is reasonably a good material for the ballast. Coarse sand is generally preferred to fine sand for
ballast. This type of ballast is suitable for packing pot sleepers. It is used only on unimportant tracks.

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4. Ashes or Cinders: These are waste products obtained from steam locomotives. This type of ballast is
normally used in yards and sidings or as the initial ballast in new constructions.
5. Kankar: It is natural material in the form of nodules from which lime is prepared
6. Moorum: It is a soft aggregate and is obtained by the decomposition of laterite. It has red or yellow colour.
It is used in unimportant lines and sidings.
7. Blast furnace slag: It is a waste product obtained from the blast furnace of steel industry. High grade slag
fulfils all the characteristics of good ballast.
8. Brick ballast: At places where good ballast material is not available over-burnt bricks are broken into
suitable size to be used as ballast.
9. Selected earth: Hardened clay and decomposed rock are suitable for use as ballast. When tracks are laid
on new formation, then sleepers are packed with earth for a few months. When the formation is
consolidated and surface becomes hard, good type of ballast is laid. The use of earth ballast in the
beginning is to prevent the loss of good ballast by sinking into soft formation.
Fixure & Fastnings: Fixtures and fastenings are fittings required for joining of rails end to end and also for
fixing the rails to sleepers in a track.
Function of Fixure & Fastnings: Rail fixtures and fastenings have the following functions:
• To join the rails end to end to form full length of track.
• To fix the rails to sleepers.
• To maintain the correct alignment of the track.
• To provide proper expansion gap between rails.
• To maintain the required tilt of rails.
• To set the points and crossings in proper position.
Types of Fixures & Fastening: Fixtures and fastenings commonly used in a permanent way are of following
types:
1. Fish plates: Fish plates are used in rail joints to maintain the continuity of the rails. Two types of fish plates
are commonly used on Indian Railways for joining F.F. and B.H. rails, each fish plate is 457 mm long and
provided with four holes 32 mm dia. at a spacing of 114 mm c/c. These are manufactured of steel and are
so designed that they fit in between the head and foot of the rail.
2. Bearing plates: Bearing plates are cast iron or steel plates placed in between the F.F rail and wooden
sleepers of a railway track. F.F. rails if fixed directly on wooden sleepers sink in the sleeper due to the heavy
loads of trains and thus loosen the spikes. To overcome this difficulty bearing plates are used under F.F.
rails to distribute the load over a wider area and bring the intensity of pressure within limit. Bearing plates
give the required 1 in 20 inward slope to the rail directly and no adzing is required in the wooden sleeper.
These are fixed to sleepers by spikes.
3. Spikes: Spikes are used to fix rails to wooden sleepers. Spikes are of following types:
(a) Dog spikes
(b) Round spikes
(c) Screw spikes
(d) Elastic spikes
4. Chairs
5. Bolts: Different types of bolts used in Indian Railway are:
(a) Fish bolts
(b) Hook bolts
(c) Fang bolts

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6. Keys: These are small tapered pieces of timber or steel used to fix rails to chairs on metal sleepers. Keys
are of two types
(a) Wooden keys
(b) Metal keys
7. Anti creepers: Anti-creepers are used to prevent creep in a railway track. Different shapes of anti-creepers
are available and are fixed to the foot of rail.
Sub-Grade: Subgrade is naturally occurring soil, which is prepared to receive the ballast, sleepers & Rails for
constructing the railway track. This prepared surface is also called formation. Formations could be in
embankments, level or cutting, depending upon ground condition.
Function of subgrade: The formation or subgrade of a track is obtained by either constructing an embankment
or providing a cutting. The height for the embankment and depth of the cutting depends upon the topography
(i.e. ground contours) and the gradients. The top layer of embankment or bottom layer of cutting, ultimately,
has to stand up to all the loads coming on the track. The Subgrade material performs the following function:
a) It bears the load transmitted to it through the ballast with as uniform a reaction as possible.
b) It should prevent the ballast from puncturing into it.
c) To facilitate drainage, i.e., it should drain off the water entering from its top.
d) It should provide a smooth, regular & graded surface on which the ballast and the track may be safely
rested.
e) It should not change its volume due to variation in moisture as it would create stresses on the track
material and disrupt the track.
Subgrade Material and its Improvement: The selection of soils for the subgrade is not entirely within the
Engineer's control. A railway track extends over very long distances and different varieties of soils are likely to
be encountered. He is forced to use the subgrade available. However, if he is equipped with the knowledge of
the elements of soil mechanics, he would be able to make the best use of the available subgrade, using other
available materials. The following observations should be made for systematic and scientific study of subgrade
soils;
• Sub-soil survey of the entire length of the Track to collect data for soils and foundations should be made.
• The soil results may be shown on a longitudinal section.
• The various characteristics of soils, like moisture content, unconfined compressive strength according to
Atterberg limits, chemical composition, density and shearing strength, should be studied by conducting
laboratory tests.
• Side by side, the level of underground water table should be determined, as ground water may be the
cause of unstable formation.
Alignment: Track Alignment. The direction and position given to the centre line of the Railway track on the
ground is called the track alignment.
The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, its width, deviations in width and curves.
The vertical alignment of a railway track includes changes in gradients and vertical curves.
A new railway track should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result either in capital loss
in initial cost of construction or recurring loss in maintenance and vehicle operations, or both. Once the track
has been aligned and constructed, it is difficult to change the alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining
land and construction of costly structures at specific location by the side of railway line.
Basic Requirements of Good Alignment: In case of railways, the profit is not the only objective but comfort to
the passengers must be given equal importance. Though the income from transportation of goods is much
more than that from passenger traffic but the safety, comfort and convenience of passengers are always kept
in view. An ideal alignment should fulfil the following requirements:
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• Purpose of Track. The alignment of the track should be done keeping in view the basic purpose or
purposes, it is going to serve. In general, the railways serve the following purposes:
i. Transportation Services: Railways carry the passenger traffic, and goods traffic, local as well as
through.
ii. Political and Strategic: Sometimes, it becomes essential to construct a railway line to connect two
points (either with the neighbouring countries or within the country) for defence purposes so that
in case of emergency, armies within the country can be transferred from one place to another.
iii. Linking of Centres: When a railway line is constructed basically to connect important places for
providing transport services, it may be linking of two trade centres. In such cases, a new railway line
is proposed to connect two trade centres.
iv. To Open up New Tracks: It may be necessary to align new tracks for the land, whose sources are
not yet tapped.
v. Shortening Existing Track: When an existing track is zig-zag or uneconomical, a new track may be
aligned to shorten the existing track which would prove to be economical.
• Feasibility: For aligning a railway line, it is necessary that the proposed track should fit in the general
planning of the country.
• Economy: The track alignment will be economical when following factors are given due consideration:
i. All other things being equal, the shortest and the most direct route between two joining points is
the cheapest. Though, there may be several practical considerations which would cause a deviation
from the shortest route.
ii. The construction cost should be minimum. This can be achieved by avoiding loose earth slopes,
rock-cuttings, drainage crossings by aligning the track on watersheds, etc., if feasible.
iii. Maintenance cost should be minimum. This is more important than the construction cost, being
recurring in nature. Maintenance cost can be reduced by avoiding deep cutting, very high banks,
long viaducts, tunnels and heavy gradients which cause heavy wear on rails and Rolling Stock.
iv. The operating expenses or transportation cost should be minimum. The transportation cost will be
minimum, when the haulage of goods is maximum for the given power of locomotive and type of
traction. This can be achieved by providing easy gradients, avoiding unnecessary rises and adopting
shortest-direct-route.
• Safety: The track should be so aligned that it gives safety to traffic operations or in other words the
passengers and goods traffic. can be transported without any chance of accident or derailment.
To achieve this, the track should be properly designed from the viewpoint of curves, gradients and at the same
time stability of natural slopes, embankment and cut-slopes. Foundations of embankments should be properly
maintained.
• Aesthetic Aspects: This aesthetic aspect of a railway line should be kept in view for comfortable and
pleasant railway journey. This is achieved by avoiding the view of borrow pits, use of transition curves, etc,
or keeping the track through beautiful natural surroundings.
Factors in selection of good alignment:
Selecting a good alignment, whether in the context of a project, business strategy, personal goals, or even
game characters (like in Dungeons & Dragons), involves several key factors. The right alignment ensures that
the entity (individual, group, or system) can function effectively, achieve goals, and maintain coherence in its
actions.
Here are some key factors that contribute to the selection of a good alignment, depending on the context:
1. Clear Purpose or Goal

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• Understanding the mission: A clear and well-defined goal is essential. The alignment should support
the mission or purpose, whether it's achieving organizational success, completing a project, or
fostering personal growth.
• Long-term sustainability: The alignment should consider long-term consequences, not just immediate
results. For example, strategic alignment in business should align with the company's vision and values.
2. Cohesion and Consistency
• Internal consistency: The actions, decisions, and behaviours should align with core values, ethics, and
principles. An alignment that is inconsistent with these elements will lead to confusion, inefficiency, or
internal conflict.
• External consistency: The alignment should resonate with external factors such as market trends,
societal values, or the preferences of other stakeholders. For example, a business's alignment with
consumer expectations and environmental concerns can influence its success.
3. Ethics and Values
• Moral considerations: In many cases, a good alignment needs to reflect ethical considerations.
Whether in personal decision-making or business strategies, the alignment should respect ethical
boundaries and avoid conflicting values.
• Transparency and trust: Alignment with ethical principles fosters transparency and builds trust with
stakeholders, whether those are customers, team members, or the broader community.
4. Adaptability
• Flexibility: While alignment should be clear, it must also allow for flexibility in response to changing
circumstances. External environments (business, social, or personal) evolve, and the alignment must be
adaptable to remain relevant.
• Agility in implementation: A good alignment is one that can be adjusted quickly to changing
conditions, whether that’s shifting market demands or evolving personal circumstances.
5. Resources and Capabilities
• Resource availability: Effective alignment considers the available resources, skills, and capabilities. A
good alignment leverages the strengths and addresses the weaknesses of a team, individual, or
organization.
• Efficiency in execution: The alignment should ensure that resources are used effectively and efficiently
to achieve the desired outcomes.
6. Stakeholder Considerations
• Stakeholder alignment: A good alignment must take into account the needs, expectations, and values
of all stakeholders, whether they are customers, team members, or business partners. This alignment
ensures cooperation and minimizes conflicts.
• Collaboration and synergy: An alignment that encourages collaboration and synergy between different
groups or individuals is often more effective and leads to better outcomes.
7. Long-Term Impact
• Sustainability: The alignment should support sustainable practices and long-term results. Whether
considering environmental sustainability in business or personal development over a lifetime, this
factor ensures that the alignment does not lead to short-term gains at the cost of future success.
• Future-proofing: In a dynamic world, alignments that anticipate future trends and challenges will help
avoid obsolescence.
8. Alignment with Core Identity or Brand

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• Authenticity: Whether in personal growth or brand management, the alignment must stay true to the
core identity. An organization or individual that acts in alignment with its true essence (values, mission,
and purpose) tends to build stronger relationships and earn respect and trust.
• Brand coherence: In business, a good alignment reinforces the brand image and message, maintaining
consistency across all actions and communications.
9. Risk Management
• Risk assessment: A good alignment accounts for potential risks and takes steps to mitigate them.
Alignments that fail to consider risks (whether financial, operational, or reputational) can lead to
unintended consequences.
• Proactive measures: The alignment should not just react to risks but anticipate them and plan
accordingly, reducing vulnerabilities over time.
10. Feedback and Continuous Improvement
• Feedback loops: Regular feedback is essential for assessing the effectiveness of an alignment. This can
come from team members, customers, or self-reflection.
• Iterative adjustment: A good alignment allows for continuous improvement, making it possible to
refine and adjust strategies, decisions, and actions based on feedback.
Example Contexts:
• Dungeons & Dragons (Alignment System): In the D&D alignment system, the selection of a "good"
alignment often involves balancing concepts like Law (order, structure) vs. Chaos (freedom,
unpredictability) and Good (helping others, empathy) vs. Evil (selfishness, harm). A good alignment in
this context supports the player's or character's intentions, ethics, and behaviour in the campaign.
• Business Strategy: A good alignment between a company's business objectives and its internal
resources (skills, workforce) will enhance performance, customer satisfaction, and long-term success.
Aligning goals with market trends, customer preferences, and industry standards is vital for growth.
• Personal Growth: A "good" personal alignment might involve harmonizing an individual’s values, life
goals, and actions. It’s about ensuring that personal choices support long-term happiness, fulfilment,
and ethical integrity.
Engineering Survey: An Engineering Survey for Railway Projects is a crucial process that involves
gathering, analysing, and interpreting data about the land, terrain, and environmental conditions in order
to design and construct railways efficiently and safely. These surveys ensure that the railway alignment,
stations, track layouts, and associated infrastructure are optimized for the physical characteristics of the
land, operational requirements, and long-term sustainability.
The railway survey is a specialized branch of civil engineering and differs from general land surveys due to
the unique challenges and considerations involved, such as curvature, gradients, and safety. Engineering
surveys for railways typically include route surveys, track alignment surveys, and site surveys for stations,
bridges, tunnels, and other railway infrastructure.
Key Steps in Engineering Survey for Railway Projects:
1. Preliminary/Reconnaissance Survey
• Purpose: To assess general conditions and explore multiple potential routes for the railway.
• Activities:
▪ Identify possible routes by assessing land use, existing infrastructure, environmental concerns,
and topography.
▪ Survey different route alternatives to find the most cost-effective and efficient alignment.
▪ Preliminary evaluation of obstacles (e.g., rivers, urban areas, hills) and challenges (e.g., land
acquisition, environmental impacts).
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2. Route Survey
• Purpose: To define the precise route for the railway, considering factors such as gradients, curves, and
environmental constraints.
• Activities:
▪ Establish horizontal and vertical alignment: Detailed measurements of the path of the
proposed railway, including curves, switch points, and grade (incline).
▪ Analyze terrain: Identify natural features (such as rivers, mountains, wetlands) and man-made
structures (roads, buildings, utilities) that may impact the alignment.
▪ Survey Instruments Used: Total stations, GPS, and digital levels to capture detailed
topographical and elevation data.
3. Geotechnical Survey
• Purpose: To investigate soil and rock conditions to ensure the chosen route is stable and suitable for
supporting railway structures and tracks.
• Activities:
▪ Borehole drilling at key points along the route to determine soil composition, groundwater
levels, and potential risks (such as landslides or subsidence).
▪ Soil testing to assess bearing capacity, compaction, and suitability for foundations.
▪ Geotechnical data help in selecting appropriate track foundations, embankments, and
tunnel/bridge designs.
4. Topographical Survey
• Purpose: To map the land’s surface features (both natural and artificial) and create detailed 2D or 3D
representations of the terrain.
• Activities:
▪ Collect data on ground elevations, terrain features (e.g., rivers, hills, depressions), existing
buildings, and utilities.
▪ Produce detailed contour maps that highlight the elevation changes along the route.
▪ Tools Used: Total stations, GPS systems, LiDAR, and drones for high-accuracy terrain mapping.
5. Track Alignment Survey
• Purpose: To determine the optimal alignment and layout of the tracks.
• Activities:
▪ Horizontal alignment: The path the track will follow, including curves, tangents, and radii.
▪ Vertical alignment: The gradient or slope of the track, including cuttings and embankments.
▪ Ensure that the alignment meets design requirements for safe and smooth rail operation, with
limits on sharp curves and excessive gradients.
▪ Assess necessary earthworks (cuttings, embankments) to ensure track stability.
6. Hydrological Survey
• Purpose: To understand water flow and drainage patterns along the route to prevent flooding, erosion,
and track instability.
• Activities:
▪ Assess floodplain boundaries, river or stream crossings, and drainage requirements.
▪ Plan for drainage systems, culverts, or bridges to address water management and protect the
railway from water-related damage.
▪ Use hydrological models and flood maps to predict potential risks and plan for mitigation
measures.
7. Environmental Survey
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• Purpose: To assess the potential environmental impact of the railway project and identify mitigation
strategies.
• Activities:
▪ Study the surrounding ecosystem, identifying potential environmental hazards such as
endangered species, wetlands, and habitat disruption.
▪ Conduct environmental impact assessments (EIA) to determine the potential effects on air
quality, water resources, noise, and biodiversity.
▪ Propose mitigation measures such as wildlife corridors, noise barriers, and pollution control
strategies.
8. Land and Property Survey
• Purpose: To identify land ownership, boundaries, and legal aspects associated with land acquisition for
the railway.
• Activities:
▪ Survey the land to delineate property boundaries, easements, and rights-of-way.
▪ Work with legal experts to determine the land acquisition process and resolve any conflicts or
disputes regarding land ownership.
▪ Map out any required relocations (e.g., properties, utilities) to make room for the railway route.
9. Station and Facility Surveys
• Purpose: To identify the best locations for stations, maintenance depots, and other infrastructure.
• Activities:
▪ Evaluate the geographic, demographic, and logistical factors for station locations.
▪ Survey the surrounding infrastructure (e.g., roads, utilities) to ensure connectivity and
accessibility to the stations.
▪ Assess land required for constructing stations, terminals, freight yards, and maintenance
facilities.
10. Bridge and Tunnel Surveys
• Purpose: To design safe and efficient railway bridges, tunnels, and viaducts where required.
• Activities:
▪ Survey potential bridge sites to assess structural feasibility, foundation conditions, and
hydrological impacts (e.g., river crossings).
▪ For tunnels, analyze geology, rock stability, and groundwater flow to design safe underground
passages.
▪ Geotechnical investigations are particularly important for tunnels and elevated structures like
bridges.
11. Construction Survey
• Purpose: To guide the actual construction of the railway and ensure that all elements (tracks, stations,
bridges) are built in accordance with the design.
• Activities:
▪ Perform detailed layout surveys for the placement of tracks, signals, stations, and other
infrastructure.
▪ Monitor construction progress and ensure adherence to the survey data (e.g., proper alignment
and elevation of tracks).
▪ Continuous checks during construction for potential deviations from the design or any emerging
issues.
Tools and Equipment Used in Railway Surveys:
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1. Total Station: For measuring distances, angles, and elevations with high precision, especially in track
layout and route surveys.
2. GPS/GNSS: For precise georeferencing of survey points, especially useful in large-scale surveys for
railways.
3. Drones/UAVs: For aerial surveys, capturing high-resolution imagery, and generating topographical
maps.
4. LiDAR: For 3D scanning of terrain to generate detailed surface models and detect obstacles.
5. Theodolites and Dumpy Levels: Used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles and elevation
changes, particularly in track alignment and gradient measurements.
6. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Used for detecting subsurface features such as buried utilities or
foundations along the railway route.
7. Borehole Drilling Equipment: For geotechnical investigations to assess soil conditions and stability.
Considerations in Railway Engineering Surveys:
• Grade and Alignment: Railways must avoid excessive gradients or sharp curves, which could impede
train speed and safety. Proper alignment ensures efficient train operations.
• Safety: Engineering surveys help identify potential hazards, such as unstable soil, flood risks, or
environmental impacts that could affect the railway.
• Environmental Impact: Environmental surveys are essential to identify and mitigate ecological risks
and ensure compliance with environmental laws.
• Cost Optimization: Proper surveying can help minimize earthworks, land acquisition costs, and future
maintenance by choosing optimal routes and track layouts.
• Legal and Regulatory Compliance: Ensuring that the survey data is aligned with local regulations,
zoning laws, and safety standards is critical.
Geometric Design: Geometric design of a railway track discusses all those parameters which affect the
geometry of the track. These parameters are as follows:
1. Gradients in the track
2. Curvature of the track: radius or degree of the curve, cant or super elevation on curves
3. Alignment of the track
Necessity of Geometric Design: The need for proper geometric design of a track arises because of the
following considerations:
• To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains
• To achieve maximum speeds
• To carry heavy axle loads
• To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way
• To ensure that the track requires least maintenance
Gradients: Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway track. A rising gradient
is one in which the track rises in the direction of movement of traffic and in a down or falling gradient the
track loses elevation the direction of movement of traffic.
Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives:
• To reach various stations at different elevations
• To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible
• To reduce the cost of earthwork
• To drain off rain water.
Types of gradient:

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1. Ruling gradient: Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient to which the track may be laid in a particular
section. It depends on the load of the train and additional power of the locomotive. While deciding the ruling
gradient of a section, it is not only the severity of the gradient, but also its length as well as its position with
respect to the gradients on both sides that have to be taken into consideration. The power of the locomotive
to be put into service on the track also plays an important role in taking this decision, as the locomotive should
have adequate power to haul the entire load over the ruling gradient at the maximum permissible speed.
In plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in 250
In hilly terrain: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150
2. Momentum gradient: The gradient which is steeper than ruling gradient and where the advantage of
momentum is utilized is known as momentum gradient. A train gets momentum when moving in down
gradient and this momentum can be utilized for up gradient. A train while coming down a gradient gains
sufficient momentum. This momentum gives additional kinetic energy to the moving train which would help
the train to rise a steeper gradient than the ruling gradient for a certain length of the track. This rising gradient
is called momentum gradient. In such gradients no signals are provided to stop the train.
3. Pusher gradient: Pusher gradient is the gradient where extra engine is required to push the train. These are
steeper gradient than ruling gradient and are provided at certain places of mountains to avoid heavy cutting or
to reduce the length of track. A pusher gradient of 1 in 37 on Western Ghats with B.G. track is provided. On
Darjeeling Railway with N.G. track, a ruling gradient of 1 in 25 is provided.
4. Station yard gradient: Station yard gradient is the minimum gradient provided in station yard for easy
draining of rain water. In station yards, maximum limit of gradient is fixed as 1 in 400 and minimum gradient
recommended is 1 in 1000 for easy drainage of rain water. The gradients in station yards are quite flat due to
the following reasons:
a) It prevents standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard due to the combined effect of
gravity and strong winds.
b) It reduces the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the extent possible.
Grade compensation on curves: Grade compensation on curves is the reduction in gradient on curved portion
of a track. On curves extra pull is required to pull the train due to more tractive resistance. It is expressed as
percentage per degree of curve. The grade compensation provided on Indian Railways is as follows:
a) On B.G. curves – 0.04 percent / degree or 70/R, whichever is minimum
b) On M.G. curves – 0.03 percent / degree or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum
c) On N.G. curves – 0.02 percent / degree or 35/R, whichever is minimum where R is the radius of the curve
in metres.
Radius or Degree of Curve: A curve is denned either by its radius or by its degree. The degree of a curve (D) is
the angle subtended at its centre by a 30.5 m or 100 ft arc.
The value of the degree of the curve can be determined as indicated below.
• Circumference of a circle = 2πR
• Angle subtended at the centre by a circle with this circumference = 360°
• Angle subtended at the centre by a 30.5 m arc, or
• Degree of curve = 360°/2πR x30.5 = 1 750/R (approximately R is in meter)
In cases where the radius is very large, the arc of a circle is almost equal to the chord connecting the two ends
of the arc. The degree of the curve is thus given by the following formulae:
• D = 1750/R (when R is in metres)
• D = 5730/ R (when R is in feet)
Maximum permissible degree of curves: The maximum permissible degree of a curve on a track depends on
various factors such as gauge, wheel base of the vehicle, maximum permissible super elevation, and other
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such allied factors. The maximum degree or the minimum radius of the curve permitted on Indian Railways for
various gauges is given in Table below.

Gauge On Plain Track On Turnout Tracks

Max. Degree Min. Radius Max. Degree Min. Radius
B.G 10 175 8 218
M.G 16 109 15 116
N.G 40 44 17 103

Superelevation: Superelevation is the raised elevation of the outer rail above the inner rail at a horizontal
curve. It is denoted by ‘e’. When a vehicle moves on curve it is subjected to a centrifugal force. The centrifugal
force exerts a horizontal force on the outer rail and the weight on the outer rail increases. This horizontal force
and uneven load on rails will cause derailment. This centrifugal force can be counteracted by introducing the
centripetal force by raising the outer rail with respect to inner rail. This raising of outer rail with respect to
inner rail is known as ‘superelevation’ or ‘canting’.
Objects of Providing Superelevation: The following are the objects of providing superelevation:
• To introduce centripetal force to counteract the centrifugal force to avoid derailment and reduce the side
wear of rails.
• To distribute the wheel loads equally on the two rails. This reduces the top wear of rails and results in
saving of maintenance cost.
• To ensure comfortable ride to passengers and safe movements of goods.
Analysis of Superelevation:
• A vehicle has a tendency to travel in a straight direction, which is tangential to the curve, even when it
moves on a circular curve. As a result, the vehicle is subjected to a constant radial acceleration.
• Radial acceleration: a = V2 /R,
Where V is the velocity (metres per second) and R is the radius of curve (metres). This radial acceleration
produces a centrifugal force which acts in a radial direction away from the centre.
• The value of the centrifugal force is given by the formula:
Force = mass * acceleration,
F = m x (V2 /R) = (W/g)x (V2 /R),
Where F is the centrifugal force (Kilo Newton), W is the weight of the vehicle (tonnes), V is the speed
(m/s), g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2), and R is the radius of the curve in metres.
• To counteract the effect of the centrifugal force, the outer rail of the curve is elevated with respect to the
inner rail by an amount equal to the superelevation.
• A state of equilibrium is reached when both the wheels exert equal pressure on the rails and the
superelevation is enough to bring the resultant of the centrifugal force and the force exerted by the weight
of the vehicle at right angles to the plane of the top surface of the rails. In this state of equilibrium, the
difference in the heights of the outer and inner rails of the curve is known as equilibrium superelevation.

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Maximum value of Superelevation: The maximum value of superelevation generally adopted on on many
railways around the world is one-tenth to one-twelfth of the gauge. The values of maximum superelevation
prescribed on Indian Railways are given in Table below.

Limiting value of Cant (mm)

Gauge Under normal With special
Condition permisson
B.G 165 185
M.G 90 100
N.G 65 75

Cant Deficiency: Cant deficiency is the difference between the actual cant provided and equilibrium cant
necessary for the maximum permissible speed on a curve.
Cant deficiency should be as low as possible and is limited due to following reasons:
• Higher discomfort to passengers due to higher cant deficiency
• Higher cant deficiency results in higher unbalanced centrifugal force and hence extra pressure and lateral
thrust on the outer rails, requiring strong track and more fastening for stability.
• Side wear and creep of outer rails of the track are more due to higher cant deficiency.
Limits of cant deficiency for different gauges on Indian Railways:
Cant Deficiency (mm)
Gauge For speeds up to 100 For speeds higher than 100
km/hr km/hr
B.G 76 100
M.G 51 Not specified
N.G 38 Not specified
Negative Superelevation: When the
main line lies on a curve and has a
turnout of contrary flexure leading to a
branch line, the superelevation
necessary for the average speed of
trains running over the main line curve
cannot be provided. In Fig. below, AB,
which is the outer rail of the main line
curve, must he higher than CD. For the
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branch line, however CF should be higher than AE or point C should be higher than point A. These two
contradictory conditions cannot be met within one layout. In such cases, the branch line curve has a negative
superelevation and, therefore, speeds on both tracks must be restricted, particularly on the branch line
The provision of negative superelevation for the branch line and the reduction in speed over the main line can
be calculated as follows:
1) The equilibrium superelevation for the branch line curve is first calculated using the formula e = GV2 /
127R
2) The equilibrium superelevation e is reduced by the permissible cant deficiency Cd and the resultant
superelevation to be provided is x = e – Cd where x is the superelevation, e is the equilibrium
superelevation, and Cd is 75 mm for BG and 50 mm for MG. The value of Cd is generally higher than that of
e, and, therefore, x is normally negative. The branch line thus has a negative superelevation of x.
3) The maximum permissible speed on the main line, which has a superelevation of x, is then calculated by
adding the allowable cant deficiency (x + Cd).
Transition Curve: When a vehicle is moving on a straight road, it experiences zero centrifugal force because
centrifugal force on a vehicle moving on a curve is inversely proportional to radius of curvature and radius of
curvature of a straight road can be considered as infinity. Now suppose it is to negotiate a Horizontal circular
curve of radius R.
Therefore, centrifugal force of a vehicle =mv2/R
M= mass of vehicle.
V=velocity of vehicle.
Types of Transition curve

• Spiral Curve
• Lemniscate Curve
• Cubic Parabola Curve
Widening the gauge on curves: Widening the gauge on curves is necessary to ensure that rolling stock can
pass through safely and smoothly. It also reduces the following: driving resistance, rail wear, and the dynamic
effect of the rolling stock on the track.
The amount of widening required depends on several factors, including:
• The radius of the curve
• The wheelbase of the rolling stock
• The clearance between the wheel flange and gage line
Here are some tips for widening the gauge on curves:
• Widening value: The value of the widening should be increased gradually over a sufficient distance to
avoid impairing safe car operations.
• Curve radius: The curve radius has a significant effect on the rate of gauge widening. For example, on
curves with a radius of over 650 meters, there is no need to widen the rail gauge.
• Rolling stock wheelbase: The wheelbase of the rolling stock should be taken into consideration.

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• Excessive widening: Excessive widening can increase the rail gap and reduce train stability.
Point & Crossing: Points and crossings are provided to facilitate the change of railway vehicles from one track
to another. The tracks may be parallel, diverging, or converging to each other. Points and crossings are
necessary due to the inside flanges of wheels of railway vehicles and, therefore require special arrangement to
navigate their way on the rails. The points or switches aid in diverting the vehicles and the crossings provide
gaps in the rails so as to help the flanged wheels to roll over them. A complete set of points and crossings,
along with lead rails, is called a turnout.
Turn out: Turnout is an arrangement of points and crossings with lead rails by which trains may be diverted
from one track to another moving in the facing direction.
Parts of a Turnout:

• Tongue Rails along the stock rails in a turnout form a pair of points or switches. The tongue rails facilitate
the diversion of a train from the main track to a branch track.
• Stock Rails are the main rails to which the tongue rails fit closely. The stock rails help in smooth working of
tongue rails.
• Check rails are provided adjacent to the lead rails, one in main track and another in branch track. These
rails check the tendency of wheels to climb over the crossing.
• Lead Rails lead the track from heel of switches to the toe of crossing.
• A Vee crossing is formed by two wing rails, a point rail and a splice rail. It provides gaps between the rails
so that wheel flanges pass through them without any obstruction.
• Slide chairs are provided to support the tongue rail throughout their length and to allow lateral movement
for changing of points.
• Stretcher bar connects toes of both the tongue rails so that each tongue rail moves through the same
distance while changing the points.
• Heel Blocks keep the heel ends of both the tongue rails at fixed distance from their respective stock rails.
• Switch Tie Plate holds the track rigidly to the definite gauge at the toe of switches. These are provided
below the slide chairs.
Switches: A set of points or switches consists of a pair of stock rails, a pair of tongue rails, a pair of heel blocks,
several slide chairs, two or more stretcher bars, and a gauge tie plate.
Types of Switches: Switches are of two types, namely stud switch and split switch. In a stud type of switch, no
separate tongue rail is provided and some portion of the track is moved from one side to the other side. Stud
switches are no more in use on Indian Railways. They have been replaced by split switches. These consist of a
pair of stock rails and a pair of tongue rails.
Split switches may also be of two types:

• Loose heel type

• Fixed heel type
The toe of the switches may be of the following types.

• Undercut switch: In this switch the foot of the stock rail is planned to accommodate the tongue rail.

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• Overriding switch: In this case, the stock rail occupies the full section and the tongue rail is planed to a 6
mm (0.25")-thick edge, which overrides the foot of the stock rail.

Crossing: A crossing or frog is a device introduced at the point where two gauge faces across each other to
permit the flanges of a railway vehicle to pass from one tract to another (Fig. below). To achieve this objective,
a gap is provided from the throw to the nose of the crossing, over which the flanged wheel glides or jumps. In
order to ensure that this flanged wheel negotiates the gap properly and does not strike the nose, the other
wheel is guided with the help of check rails.
A crossing consists of the following components:

• Two rails, point rail and splice rail, which are machined to form a nose. Tic point rail ends at the nose,
whereas the splice rail joins it a little behind the nose. Theoretically, the point rail should end in a point
and be made as thin as possible, but such a knife edge of the point rail would break off under the
movement of traffic. The point rail, therefore, has its fine end slightly cut off form a blunt nose, with a
thickness of 6 mm (1/4"). The toe of the blunt nose is called the actual nose of crossing (ANC) and the
theoretical point where the gauge faces from both sides intersect is called the theoretical nose of crossing
(TNC). The 'V rail is planed to a depth of 6 mm (1/4") at the nose and runs out in 89 mm to stop a wheel
running in the facing direction from hitting the nose.
• Two wing rails consisting of a right-hand and a left-hand wing rail that converge to form a throat and
diverge again on either side of the nose. Wing rails are flared at the ends to facilitate the entry and exit of
the flanged wheel in the gap.
• A pair of check rails to guide the wheel flanges and provide a path for them, thereby preventing them from
moving sideways, which would otherwise may result in the wheel hitting the nose of the crossing as it
moves in the facing direction.

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Types of Crossings: Crossings can be classified as follows: On the basis of shape of crossing:
1. Square crossing 2. Acute angle or V-crossing 3. Obtuse angle or Diamond
or Frog crossing
On the basis of assembly of crossing:
1. Ramped crossing 2. Spring or movable crossing.
Square Crossing: Square crossing is formed when two straight tracks of same or different gauge, cross each
other at right angles. This type of crossing should be avoided on main lines because of heavy wear of rails.

Obtuse Angle Crossing: Obtuse angle crossing is formed when left hand rail of one track crosses right hand
rail of another track at an obtuse angle or vice versa. This type of crossing consists mainly of two acute
angle and two obtuse angle angle crossings. This is also called Diamond Crossing.

Introduction to Signalling system: In the early days of railway operation, there was seldom need for more
than one train to operate on a section of track at any given time. As traffic increased, it became necessary to
operate trains in both directions over single track. The purpose of signalling and interlocking is primarily to
control and regulate the movement of trains safely and efficiently. Signalling includes operations and
interlocking of signals, points, block instruments, and other allied equipment in a predetermined manner for
the safe and efficient running of trains. Signalling enables the movement of trains to be controlled in such a
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way that the existing tracks are utilized to the maximum. In fact, in railway terminology signalling is a medium
of communication between the station master or the controller sitting in a remote place in the office and the
loco pilot (As per latest instructions of the Railway Board, 'drivers' are now called 'Loco Pilots') of the train.
Objectives of signalling: The objectives of signalling are as follows:

• To regulate the movement of trains so that they run safely at maximum permissible speeds
• To maintain a safe distance between trains those are running on the same line in the same direction
• To ensure the safety of two or more trains that has to cross or approach each other
• To provide facilities for safe and efficient shunting
• To regulate the arrival and departure of trains from the station yard
CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS Railway signals can be classified based on different characteristics as presented
in Table below.

Characteristic Basic of classification Examples

Operational Communication of message in visual form Fixed signals
Signaling the loco pilot to stop, move cautiously, Stop signals, permissive Signals,
Functional
proceed, or carry out shunting operations shunt signals
Reception: Outer, home, Departure:
Locational Reception or departure signals
Starter, and advanced starter signals
Semaphore: Lower quadrant or upper
Constructional Semaphore or colour light signals quadrant. Colour light: Two aspects
or multiple aspects.
Special Calling-on signals, repeater signals,
Meant for special purposes
Characteristics coaching signals, etc.

SIGNALLING SYSTEMS: The signalling system can be broadly classified into two main categories.
(a) Mechanical signalling system
(b) Electrical signalling system
In addition to these two main categories of signalling systems, electronic or solid-state signalling system is also
in use. Each system of signalling comprises five main components.
(a) Operated units such as signals and points
(b) Interlocking system
(c) A transmission system such as single- or double-wire transmission or electrical transmission through cables
(d) Operating units such as levers and press buttons
(e) Monitoring units such as detectors, treadle bars, and track circuits.
The comparison between mechanical and electrical signalling based on these five broad components is given
in Table below.

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Component Mechanical Electrical

Mechanically operated signals as per Coloured light signals with two-
Operated units’
lower quadrant or upper quadrant and aspect, three-aspect or four-aspect
signals
modified lower quadrant signalling signalling
Electrically operated points (by
Mechanically operated points; locking converting the rotary movement of
Points with the help of point locks, stretcher electric motors into linear push or
bars, and detectors pull); locking with the help of slides
and solid rods
Interlocking of manually operated swing
Level crossing Operation and Interlocking of
leaf gate or operation and interlocking of
gates electrically operated lifting barriers
mechanically operated lifting barriers
Single or double wire transmission to the Electrical transmission through
Transmission
requisite points by means of rods or overhead wires or underground
systems
double wires cables
Hand levers with a range of 500 to 2000 m
Push buttons, rotary switches, or
Operating units used in collaboration with single wire or
electrical signalling equipment
double wire lever frames
Interlocking through
Mechanical interlocking with plungers
electromagnetic Switches known as
Interlocking units attached with levers and tappets moving
relaysor solid state switching
across in a locking trough
devices
Monitoring of points with the help o Monitoring with the help of direct
mechanical detectors; monitoring of the current track circuits, alternating
Monitoring units
passage of trains using a treadle, which is current track circuits, electronic
an electro-mechanical device track circuits, axle counters etc.

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