Review of Circuit Analysis
Common Symbols
Independent Sources
Battery
• Constant voltage
• DC voltage source
Voltage Source
+- • Can be constant or time varying
• +/- indicates polarity
Current Source
• Can be constant or time varying
• Arrow denotes direction of current flow
Dependent Sources
• Depend upon the voltage/current measured at some location in the circuit to provide its value
• Often a linear proportionality term, but can be non-linear
+- Dependent voltage source
Dependent current source
Reference Voltages
Ground
• Reference potential
• 0V
Vcc / Vdd
• Supply voltage
• Typically highest potential
• Often called a supply “rail”
1
Ohm’s Law
V = IR
R
V1 V2
I
(V1 − V2 ) = IR
V1 − V2
I=
R
More generally, as applied to complex impedances, Z
Z
V1 V2
I
(V1 − V2 ) = IZ
V1 − V2
I=
Z
Resistors in Series
R1 R2 Rser = R1 + R2
=
100Ω 500Ω Rser =
Ex. =
2
Resistors in Parallel
R1
Rpar = R1//R2
=
R2
1 1 1
= +
R par R1 R2
R1 R2
R par = = R1 R2
R1 + R2
Ex.
300Ω
Rpar =
=
150Ω
The parallel combination will always be less than the smaller of the two resistors
Useful cases
• Parallel combination of 2 identical resistors
• Case where one resistor is much larger than the other
→ Equivalent resistance looks mostly like the smaller of the two resistors
3
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
• “Loop Equations”
• Sum of all voltage drops around any loop equals zero
∑V x =0
∑V up =∑ Vdown
Ex. Find the current flowing through R2 and the voltage across R2.
R1
Vin +- R2
4
Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• “Node Equations”
• Sum of all currents entering [exiting] a node equals zero
∑I = 0
x
∑ I =∑ I
in out
Ex. Find the current flowing through R2.
Iin R1 R2
5
Superposition
• Only valid for linear circuits
• For the case where there are multiple voltage/current sources
• The voltage [current] at any node [branch] of a circuit can be found by adding the sum of the
contributions of each source, while all others are turned off
• Method
o Keep only one source on. Turn all others off. Solve for the desired voltage/current.
OFF
Vx +- +- 0V = Short Circuit
OFF
Ix 0A = Open Circuit
o Turn first source off. Turn next source on. Solve for the desired voltage/current.
o …
o Repeat for all N sources
o Desired voltage/current is the sum of each case
Ex.
R1=1kΩ R2=10kΩ
+
V1=1V +- Vx=? +- V2=5V
6
Thevenin / Norton Equivalent Circuits
• “Black box” representation of a circuit
• Exactly the same when viewed from the terminals
• Internal circuitry may be different
Thevenin Norton
How to determine values – Vth, IN, Rth=RN
Rth = RN Turn off all sources (V → short circuit; I → open circuit)
Solve for the equivalent resistance
Vth Disconnect (i.e. open circuit) the circuit at the location of interest
Solve for the “open-circuit voltage” at this location
IN Short circuit the location of interest
Calculate the current that flows through this short (i.e. “short-circuit current”)
Ex. Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits to the left of the amplifier.
R1 R3
Vin +- R2 Amplifier
7
8
Source Transformation
• Thevenin and Norton versions are equivalent
• You can switch between the two representations without issue
Vx = I x Rx
where Vx
Ix =
Rx
9
Measure Input Impedance
• Let the output voltage float Vtest
• Apply a test current source at the input, Itest
• Measure the change in the input voltage,
Vtest Itest
Let Vout float
Vtest
• Rin =
I test
Ex. Find the input resistance of the following circuit.
R1
+ + +
Vin R2 Vx 0.01Vx R3 Vout
- - -
10
Measure Output Impedance
• Turn off the input voltage
• Apply a test current source at the output, Itest
• Measure the change in the output voltage, Vtest
Vtest
• Rout =
I test
Ex. Find the output resistance of the following circuit.
R1
+ + +
Vin R2 Vx 0.01Vx R3 Vout
- - -
11
Capacitors
• Store energy in the form of an electric field
• Typically parallel plates separated by a non-conductive material
dV
I =C
dt
I ( x )dx + Vinit
1 t
C ∫0
V =
Capacitors in parallel → add like resistors in series Capacitors in series → like resistors in parallel
C1
Cpar = C1 + C2 C1 C2 Cser = C1 // C2
= =
C2
Impedance of capacitors is frequency dependent (sinusoidal signals)
As ω → 0 The capacitor acts like an open circuit
As ω → ∞ The capacitor acts like a short circuit
Complex Impedance
1
ZC = =
j ωC
Easier method of using complex impedances
→ Use Laplace transforms…
dV
Laplace I = C
dt
I = sCV
Solve Ohm’s Law
1
Z CL =
sC
Where s = σ + jω is the complex frequency
If you replace the capacitance with its complex impedance, you can treat it like a resistor
12
Inductors
• Store energy in the form of an magnetic field
• Typically coiled wire/conductive material
dI
V =L
dt
V ( x )dx + I init
1 t
L ∫0
I=
Combine like resistors (series/parallel)
Impedance of inductors is frequency dependent
As ω → 0 The inductor acts like a short circuit
As ω → ∞ The inductor acts like an open circuit
Complex Impedance
Z L = j ωL =
Using Laplace Notation
dI
Laplace V = L
dt
V = sLI
∴ Z L = sL
Where s = σ + jω is the complex frequency
Treat complex impedance like a resistor and follow normal circuit analysis
13
Time-Domain Response of Circuits with Energy-Storage Elements
Ex. Find Vout(t) for the following circuit for t > 0. The switch closes at time t = 0
( )
Let the capacitor have no initial charge stored on it → Vout t = 0 − = 0V
Let the input signal be a constant voltage
t=0
R
+
Vin +- C Vout
-
14
