Leadership

Chapter 1 – Definitions of leadership

2024–2025

Michaël Parmentier
Why do we need leadership?
Why leadership?
• Leadership is apparent in all writings:
• Classical Western (Plato, Aristotle)
• Eastern writings (e.g., Sun Tzu)

• Leadership is a universal activity both among humans and animals

• Leadership is a captivating idea

• What makes a good leader?
• How to become an effective leader?

Bass & Bass (2008), Rindova & Starbuck (1997)

Why do you need leadership?
Why do you need leadership?
1. Leadership skills are essential in all field
• They are valuable in any career path or industry
• It enhances your ability to work effectively in teams

2. Personal and professional growth

• It helps you identify your strengths and areas for improvement
• It builds you critical-thinking and problem-solving skills

3. Preparation for future leadership roles

• It equips you for management and leadership roles
• It helps you increase influence, ethics, and responsibility
Before you are a leader, success is all
about growing yourself. When you
become a leader, success is all about
growing others
Jack Welch
What is leadership?
Manager vs. Leader
• By groups of three
• Discuss and make a list of the differences and similarities between managers
and leaders
• Are they completely different? What do they have in common?
Leadership and Management
Leadership and management are oftentimes compared and differentiated

There are key differences:

› The study of leadership can be traced back to Aristotle

› The field of management emerged with the industrialization of our society during the 20th
century

› The primary management functions, according to Fayol (1916) are :

▪ Planning
▪ Organizing
▪ Staffing
▪ Controlling
Leadership and Management

Management Produces Order and Consistency Leadership Produces Change and Movement

Planning and Budgeting Establishing Direction

Establish agendas Create a vision
Set timetables Clarify the big picture
Allocate resources Set strategies

Organizing and Staffing Aligning People

Provide structure Communicate goals
Make job placements Seek commitment
Establish rules and procedures Build teams and coalitions

Controlling and Problem Solving Motivating and Inspiring

Develop incentives Inspire and energize
Generate creative solutions Empower followers
Take corrective action Satisfy unmet needs

Kotter (1990)
Leadership and Management
Other scholars have also theorized the differences between the two:

• To manage means to accomplish activities and master routines, whereas to lead means
to influence others and create visions for change (Bennis & Nanus, 2007)

• Leadership is a multidirectional influence, whereas management is a unidirectional

authority relationship (Rost, 1991)

• Others went so far as to argue that managers and leaders are generally different types of
people (Zalesnik, 1977)

Managers are people who do things right

Leaders are people who do the right thing
Bennis & Nanus (1985)
Leadership and Management
But they also have some similarities:
• They involve influence
• They entail working with people
• They are concerned with effective goal accomplishment

Many of the functions of management are consistent with the definition of leadership
The managing versus leading controversy had
continued so long because the roles are defined
in a narrow way that makes it difficult to
understand how they jointly affect organizational
performance and how they can be integrated

Yukl & Lepsinger (2005)

Leadership and Management
Bipolarity
• They are totally opposite things – thus different people !

Unidimensionality
• They are the same thing – it depends on the context

Bidimensionality
• They are distinct, yet complementary activities

Hierarchical
• One is one of the dimensions of the other

Simonet & Tett (2012)

LEADERS
Initiative MANAGERS
Goal setting

Communication

Information sharing

Listening skills

Organization knowledge

Trustworthiness
Decision-making

Problem awareness

Decisiveness

Cooperation

Simonet & Tett (2012)

Leaders and managers lead, but there is
considerable correlation in what both do. Much
depends on the level and function of the manager…
There is much more to management than planning,
directing, controlling, and supervising subordinates.
However, the manager’s effectiveness depends, to a
considerable degree, on getting word done through
others and networks of others

Bass and Bass (2008, p. 681)

A critical perspective on this distinction
Some caution is thus needed in understanding this distinction:

• An increase in the romance of leadership in recent years and decades

› Business school statements now and 20 years ago
› It can create a old wine in new bottles effect

• Value-based and stereotypical judgment

› Management is bad, while leadership is good
› It thus ignores the potential helpful and harmful sides of both roles

• Human tendency to dichotomize reality

› It permits quick decisions, thoughts, and actions
› It is oversimplified as organizations are interested in both roles and skills

Berlin (1990), Simonet & Tett (2012), Wood & Petriglieri (2005)
What is leadership?
Although leadership seems easy to identify in practice, it is very difficult to define

• To date, there is no specific and widely accepted definition of leadership

• There are many definitions of what leadership is and provide an interesting view of many
societal and organizational trends

There are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are

leadership theories — and there are almost as many theories of
leadership as there are psychologists working in the field
Fred Fiedler (1971)
What is leadership?
Leadership is a formal or informal contextually rooted and goal-influencing process
that occurs between a leader and a follower, groups of followers, or institutions
Antonakis & Day, 2017

Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about

what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individuals
and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives
Yulk, 2006

Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to

achieve a common goal
Northouse, 2010
What is leadership?
Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal

› Leadership is a process
› Leader-centric perspective
› Leadership involves influencing others
› Leadership involves goal pursuit and attainment
› These goals are shared by leaders and their followers
› Leadership happens within the context of a group
The evolution of leadership
definitions
1900–1929
• Leadership is defined as control and centralization of power
• Domination is a central theme of leadership

« The ability to impress the will of the leader

on those led and [to] induce obedience, respect,
loyalty, and cooperation » (Moore, 1927, p. 124)
1930s
• Leadership is seen as a trait that people possess or not
• Leaders are born, not made
• Leadership is rather seen as influence than domination

• First ideas that leadership is the interaction of an individual’s specific

personality traits with those of a group
1940s
• The group dimension of leadership is at the forefront
• Leadership is seen as the behavior of an individual in directing group activities
(Hemphill, 1949)

• Emergence of behavioral approaches : Leadership can be learned !

• First distinctions between influence/persuasion (leadership)and
coercion (drivership) (Copeland, 1942)
1950s
Three themes dominated leadership definitions:

• Continuance of group theory – what leaders do in groups

• Emergence of contingency and situational theories of leadership

• Leadership as relationship that develops shared goals

• Effectiveness – the ability to influence overall group effectiveness

1960s
During this period, the behavioral approach of leadership was dominant

• For instance, Seeman (1960) described leadership as « acts by persons

which influence other persons in a shared direction » (p. 53)
1970s
The focus on the group dynamics gave way to the organizational behavior approach

• Leadership is viewed as « initiating and maintaining groups or organizations to

accomplish group or organizational goals » (Rost, 1991, p. 59)

• Burn’s (1978) definition during this period was one of the most influential :
Leadership is the reciprocal process of mobilizing people with certain
motives and values, various economic, political, and other resources,
in a context of competition and conflict, in order to realize goals
independently or mutually held by both leaders and followers
1980s
In the 1980s, research on leadership substantially increased, gained public attention, and
was recognized as a scientific field

Several definitions emphasized different aspects of leadership

• Influence
• Traits
• Transformation
1990s
Research on leadership is both consolidating and diversifiying
• The difference between leadership and management is emerging
• Understanding of leadership as a process
• Focus on followers and their perceptions

Specific approaches emerged in line with these developments:

› Servant leadership
› Followership
› Adaptive leadership
The 21st century
Emergence of moral approaches to leadership:
• Authentic leadership
• Ethical leadership
• Spiritual leadership
• Discursive leadership
• Humble leadership
• Inclusive leadership

Also, following their inability to agree on a definition, scholars agree

on the impossibility to find a common definition of leadership…
Leadership and Power
Leadership and Power
Forbes’ list is based on four dimensions:

1. They have power over lots of people

2. They control financial resources that are

relatively large compared to their peers

3. They are powerful in multiple spheres

4. They actively use their power

Forbes (2018, 2023)

Leadership and Power
The concept of power is often linked with leadership, sometimes used as a synonym:

• It is common to view leaders as powerful people, as individuals who dominate others

• How leaders use power, as a tool, intrigues people

• Power is part of the influence process and is defined as the capacity or potential to
influence

• Power was once synonymous of leadership, but no more -> it is now shifting to followers

Kellerman (2012)
Leadership and Power
Numerous philosophers, writers, and scientists have attempted to define power

In their review, Stum and Antonakis (2015) identified its main dimensions

For them, power involves having the (1) discretion and (2) means to (3) enforce one’s
will
Leadership and Power

Sturm & Antonakis (2015)

Leadership and Power
One of the most influential research on power is French and Raven’s (1959, 1965)
typology of power bases

Power base Definition and example

Referent power Based on followers’ identification and liking for the leader. A teacher who is
adored by students has referent power.

Expert power Based on followers’ perceptions of the leader’s competence. A tour guide who
is knowledgeable about a foreign country has expert power.

Legitimate power Associated with having status or formal job authority. A judge who administers
sentences in the courtroom exhibits legitimate power.

Reward power Derived from having the capacity to provide rewards to others. A supervisor
who compliments employees who work hard is using reward power.

Coercive power Derived from having the capacity to penalize or punish others. A coach who sits
players on the bench for being late to practice is using coercive power.

Information power Derived from possessing knowledge that others want or need. A boss who has
information regarding new criteria to decide employee promotion eligibility has
information power.

French & Raven (1959, 1965)

Leadership and Power
One of the most influential research on power is French and Raven’s (1959, 1965)
typology of power bases

Power base Definition and example

Referent power Based on followers’ identification and liking for the leader. A teacher who is
adored by students has referent power.
Personal power
Expert power Based on followers’ perceptions of the leader’s competence. A tour guide who
is knowledgeable about a foreign country has expert power.

Legitimate power Associated with having status or formal job authority. A judge who administers
sentences in the courtroom exhibits legitimate power.

Reward power Derived from having the capacity to provide rewards to others. A supervisor
who compliments employees who work hard is using reward power.

Position power Coercive power Derived from having the capacity to penalize or punish others. A coach who sits
players on the bench for being late to practice is using coercive power.

Information power Derived from possessing knowledge that others want or need. A boss who has
information regarding new criteria to decide employee promotion eligibility has
information power.

French & Raven (1959, 1965)

What does Power
do to leaders?
What does Power
do to leaders?

Jordan et al. (2011), Keltner

et al. (2003), Sturm &
Monzani (2018)
Leadership as a scientific
inquiry
Leadership as a science
Leadership is many things… but also a science:

• More than 100 years of ongoing research

• With much ups, downs, and confusion in it

Of all the hazy and confounding areas in social

psychology, leadership theory undoubtedly
contends for top nomination… Probably more
has been written and less is known about
leadership than about any other topic in the
behavioral sciences
Warren Bennis (1959)
Leadership as a science

The science of leadership is the systematic study of this process and its outcomes, as
well as how this process depends on the leader’s traits and behaviors, observer
inferences about the leader’s characteristics, and observer attributions made regarding
the outcomes of the entity led

Antonakis & Day (2017)

Foundations of Evidence-Based Management
The emergence of this notion traces back to the advances in medicine over the 20th
century:
• Evidence-based practice is based on medical practitioners using the most recent
evidence available to treat their patients

In leadership and management as well, the validity of theories and practices can be put to the
empirical test

If a claim is true, then one should be able to observe evidence supporting this claim, and our
practices and policies should be based on existing evidence

Briner et al. (2009), Smith & Rennie (2014)

Why do we need leadership research?
This is why we need leadership research, consisting of:

• Theoretical foundations

• Systematic research efforts

• Appropriate design and data collection procedures

Source: [Link]
Research and Theory in
Leadership
What is research and what is theory?
In all areas, research efforts should be able to produce theory
• A theory explains a naturally occurring phenomenon by identifying how variables are
causally related in some contextual conditions

Ultimately, a theory should be able to inform, and then guide, practice !

Nothing is so practical as a
good theory
Kurt Lewin

Bacharach (1989), Day & Antonakis (2013), Dubin (1976), Kerlinger (1986)
What is research and what is theory?
In all areas, research efforts should be able to produce theory
• A theory explains a naturally occurring phenomenon by identifying how variables are
causally related in some contextual conditions

Ultimately, a theory should be able to inform, and then guide, practice !

• Practice, on the other hand, is plagued by self-nominated experts and critical biases

• Practice is also dominated by unvalidated practices that are still deemed useful but can
be inadequate in specific contexts

Bacharach (1989), Day & Antonakis (2013), Dubin (1976), Kerlinger (1986)
Bacharach (1989), Day & Antonakis (2013), Dubin (1976), Kerlinger (1986)
What is Theory?
Theory is the cornerstone of any science and can be defined as a set of testable
assertions that specifies:

• Relationship(s) among two (or more) constructs

• For what reasons the relationship is important

• Under what conditions the relationship is expected to be observed or not

A theory is about « the connections between

phenomena, a story about why acts, events,
structure, and thoughts occur. Theory
emphasizes the nature of causal relationships,
identifying what comes first as well as the timing
of such events » (Sutton & Staw, 1995, p. 378)
The conduct of research and the
development of knowledge
The conduct of research
Leadership is a very complex topic of study

We thus need to develop our ability to study it in scientific ways

• Scholars must incorporate theory to develop conceptual models that can then
be tested via empirical methods

• Importantly, this process must be rigorous to be valid and robust

› Systematic
› Sound
› Error free

Daft (1984)
The conduct of research
Research is the process of obtaining knowledge about natural phenomena using
controlled observations and theory

It should follow some principles:

1. Definitions are precise

2. Data collection is objective and rigorous
3. Findings are replicable
4. Approach is systematic and cumulative
5. Its purposes are understanding and prediction
The complexity of measurement
In this context, two aspects are critical:
1. Clarify our constructs and concepts
› Especially, the construct of leadership – what it means in the present context
- Formal position in organizations?

- A specific set of behaviors? Which ones?

- A specific set of individual characteristics?

- How they are perceived by others (e.g., followers)?

The complexity of measurement
In this context, two aspects are critical:
1. Clarify our constructs and concepts
2. Operationalizing our constructs and concepts
› What is the best measure in this context?
Reliability & Validity
Two qualities are essential in the operationalization process:

• Reliability
• Validity
Reliability
Reliability refers to the capacity to have the same results across attempts

• Across situations
• Across time
• Across different forms of the same test
• Across different evaluators

Reliability allows to distinguish the true score (due to what you measure) from error,
biases, and other sources of variation
Validity
Beyond being stable (i.e., reliability), the measures must
• Truly reflect the underlying constructs
• Provide valid data regarding the phenomena they are supposed to represent

If they measure constructs other than those intended, we are at risk of:
• Disconfirming theories that are actually correct
• Confirming theories that are actually incorrect
Validity

Validity is thus one of the most valuable ways of evaluating an

instrument/measure

Validity refers to the capacity to show the

adequacy between the instrument’s
quality and the inferences it allows

In other words, validity is the fit between what we pretend to do (conceptual

definition) and what we really do (operational definition)
Validity and reliability

Low reliability – Low validity

High reliability – Low validity

Low reliability – High validity

High reliability – High validity

Validity issues in leadership research
Validity in leadership research is a very important issue:

• The most used leadership styles and theories have been widely criticized with
regard to their validity
› Transformational leadership
› Leader-member exchange

• Fuzzy definitions of leadership are pervasive both in science and practice

• There has been an increase in the number of leadership-related concepts –
what is called construct proliferation
Validity

There are several forms of construct validity:

1. Content validity – does it measure what it intends?

› A leadership behavior instrument should include questions that cover all the facets of leader
behaviors (e.g., supporting people, creating a vision, providing a structure, etc.)
Validity

There are several forms of construct validity:

1. Content validity – does it measure what it intends?

2. Predictive validity – does it predict meaningful outcomes?
› A leadership instrument should demonstrate that it predicts meaningful outcomes generally
predicted to be influenced by leadership (e.g., motivation, employee engagement, etc.)
Validity

There are several forms of construct validity:

1. Content validity – does it measure what it intends?

2. Predictive validity – does it predict meaningful outcomes?
3. Convergent validity – is it meaningfully related to similar constructs?
› A leadership behavior instrument should be strongly related to listening or communication skills
Validity

There are several forms of construct validity:

1. Content validity – does it measure what it intends?

2. Predictive validity – does it predict meaningful outcomes?
3. Convergent validity – is it meaningfully related to similar constructs?
4. Discriminant validity – is it distinguishable from conceptually similar constructs?
› An assessment of charismatic leadership should be differentiated from one of transformational
leadership
Validity

There are several forms of construct validity:

1. Content validity – does it measure what it intends?

2. Predictive validity – does it predict meaningful outcomes?
3. Convergent validity – is it meaningfully related to similar constructs?
4. Discriminant validity – is it distinguishable from conceptually similar constructs?
5. Incremental validity – does it predict meaningful outcomes over and above other
meaningful constructs?
› A new promising construct (e.g., emotional intelligence) should predict leader effectiveness over
and above well-established constructs, such as personality or general intelligence
So what?
In order to be construed as a valid instrument, we must :

1. Provide a clear and meaningful conceptual definition of the construct

2. Use a measure that

› adequately covers its assumed content domain (validity)
› Is generally free from random and systematic error (reliability)
› Is conceptually and empirically distinct from related constructs (validity)

Hinkin (1995)
So what?

If a leadership approach is not accompanied by a clear conceptual definition

and is not shown to be theoretically distinct from other related forms of
leadership behavior, it is not possible to interpret findings and provide
actionable recommendations for practice
The study of causation
Cook and Campbell (1979) suggested that three criteria must be met in order to infer a
causal relationship:

1. There must be covariation between the predictor and the dependent variable

2. The cause (i.e., predictor variable) must temporally precede the effect (i.e., the dependent
variable)

3. Plausible alternative explanations for the assumed cause-and-effect relationship must be

ruled out
The study of causation
Two additional requirements are also needed for valid predictions:

1. Our predictions must reflect situational and contingency conditions that moderate (i.e.,
increase or decrease) relationships between constructs

2. Our predictions must reflect the presence of other variables that might explain,
sometimes indirectly, the relationships between constructs
 Systematic research in leadership
Finally, research design is an important aspect of making valid predictions

Field survey
Systematic collection of data from a natural environment or
specific setting, typically through questionnaires or interviews
Case studies
In-depth analysis of a specific setting to analyze
complex issues in its real-life context Laboratory experiment
Controlled study conducted in a predetermined environment to
investigate the effects of specific variables or manipulations

Field experiment
Controlled study conducted in a real-world setting to
investigate the effects of specific variables or manipulations Review studies
Systematic synthesis and analysis from existing research on a
particular topic (e.g., meta-analysis of quantitative findings)
An example: Leadership
training
An example: Leadership training
An underlying assumption that managers and organizations do is that:

Leadership Effectiveness
An example: Leadership training
Leadership training is a major issue in organizations
• European organizations spent approx. 94 billion € on training and development in 2018
• Leadership development constitutes around 30% of this expenditure

It is said that leadership training has positive outcomes on:

• Improved organizational performance
• Increased employee engagement
• Innovation and change management

Cedefop (2018), Deloitte (2016), Gallup (2024)

An example: Leadership training
Leadership training is a major issue in organizations
• European organizations spent approx. 94 billion € on training and development in 2018
• Leadership development constitutes around 30% of this expenditure

It is said that leadership training has positive outcomes on:

• Improved organizational performance
• Increased employee engagement
• Innovation and change management

Cedefop (2018), Deloitte (2016), Gallup (2024)

An example: Leadership training
An underlying assumption that managers and organizations do is that:

Leadership
Effectiveness
training
Systematic Leadership Research
Variable Hypothesis
Any general characteristic that can be « measured » A tentative explanation of the relationship
and that changes in amplitude or intensity between variables

Training in
Effectiveness
Leadership

Independent variable Dependent variable

The variable that is presumed to The variable predicted to be
influence, or cause, another variable influenced by something else
Systematic research in OB
Our predictions must reflect situational and contingency conditions that moderate (i.e., increase or decrease)
relationships between concepts

Training in
Effectiveness
Leadership

Top management Moderating variable

WHEN or FOR WHOM?
support The variable that is predicted to affect the
strength of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variable
Systematic research in OB
Our predictions must reflect situational and contingency conditions that moderate (i.e., increase or decrease)
relationships between concepts

Training in
Effectiveness
Leadership

Working Moderating variable

WHEN or FOR WHOM? conditions (e.g.,
The variable that is predicted to affect the
workload) strength of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variable
Systematic research in OB
Our predictions must reflect the presence of other variables that might affect or explain, sometimes indirectly,
what we are studying

Training in Skills
Effectiveness
Leadership development

Mediating variable
HOW or WHY? The variable that is predicted to explain the influence
of the independent variable on the dependent variable
Systematic research in OB
Our predictions must reflect the presence of other variables that might affect or explain, sometimes indirectly,
what we are studying

Training in Motivation and

Effectiveness
Leadership Purpose

Mediating variable
HOW or WHY? The variable that is predicted to explain the influence
of the independent variable on the dependent variable
Systematic research in OB
Our predictions must reflect the presence of other variables that might affect or explain, sometimes indirectly,
what we are studying

Skills
Development

Training in
Self-efficacy Effectiveness
Leadership

Motivation and
Purpose

Mediating variable
HOW or WHY? The variable that is predicted to explain the influence
of the independent variable on the dependent variable
Systematic research in OB
Our predictions must reflect the presence of other variables that might affect or explain, sometimes indirectly,
what we are studying

Training in Motivation
Recognition Effectiveness
Leadership and Purpose

Low recognition
from
management
Systematic research in OB
Our predictions must reflect the presence of other variables that might affect or explain, sometimes indirectly,
what we are studying

Training in
Effectiveness
Leadership

Pre-existing
leadership skills
Alternative explanations
Variables that might explain the observed
relationship, or changes in the dependent variable,
independently of the independent variable
Your turn, now !
By groups of three, identify a leadership situation that you, or one of your relatives, have
experienced
• Conflict, communication, specific decisions, harassment, praises for one’s work, etc.

In one or two slides, try to identify the constructs involved and to find their role:
• The independent variable (i.e., the causes)
• The dependent variable (i.e., the outcomes)
• The moderating variable
• The mediating variable (i.e., the process)
A brief history of Leadership Research
The history and streams of Leadership Research are generally divided into 9
major schools of thought

Antonakis & Day (2017)

1. Trait school of leadership
The scientific study of leadership began in the early 1900s with the trait perspective

• This perspective focuses on exceptional individuals who show unique leadership

attributes
› Leaders have certain dispositional characteristics (e.g., stable personality attributes or traits) that
differentiate them from nonleaders
› For instance, intelligence and dominance are two of the most cited leader attributes

• However, this perspective has received extensive criticism

Antonakis & Day (2017)

1. Trait school of leadership
The emergence of meta-analysis allowed this perspective to re-emerge and showed that
both perceptions of leadership and leadership emergence were associated with:

• Intelligence
• Personality

Judge et al. (2002, 2004), Lord et al. (1986), Zaccaro (2007)

2. Behavioral school of Leadership
In the 1950s, researchers began to focus more on the behavioral styles of leaders:

• What are the behaviors of leaders?

• How do they impact followers?

Two of the most prominent behaviors that have been identified in this area are:
› Consideration behaviors (e.g., supportive, person-oriented leadership)
› Initiating structure behaviors (e.g., directive, task-oriented leadership)

Blake & Mouton (1964), Katz et al. (1951) Stogdill & Coons (1957)
3. Contingency school of Leadership
The contingency approach states that it is not the leader who is determining but:
• Leader-member interactions
• Task structure
• Position power of the leader

In other words, leadership is contingent on numerous factors considered as external or

contextual

Fiedler (1967, 1971), House (1971), Kerr & Jermier (1978)

4. Contextual School of Leadership
This approach is similar to contingency theories but broadens the role of the context in
leaderhip:

• Structure of the organization and hierarchical level

• National culture
• Leader-follower gender
• Organizational characteristics
• Crises

Leadership does not occur in a vacuum and is always rooted contextually

Antonakis et al. (2003), Bligh et al. (2004), Liden & Antonakis (2009),
Lord et al. (2001), Osborn et al. (2002), Porter & McLaughlin (2006),
Shamir & Howell (1999)
5. Skeptics-of-Leadership school
This movement originates from very strong criticism of leadership research in the 70s and
80s:

• Validity of questionnaires

• Presence of implicit leadership theories

› Observers are generally motivated to understand and assign causes to the organizational
phenomena they observe
› They are more likely to attribute leadership as a way of explaining observed results, even if those
results are due to factors outside of the leader’s control

Eden & Leviathan (1975), Rush et al. (1977), Weber et al. (2001)
6. Relational school of Leadership
The relational movement focuses on relationships between leaders and followers

• Leader-member exchange theory (LMX) is one of the most popular theory of this
movement
› High-quality relations based on trust and mutual respect
› Low-quality relations based on the fulfillment of contractual obligations

• This movement relies on the assumption that followers make the leader and not the way
around

Graen & Uhl-Bien (1995)

7. The New Leadership school
Early theories of leadership were mainly transactional — that is, focused on the mutual satisfaction of
agreed obligations

Bass and colleagues believed that a more emotional, purposeful, and visionary view of leadership was
needed
• Transformational leadership
• Charismatic leadership
• Visionary leadership

In this view, leaders are considered as inspiring their followers to

transcend their interests for that of the greater good

Bass (1985, 1990), Bass & Avolio (1994), Bass et al. (1987), Bennis &
Nanus (1985)
8. Information-processing school of Leadership
The movement focuses on the information-processes explaining how:

• How observers assign traits and attributes to leaders

• How leaders are legitimized in the eyes of others
• How cognitive factors are involved in leadership
• How affective factors are involved in leadership

Balkundi & Kilduff (2006), Lord et al. (1984), Wofford et al. (1998),
Wofford et al. (1998)
9. Biological and Evolutionary school
This perspective is rooted in the hard sciences and focuses on the evolutionary
processes involved in leadership

• Heritability of leadership
• Genetical correlates of leadership
• Hormonal correlates of leadership
• Neuroscientific roots of leadership

Arvey et al. (2006), Balthazard et al. (2012), Bendahan et al. (2015),

De Neve et al. (2013), Diebig et al. (2016), Ilies et al. (2004)
 Contact
Michaël Parmentier
[Link]@[Link]
14 Rue Louvrex – 4000 Liège
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Lorane Berton
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Thomas Pirsoul
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