Paper 3 notes:

Research Methods:

Quantitative:
1) Experiments:
● The cause and effect relationship between an IV and DV can be established.
● The cause and effect relationship is the unique advantage of the experimental method as
no other method has it.
Characteristic 1:
A clear cause and effect relationship is being seen between the IV and the DV.
Characteristic 2:
Highly controlled activity as extraneous variables are kept under control and therefore lacks
ecological (external) validity.
● The control of extraneous variables in the experiment makes the relationship of IV and
DV better established.
● Extraneous variables are any variables which could combine with the IV to bring about
an effect on the DV and therefore the extraneous variables need to be controlled.

2 conditions of an experiment:
1) Controlled condition:
There is no IV and only the DV is measured.
2) Experimental condition:
There is an IV and the impact of the IV is seen on the DV( normal experiment.)

Types of experiment:
1) Simple:
Mostly lab experiments where there are 2 conditions, controlled and experimental and the cause
and effect relationship between the IV and DV is seen.

2) Field:
The IV is manipulated to see the difference on the DV but conducted in real life environmental
and is less controlled.

3) Quasi:
The relationship between IV and DV is seen but here the IV has already occurred and is not
being manipulated by the researcher.

4) Natural:
It is the measurement of DV in a completely natural setting, where the IV is also naturally
occurring and not being manipulated by the researcher.
Research design:
1) Independent measure/ sample design:
● Different set of participants are divided into separate groups.
● 1 group is given the IV and the DV is measured.
● Whereas another group is called the control group and the IV is not given but the DV is
measured.
-Advantages:
There is a clear comparison between the 2 groups and so the relationship between the IV and DV
can be seen clearly.

2) Repeated measures design:

● There is only 1 group of participants.
● In the first condition there DV is measured without the IV.
● In the second condition the DV is measured after manipulating the IV.
● And in the third condition the DV is measured without the IV again.

-Advantages:
Since there is the same sample of participants there is an in-built control and individual
differences will not have an effect on the DV.
-Disadvantages:
This design can not be done for any experiment where there is a permanent change due to the IV.

Demand characteristic:
● When the participants' behavior changes because they feel there is a certain demand/
expectation, which they try to fulfill.

Qualitative:
1) Case study:
It is an in depth, longitudinal study on one person or a small group of individuals.

-Characteristic 1:
It is detailed and in depth, giving rich data.
-Characteristic 2:
The generalizability of results from a case study is limited as the sample size is very small.
-Characteristic 3:
It gathers data by different methods like observations, interviews and questions.

2) Observation:
It's a qualitative method where the observer engages in either participants observation or non
participants observation.
● Non participants covert observer watches and record their observation from a distance,
but with the participants aware that they are being watched.
● Participants covert observation is when the observer becomes part of the group and then
makes their observation.
-Characteristic 1:
It gives us unique, rich and in depth data
-Characteristic 2:
The observer's own attitudes and perspectives will bias the observation.

3) Interview:
It is a qualitative, in depth face to face or telephone interview between the researcher and the
participant.
-Characteristic 1:
It gives rich and personal data
-Characteristic 2:
Since it is time consuming and individualistic, it cannot be carried out with a large sample.

2 types of interviews:
1) Structured (close ended):
When the researcher has decided the questions they are going to be asking. Therefore the
participant is not totally free to answer anything that they want.

2) Unstructured (open ended):

The researcher may just give a prompt and the participant has full freedom to express their true
feelings/ views.

3) Focus groups:
It's like an interview group. It consists of 8-12 people who are interviewed together about a
common group.
● Semi structured questions, open and close ended questions and the participants are free to
explain or elaborate on their answers.
● Same characteristics as an interview

Sampling:
1) Random:
Every member of the target/larger population on whom the results are applicable has an equal
chance of becoming part of the sample.
 2) Stratified:
When you select your sample so that it represents different levels from the target population.
(Example dividing target population into different education levels, socio economic levels,
different genders and then having representatives from all these levels.)

3) Convenience/ opportunity:
Selecting the sample on the basis of the most available candidates.

4) Self selected:
The sample is selected on the basis of the candidate volunteering for the research, in response to
an ad about the experiment.

5) Purposive:
You are selecting the participants on the basis of certain characteristics which are required for the
study.

6) Snowball:
Here a small number of participants are invited and asked to invite other people they know who
would be interested in being participants.

Ethics:
1) Informed consent:
Participation in the study must be completely voluntary and the participant must give their
informed consent that they understand the basic nature of the study, through a signed form.

2) Protection from harm:

In any psychological study, participants need to be protected from any physical or mental harm.

3) Anonymity and confidentiality:

Participation in a research study has to be totally confidential and neither the participants name,
identity or data should stay confidential and anonymous.

4) Withdrawal from participation:

Participation is totally voluntary and participants are free to withdraw from the study at any
point.

5) Deception:
If a degree of deception is used to hide the actual purpose of the study, this deception needs to be
minimum and absolutely necessary and justified. Using deception reduces the social desirability
effect.
 6) Debriefing:
Participants must be fully informed about the true nature, aim of the study and how the data will
be used after the study is used. Data should be shared with participants after the study.