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Cambridge IGCSE
 Physics
Fourth Edition
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™
Cambridge IGCSE

Physics
Fourth Edition

Heather Kennett
Tom Duncan
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ISBN: 978 1 3983 1054 4
♥ Tom Duncan and Heather Kennett 2021
First published in 2002
Second edition published in 2009
Third edition published in 2014
This fourth edition published in 2021 by
Hodder Education,
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A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

Contents
How to use this book vi Scientific enquiry vii 1 Motion, forces and
energy 1 1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques 2 1.2 Motion 12 1.3
Mass and weight 25 1.4 Density 29 1.5 Forces 33 1.6 Momentum 55 1.7 Energy, work
and power 60 1.8 Pressure 78 2 Thermal physics 85 2.1 Kinetic particle
model of matter 86 2.2 Thermal properties and temperature 100 2.3 Transfer of thermal
energy 115 3 Waves 127 3.1 General properties of waves 128 3.2 Light 136 3.3
Electromagnetic spectrum 160 3.4 Sound 167 4 Electricity and magnetism
175 4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism 176 4.2 Electrical quantities 184 4.3
Electric circuits 209 4.4 Electrical safety 222 4.5 Electromagnetic effects 229 5
Nuclear physics 251 5.1 The nuclear model of the atom 252 5.2 Radioactivity
260 6 Space physics 275 6.1 Earth and the Solar System 276 6.2 Stars and
the Universe 286 Mathematics for physics 295 Additional
exam-style questions 299 Theory past paper questions 304
Practical Test past paper questions 324 Alternative to
Practical past paper questions 331 List of equations 338 Symbols
and units for physical quantities 339 Glossary 341 Acknowledgements 350 Index
351

How to use this book FOCUS POINTS

Each topic starts with a bullet point summary of
To make your study of Physics for Cambridge what you will encounter within each topic.
IGCSE™ as rewarding and successful as
possible, this textbook, endorsed by
Cambridge Assessment International This is followed by a short outline of the topic
Education, offers the following important so that you know what to expect over the next
features: few pages.
 These provide explanations of the meanings of key words
as required by the syllabus.
Test yourself
These questions appear regularly throughout the
topic so you can check your understanding as you
Practical work
progress.
These boxes identify the key practical skills
you need to be able to understand and apply
Revision checklist
as part of completing the course.
At the end of each topic, a revision checklist will
allow you to recap what you have learnt in each
topic and double check that you understand the key
Worked example
concepts before moving on.
These boxes give step-by-step guidance on how to approach
different sorts of calculations, with follow-up questions so you
can practise these skills.

Exam-style questions
Each topic is followed by exam-style questions
to help familiarise you with the style of Going further
questions you may see in your examinations.
These boxes take your learning further than is
These will also prove useful in consolidating required by the Cambridge syllabus so that you have
your learning. Past paper questions are also the opportunity to stretch yourself.
provided in the back of the book.
A Mathematics for Physics section is provided
for reference. This covers many of the key
As you read through the book, you will notice mathematical skills you will need as you
that some text is shaded yellow. This indicates progress through your course. If you feel you
that the highlighted material is Supplement would benefit from further explanation and
content only. Text that is not shaded covers practice on a particular mathematical skill within
the Core syllabus. If you are studying the this book, the Mathematics for Physics section
Extended syllabus, you should look at both the should be a useful resource.
Core and Supplement sections. Answers are provided online with the
accompanying Cambridge IGCSE Physics
Teacher’s Guide. A Practical Skills Workbook
is also available to further support you in
As well as these features, you will also see developing your practical skills as part of
additional support throughout the topic in the carrying out experiments.
form of:

Key definitions

vi
problems.
Scientific enquiry Simple experiments may be designed to
measure, for example, the temperature of a
During your course you will have to carry out a liquid or the electric current in a circuit. Longer
few experiments and investigations aimed at investigations may be designed to establish or
encouraging you to develop some of the skills verify a relationship between two or more
and abilities that scientists use to solve real-life physical quantities.
 Investigations may arise from the topic you data safely and
are currently studying in class, or your teacher accurately. Before you start taking
may provide you with suggestions to choose measurements familiarise yourself with the
from, or you may have your own ideas. use of the apparatus. – Record your observations
However an investigation arises, it will probably and readings in an
require at least one hour of laboratory time, but ordered way. If several measurements are to be
often longer. made, draw up a table to record your results.
Use the column headings, or start of rows, to
Doing an investigation will involve the
name the measurement and state its unit; for
following aspects. example ‘Mass of load/kg’. Repeat the
1 Selecting and safely using suitable measurement of each observation; record each
techniques, apparatus and materials – your value in your table, then calculate an average
choice of both apparatus and techniques will value. Numerical values should be given to the
depend on what you’re investigating. However, number of significant figures appropriate to the
you must always measuring device.
do a risk assessment of your investigation – If you have decided to make a graph of your
results you will need at least eight data points
before proceeding. Your teacher should help
taken over as large a range as possible; be sure
ensure that all potential hazards are
to label each axis of a graph with the name and
identified and addressed.
unit of the quantity being plotted.
2 Planning your experiment – you need to – Do not dismantle the equipment until you have
think about how you are going to find completed your analysis and you are sure you do
answers to the questions regarding the not need to repeat any of the measurements!
problem posed. This will involve: 4 Interpreting and evaluating the
– Making predictions and hypotheses (informed observations and data – this is important as
guesses); this may help you to focus on what is doing it correctly will allow you to establish
required at this stage.
relationships between quantities.
– Identifying the variables in the investigation and
– You may need to calculate specific values or plot a
deciding which ones you will try to keep constant
graph of your results, then draw a line of best fit
(controlled) so that they do not affect the
and calculate a gradient. Explain any anomalous
experimental results. The variable you change is
results you obtained and how you dealt with
the independent variable and the variable you
them. Comment on any graph drawn, its shape
will measure is the dependent variable.
and whether the graph points lie on the line;
– Deciding on the range of values you will use for
mention any trend you noticed in the data.
the independent variable, how you will record
– Draw conclusions from the evidence that are
your results, and the analysis you will do to fulfil
justified by the data. These can take the form of
the aims of the investigation.
a numerical value (and unit), the statement of a
– The apparatus and materials you choose to use
known law, a relationship between two
for the investigation need to have enough
quantities or a statement related to the aim of
precision for the required use. For example the
the experiment (sometimes experiments do not
smallest division on a metre ruler is 1mm. A
achieve the intended objective).
measurement can be read to about half a scale
– Comment on the quality of the data and whether
division so will have a precision of about 0.5mm.
results are equal within the limits of the
– Explaining your experimental procedure. A clearly
accuracy of the experiment. Compare outcomes
labelled diagram will be helpful here. Any
with those expected.
difficulties encountered or precautions taken to
achieve accuracy should also be mentioned. 5 Evaluating methods and suggesting
possible improvements – not every
experiment is flawless and in fact, they rarely
are. When looking at evaluation you should:
– Identify possible sources of error in the
3 Making and recording observations
experiment which could have affected the
and measurements – you need to
obtain the necessary experimental

vii
accuracy of your results. These could include electrical experiment by using an ammeter with a
random and systematic errors as well as more appropriate scale.
measurement errors. – Suggest possible improvements to the experiment.
– Mention any apparatus that turned out to be For example, efforts to reduce thermal energy losses
unsuitable for the experiment. to the environment or changes in a control variable
– Discuss how the experiment might be modified to (such as temperature) in an experiment.
give more accurate results, for example in an
 usage of the word ‘revolution’.) It took time for
Suggestions for his ideas to gain acceptance. The careful
astronomical observations of planetary motion
investigations documented by Tycho Brahe were studied by
Johannes Kepler, who realised that the data
Some suggested investigations for practical work
could be explained if the planets moved in
are listed below:
elliptical paths (not circular) with the Sun at one
1 Stretching of a rubber band (Topic
focus. Galileo’s observations of the moons of
1.5.1). 2 Stretching of a copper wire – Jupiter with the newly invented telescope led
wear eye protection (Topic 1.5.1). him to support this ‘Copernican view’ and to be
3 Toppling (Topic 1.5.1). imprisoned by the Catholic Church in 1633 for
4 Friction – factors affecting (Topic 1.5.1). 5 disseminating heretical views. About 50 years
Model wind turbine design (Topic 1.7.3). 6 later, Isaac Newton introduced the idea of
Speed of a bicycle and its stopping distance gravity and was able to explain the motion of all
(Topic 1.7.1). bodies, whether on Earth or in the heavens,
7 Energy transfer using different which led to full acceptance of the Copernican
insulating materials (Topic 2.3.1). model. Newton’s mechanics were refined further
8 Cooling and evaporation (Topic 2.2.3). 9 at the beginning of the twentieth century when
Pitch of a note from a vibrating wire (Topic Einstein developed his theories of relativity.
3.4). 10 Variation of the resistance of a Even today, data from the Hubble Space
thermistor with temperature (Topic 4.2.4). Telescope is providing new evidence which
11 Variation of the resistance of a wire confirms Einstein’s ideas.
with length (Topic 4.2.4) Many other scientific theories have had to
12 Heating effect of an electric current wait for new data, technological inventions, or
(Topic 4.2.2). time and the right social and intellectual climate
13 Strength of an electromagnet (Topic for them to become accepted. In the field of
4.1). 14 Efficiency of an electric motor health and medicine, for example, because
(Topic 4.2.5). cancer takes a long time to develop it was
several years before people recognised that
Ideas and evidence X-rays and radioactive materials could be
dangerous (Topic 5.2.5).
in science At the beginning of the twentieth century
In some of the investigations you perform in the scientists were trying to reconcile the wave
theory and the particle theory of light by means
school laboratory, you may find that you do not
of the new ideas of quantum mechanics.
interpret your data in the same way as your
Today we are collecting evidence on possible
friends do; perhaps you will argue with them as
to the best way to explain your results and try to health risks from microwaves used in mobile
convince them that your interpretation is right. phone networks. The cheapness and
Scientific controversy frequently arises through popularity of mobile
people interpreting evidence differently. phones may make the public and manufacturers
Observations of the heavens led the reluctant to accept adverse findings, even if
ancient Greek philosophers to believe that risks are made widely known in the press and on
the Earth television. Although scientists can provide
was at the centre of the planetary system, but a evidence and evaluation of that evidence, there
complex system of rotation was needed to match may still be room for controversy and a
observations of the apparent movement of the reluctance to accept scientific findings,
planets across the sky. In 1543, Nicolaus particularly if there are vested social or
Copernicus made the radical suggestion that all economic interests to contend with. This is most
the planets revolved not around the Earth but clearly shown today in the issue of global
around the Sun. (His book On the Revolutions of warming.
the Celestial Spheres gave us the modern
viii

SECTION 1
 Motion,
forces and
energy
Topics
1.1 Physical quantities and measurement
techniques
1.2 Motion
1.3 Mass and weight
1.4 Density
1.5 Forces
1.6 Momentum
1.7 Energy, work and power
1.8 Pressure

Physical quantities and

1.1 measurement
techniques
FOCUS POINTS
★ Describe how to measure length, volume and time intervals using simple devices. ★ Know
how to determine the average value for a small distance and a short time interval.
★ Understand the difference between scalar and vector quantities, and give examples of each.
★ Calculate or determine graphically the resultant of two perpendicular vectors.

This topic introduces the concept of describing space and time in terms of numbers together with
some of the basic units used in physics. You will learn how to use simple devices to measure or
calculate the quantities of length, area and volume. Accurate measurements of time will be needed
frequently in the practical work in later topics and you will discover how to choose the appropriate
clock or timer for the measurement of a time interval. Any single measurement will not be entirely
accurate and will have an error associated with it. Taking the average of several measurements, or
measuring multiples, reduces the size of the error.

Many physical quantities, such as force

and
velocity, have both magnitude and
direction; they
are termed vectors. When combining
 two vectors
to find their resultant, as well as their size, you
need to take into account any difference in their
directions.

Units and basic quantities

Before a measurement can be made, a standard or
unit must be chosen. The size of the quantity to be
measured is then found with an instrument This is a neat way of writing numbers,
having a scale marked in the unit. especially if they are large or small. The
Three basic quantities we measure in physics example below shows how it works.
are length, mass and time. Units for other 4000 = 4 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 = 4 ⋅ 103
quantities are based on them. The SI (Système
International d’Unités) system is a set of metric 400 = 4 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 = 4 ⋅ 102
units now used in many countries. It is a 40 = 4 ⋅ 10 = 4 ⋅ 101
decimal system in which units are divided or
multiplied by 10 to give smaller or larger units. 4 = 4 ⋅ 1 = 4 ⋅ 100
Measuring instruments on the flight deck of a 0.4 = 4/10 = 4/101 = 4 ⋅ 10−1
passenger jet provide the crew with information
0.04 = 4/100 = 4/102 = 4 ⋅ 10−2
about the performance of the aircraft (see Figure
1.1.1). 0.004 = 4/1000 = 4/103 = 4 ⋅ 10−3
▲ Figure 1.1.1 Aircraft flight deck

Powers of ten shorthand

2
5
1 kilometre (km) = 103m ( 8 mile approx.) 1
gigametre (Gm) = 109m = 1 billion metres
The small figures 1, 2, 3, etc. are called
powers of ten. The power shows how many Many length measurements are made with
times the number has to be multiplied by 10 if rulers; the correct way to read one is shown in
the power is greater than 0 or divided by 10 if Figure 1.1.2. The reading is 76mm or 7.6cm.
the power is less than 0. Note that 1 is written Your eye must be directly over the mark on the
as 100. scale or the thickness of the ruler causes a
This way of writing numbers is called parallax error.
standard notation.
correct wrong
Length
The unit of length is the metre (m) and is
the distance travelled by light in a vacuum
during a specific time interval. At one time
it was the
distance between two marks on a certain metal 70 80
bar. Submultiples are:
1 decimetre (dm) = 10−1m
1 centimetre (cm) = 10−2m
1 millimetre (mm) = 10−3m object

1 micrometre (µm) = 10−6m ▲ Figure 1.1.2 The correct way to measure with a ruler
Significant figures
1 nanometre (nm) = 10−9m

A multiple for large distances is To obtain an average value for a small

distance, multiples can be measured. For the experimenter because the reading was
example, in ripple tank experiments (Topic between two marks on a scale.
3.1), measure the distance occupied by five When doing a calculation your answer should
waves, then divide by 5 to obtain the average have the same number of significant figures as
wavelength. the measurements used in the calculation. For
example, if your calculator gave an answer of
Significant figures 3.4185062, this
would be written as 3.4 if the measurements had
Every measurement of a quantity is an two significant figures. It would be written as 3.42
attempt to find its true value and is subject for three significant figures. Note that in deciding
to errors arising from limitations of the the least significant figure you look at the next
apparatus and the experimenter. The figure to the right. If it is less than 5, you leave
number of figures, called significant the least significant figure as it is (hence 3.41
figures, given for a measurement indicates becomes 3.4), but if it equals or is greater than 5
how accurate we think it is and more figures you increase the least significant figure by 1
should not be given than are justified. (round it up) (hence 3.418 becomes 3.42).
For example, a value of 4.5 for a If a number is expressed in standard
measurement has two significant figures; notation, the number of significant figures is
0.0385 has three significant figures, 3 being the the number of digits before the power of ten.
most significant and 5 the least, i.e. it is the one
For example, 2.73 ⋅ 103 has three significant
we are least sure about since it might be 4 or it
figures.
might be 6. Perhaps it had to be estimated by

3
1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques
before the decimal point: 0.5 0.084 0.000 36 0.001
04

Test yourself
1 How many millimetres are there in these Area
measurements?
Sometimes we need to know the area of a
a 1cm
b 4cm triangle. It is given by
c 0.5cm 1
area of triangle = 2 ⋅ base ⋅ height
d 6.7cm
e 1m The area of a circle of radius r is πr2
2 What are these lengths in metres? where π = 22/7 or 3.14; its
a 300cm circumference is 2πr.
b 550cm
c 870cm
d 43cm Worked example
e 100mm
3 a Write the following as powers of ten with one
Calculate the area of the triangles shown in Figure 1.1.4.
figure before the decimal point: 1
100000 3500 428000000 504 27056 b a area of triangle = 2⋅ base ⋅ height
Write out the following in full: 1
so area of triangle ABC = 2⋅ AB ⋅ AC
103 2 ⋅ 106 6.92 ⋅ 104 1.34 ⋅ 102 109 1 2
4 a Write these fractions as powers of ten: 1/1000 = 2⋅ 4cm ⋅ 6 cm = 12 cm b area of triangle PQR =
7/100000 1/10000000 3/60000 b Express the 1
following decimals as powers of ten with one figure 2⋅ PQ ⋅ SR
 1 2 4cm
= 2⋅ 5cm ⋅ 4 cm = 10cm 90°
C
R

6cm
long is 1 square centimetre
The area of the square in (1cm2). In Figure 1.1.3b the ▲ Figure 1.1.4
P S Q 5cm
Figure 1.1.3a with sides 1 cm rectangle measures 4cm by
A B 4 cm
22
m 10 m4 2 = ⋅ = = − 10000
Now put this into practice
3cm and has an area of 4 ⋅ 3 = 12 cm2 since it
1 Calculate the area of a triangle whose base is 8cm and
has the same area as twelve squares each of height is 12cm.
area 1cm2. The area of a square or rectangle is 2 Calculate the circumference of a circle of radius 6cm.
given by
area = length ⋅ breadth
The SI unit of area is the square metre (m2)
Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied. The
which is the area of a square with sides 1m
long. Note that unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3) but as
this is rather large, for most purposes the cubic
1 1 centimetre (cm3)
1cm 100m 100 m1
is used. The volume of a cube 1 1 1
a
1 cm with 1cm edges is 1cm3. Note 1 cm 100m 100m 100m
that
1 cm
3 cm
3
=⋅⋅
363

1
= = −1000 000m 10 m
b
4cm

▲ Figure 1.1.3

4
Volume

For a regularly shaped object such as a rectangular

block, Figure 1.1.5 shows that
volume = length ⋅ breadth ⋅ height

5cm

meniscus

3 cm
 4cm

▲ Figure 1.1.6 A measuring cylinder

Worked example
a Calculate the volume of a block of wood which is 40cm
long, 12cm wide and 5cm high in cubic metres.
volume V = length ⋅ breadth ⋅ height
= 40 cm ⋅ 12 cm ⋅ 5 cm
= 2400 cm3
= 2400 ⋅ 10−6m3
1000cm3 = 1dm3 (= 1litre).
3 4 5 cubes
= 2.4 ⋅ 10−3m3
▲ Figure 1.1.5 b Calculate the volume of a cylinder of radius 10mm and
height 5.0cm in cubic metres.
The volume of a cylinder of radius r and
volume of cylinder V = πr2h
height h is πr 2h.
The volume of a liquid may be obtained by r = 10mm = 1.0cm and h = 5.0 cm

pouring it into a measuring cylinder (Figure so V = πr2h

1.1.6). When making a reading the cylinder = π ⋅ (1.0 cm)2 ⋅ 5.0 cm
must be upright and your eye must be level with = 16 cm3 = 16 ⋅ 10−6m3 = 1.6 ⋅ 10−5m3
the bottom of the curved liquid surface, i.e. the
meniscus. The meniscus formed by mercury is Now put this into practice
curved oppositely to that of other liquids and the 1 Calculate the volume of a rectangular box which is 30cm
top is read. long, 25cm wide and 15cm high in cubic metres. 2 Calculate
Measuring cylinders are often marked in the volume of a cylinder of radius 50mm and height 25cm in
cubic metres.
millilitres (ml) where 1ml = 1cm3; note that

5
1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques
swinging pendulum controls a pendulum
clock.
Time To measure an interval of time in an
The unit of time is the second (s), which used to experiment, first choose a timer that is precise
be based on the length of a day, this being the enough for the task. A stopwatch is adequate
time for the Earth to revolve once on its axis. for finding the period in seconds of a pendulum
However, days are not all of exactly the same (see Figure 1.1.7 opposite), but to measure the
duration and the second is now defined as the speed of sound (Topic 3.4), a clock that can
time interval for a certain number of energy time in milliseconds is needed. To measure very
changes to occur in the caesium atom. short time intervals, a digital clock that can be
Time-measuring devices rely on some kind triggered to start and stop by an electronic
of constantly repeating oscillation. In signal from a microphone, photogate
traditional clocks and watches a small wheel
(the balance wheel) oscillates to and fro; in
digital clocks and watches the oscillations Practical work
are produced by a tiny quartz crystal. A
 thick, what is the thickness of the book?
6 How many significant figures are there in a length
Period of a simple pendulum
For safe experiments/demonstrations related
measurement of
a 2.5cm
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge b 5.32cm
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that is c 7.180cm
also part of this series. d 0.042cm?
7 A rectangular block measures 4.1cm by 2.8cm by
In this investigation you have to make time 2.1cm. Calculate its volume giving your answer to
measurements using a stopwatch or clock. A an appropriate number of significant figures.
motion sensor connected to a datalogger and 8 What type of timer would you use to measure

computer could be used instead of a the period of a simple pendulum? How many

stopwatch for these investigations.

oscillations would you time?

Attach a small metal ball (called a bob) to a

piece of string, and suspend it as shown in
Figure 1.1.7 opposite. Pull the bob a small
distance to one side, and then release it so that A to O to B to O to A (Figure 1.1.7). Repeat
it oscillates to and fro through a small angle. the timing a few times for the same
Find the time for the bob to make several number of oscillations and work out the
complete oscillations; one oscillation is average.
from 1 The time for one oscillation is the period T.
or mechanical switch is useful. Tickertape timers
Determine the period of your pendulum. 2 The
or dataloggers are often used to record short
frequency f of the oscillations is the number of
time intervals in motion experiments. Accuracy
complete oscillations per second and equals
can be improved by measuring longer time
1/T. Calculate a value for f for your pendulum.
3 Comment on how the amplitude of
intervals. Several oscillations (rather than just
one) are timed to find the period of a pendulum;
the oscillations changes with time.
4 Plan an investigation into the effect on T
the average value for the period is found by
dividing the time by the number of oscillations.
of (i) a longer string and (ii) a larger bob.
5 What procedure would you use to determine
Ten ticks, rather than single ticks, are used in
tickertape timers.
the period of a simple pendulum?
6 In Figure 1.1.7 if the bob is first
Test yourself released at B, give the sequence of
letters which corresponds to one
5 The pages of a book are numbered 1 to 200 and
each leaf is 0.10mm thick. If each cover is 0.20mm complete oscillation.

7 Explain where you would take

measurements from to determine the
length of the pendulum shown in Figure pendulum

1.1.7. Systematic errors

is given by the scale reading added to the value

metal plates of x. The equation for the height is
height = scale reading + x
height = 5.9 + x
string
support
By itself the scale reading is not equal to
stand the height. It is too small by the value of
x.
This type of error is known as a systematic
 error. The error is introduced by the system. A is at an angle to the vertical, a systematic error is
half-metre ruler has the zero at the end of the introduced.
ruler and so can be used without introducing a
systematic error. 8

When using a ruler to determine a height, the 7

ruler must be held so that it is vertical. If the ruler
bob
B 6 4
OA P
3
5
▲ Figure 1.1.7

Systematic
2

1
errors
Figure 1.1.8 shows a part of
Going further x
0

a ruler used to measure the

Vernier scales and
height of a point P above
micrometers ▲ Figure 1.1.8
the bench. The ruler
Lengths can be measured with a
chosen has a space before ruler to a precision of about
the zero of the scale. This 0.5mm. Some investigations may
is shown as the length x. need a more precise
The height of the point P measurement of length, which can
be achieved by using vernier
calipers (Figure 1.1.9) or a bench
micrometer screw gauge.

▲ Figure 1.1.9 Vernier calipers in use

7
1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques
= 0.09cm
One end of the length to be measured is made to
Vernier scale coincide with the zero of the millimetre scale and the
The calipers shown in Figure 1.1.9 use a vernier scale. other end with the zero of the vernier scale. The length
The simplest type enables a length to be measured to Micrometer screw gauge
0.01cm. It is a small sliding scale which is 9mm long This measures very small objects to 0.001cm. One
but divided into ten equal divisions (Figure 1.1.10a)
revolution of the drum opens the flat, parallel jaws by
9 one division on the scale on the shaft of the gauge;
so 1 vernier division = 10 mm
this is usually mm, i.e. 0.05cm. If the drum has a scale
= 0.9mm of 50 divisions round it, then rotation of the drum by
one division opens the jaws by 0.05/50 = 0.001cm
 (Figure1.1.11). A friction clutch ensures that the jaws
exert the same force when the object is gripped.

jaws
shaft drum
6th mark and the length is 1.36cm, 35
since
30
of the object in Figure 1.1.10b is OA = OB − AB
between 1.3cm and 1.4cm. The 012
reading to the second place of friction
mm clutch
decimals is obtained by finding the
vernier mark which is exactly
opposite (or nearest to) a mark on the
millimetre scale. In this case it is the object

b
OA = (1.90 cm) − (6 vernier divisions) O object A B
= 1.90 cm − 6(0.09) cm ▲ Figure 1.1.11 Micrometer screw gauge
= (1.90 − 0.54) cm The object shown in Figure 1.1.11 has a length of
= 1.36 cm 2.5mm on the shaft scale + 33 divisions on the drum
Vernier scales are also used on barometers, travelling scale
microscopes and spectrometers. = 0.25cm + 33(0.001) cm
a = 0.283 cm
vernier scale mm scale
Before making a measurement, check to ensure that the
reading is zero when the jaws are closed. Otherwise the
5
zero error must be allowed for when the reading is
taken.
12
mm

12
mm
10

▲ Figure 1.1.10 Vernier scale

8
only. Time is a scalar and is completely
described when its value is known. Other
examples of scalars are distance, speed,
Scalars and vectors time, mass, pressure, energy and
temperature.
Length and time can be described by a A vector quantity is one such as force which is
single number specifying size, but many described completely only if both its size
physical quantities have a directional (magnitude) and direction are stated. It is not
character. enough to say, for example, a force of 10N, but
A scalar quantity has magnitude (size) rather a force of 10N acting vertically
 downwards. Gravitational field strength and FY acting at right angles to each other at a
electric field strength are vectors, as are weight, point, the magnitude of the resultant F, and
velocity, acceleration and momentum. the angle θ between FX and F can be
calculated from the following equations:
Worked example
F F FF
Calculate the resultant of two forces of 3.0N and 4.0N = + , tanθ = 2 2
acting at right angles to each other. XY Y
FX
Let FX = 3.0N and FY = 4.0N as shown in Figure The resultant of two vectors acting at right
cm = 1 N angles to each other can also be obtained
1.1.12. scale 1 F
graphically.

4.0N
Graphical method
The values for F and θ can be found graphically by drawing
the vectors to scale on a piece of graph paper as shown in
Figure 1.1.12.
θ First choose a scale to represent the size of the vectors
(1cm could be used to represent 1.0N).
3.0 N
Draw the vectors at right angles to each other. Complete the
▲ Figure 1.1.12 Addition of two perpendicular vectors rectangle as shown in Figure 1.1.12 and draw the diagonal
from the origin as shown. The diagonal then represents the
Then resultant force, F. Measure the length of F with a ruler and
F F F X Y = + 2 2 = + 3.0 4.0 2 2 = + 9 16 2 = = 5 5.0 N use the scale you have chosen to determine its size.
F Measure the angle θ, the direction of the resultant, with a
and θ = = = FYX
protractor.

tan 4.0 Check that the values for F and θ you obtain are the same
as those found using the algebraic method.
3.01.3
so θ = 53º. Now put this into practice
1 Calculate the following square roots.
The resultant is a force of 5.0N acting at 53° to the force
of 3.0N. a 6 8 +2 2
Scalars and vectors b 5 7 +2 2
c 2 9 +2 2
2 Calculate
a tan 30°
A vector can be represented by a straight b tan 45°
line whose length represents the magnitude c tan 60°.
of the quantity and whose direction gives its 3 Calculate the resultant of two forces of 5.0N and 7.0N
line of action. An arrow on the line shows which are at right angles to each other.
4 At a certain instant a projectile has a horizontal velocity of
which way along the line it acts. 6m/s and a vertical velocity of 8m/s.
Scalars are added by ordinary arithmetic; a Calculate the resultant velocity of the projectile at
vectors are added geometrically, taking that instant.
account of their directions as well as their b Check your answer to a by a graphical method.
magnitudes. In the case of two vectors FX and

9
1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques

Revision checklist

After studying Topic 1.1 you should know and intervals, minimise the associated errors and use
understand the following: multiple measurements to obtain average values
✓ how to make measurements of length and time
 volumes of regular objects and give a result with
✓ the difference between scalars and vectors and the correct units and an appropriate number of
recall examples of each. significant figures
After studying Topic 1.1 you should be able to:
✓ write a number in powers of ten (standard ✓ determine by calculation or graphically the
notation) and recall the meaning of standard resultant of two vectors at right angles.
prefixes
✓ measure and calculate lengths, areas and

10
Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions
1 A chocolate bar measures 10 cm long by the pendulum. [2] [Total: 8]
2cm wide and is 2cm thick. 2 a A pile of 60 sheets of paper is 6mm high.
a Calculate the volume of one bar. [3] b How Calculate the average thickness of a sheet
many bars each 2cm long, 2cm wide and 2 of the paper. [2]
cm thick have the same total volume? [3] c A c Write down expressions for
pendulum makes 10 complete oscillations in i the area of a circle [1] ii the
8 seconds. Calculate the time period of circumference of a circle [1] iii the volume
 of a cylinder. [2] [Total: 7] gauges in Figures 1.1.14a and 1.1.14b?

Going further
5 What are the readings on the micrometer screw
3 A Perspex container has
b Calculate how many a 6cm square base
blocks of ice cream each 0 1 2 mm
10cm long, 10 cm wide 35 30 25
20cm high. [5] [Total: 7]
and 4 cm thick can
be stored in the
compartment of a freezer
measuring 40cm deep,
40cm wide and

b
11 12 13 14

mm
45
and contains water to a height of
7cm (Figure 1.1.13). 40
a Calculate the volume of the water. [3] b A
stone is lowered into the water so as to
be completely covered and the water rises ▲ Figure 1.1.14
to a height of 9cm. Calculate the volume [Total: 4]
of the stone. [4] [Total: 7]
0
D time [1] b Two forces of 5N
and 12N act at right angles to
▲ Figure 1.1.13 each other.
6cm Using a piece of graph paper
6 a Select which of the determine the magnitude and
7cm
following quantities is a vector. direction of the resultant force
A length graphically. State the scale you
B temperature use
6cm C force
4 a State the standard units of length and time. a protractor to measure the angle the
[2] b A measurement is stated as 0.0125mm. resultant makes with the 5N force. [7]
State the number of significant figures. [1] [Total: 8]
to represent each vector. You will need

11

1.2 Motion
FOCUS POINTS
★ Define speed and velocity and use the appropriate equations to calculate these and average speed. ★
Draw, plot and interpret distance–time or speed–time graphs for objects at different speeds and use the
graphs to calculate speed or distance travelled.
 ★ Define acceleration and use the shape of a speed–time graph to determine constant or changing
acceleration and calculate the acceleration from the gradient of the graph.
★ Know the approximate value of the acceleration of freefall, g, for an object close to the Earth’s surface. ★

Describe the motion of objects falling with and without air/liquid resistance.

The concepts of speed and acceleration are encountered every day, whether it be television
monitoring of the speed of a cricket or tennis ball as it soars towards the opposition or the
acceleration achieved by an athlete or racing car. In this topic you will learn how to define speed in
terms of distance and time. Graphs of distance against time will enable you to calculate speed and
determine how it changes with time; graphs of speed against time allow acceleration to be
studied. Acceleration is also experienced by falling objects as a result of gravitational attraction.
All objects near the Earth’s surface experience the force of gravity, which produces a constant
acceleration directed towards the centre of the Earth.
To find the actual speed at any instant we would
need to know the distance moved in a very short
Speed interval of time. This can be done by multiflash
photography. In Figure 1.2.1 the golfer is
The speed of a body is the distance that it has
photographed while a flashing lamp illuminates
travelled in unit time. When the distance him 100 times a second. The speed of the
travelled is s over a short time period t, the club-head as it hits the ball is about 200km/h.
speed v is given by
s
v t=
Key definition
Speed distance travelled per unit time

If a car travels 300km in five hours, its average

speed is 300km/5h = 60 km/h. The speedometer
would certainly not read 60 km/h for the whole
journey and might vary considerably from this
value. That is why we state the average speed.
If a car could travel at a constant speed of 60
km/h for 5 hours, the distance covered would still
be 300 km. It is always true that

average speed = total distance travelled ▲ Figure 1.2.1 Multiflash photograph of a golf swing
total time taken
12

For a steady increase of velocity from 20m/s

Velocity to 50m/s in 5s
Speed is the distance travelled in unit time;
velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a acceleration (50 20)m/s
given direction. If two trains travel due north at 2 −
5s6m/s = =
20m/s, they have the
same speed of 20m/s and the same velocity of Acceleration is also a vector and both its
20m/s due north. If one travels north and the magnitude and direction should be stated.
other south, their speeds are the same but not However, at present we will consider only
their velocities since their directions of motion motion in a straight line and so the
are different. magnitude of the velocity will equal the
speed, and the magnitude
=
velocity distance moved in a given direction
Acceleration
time taken
= 2 3 4 5 6
speed in a given direction
Speed/m/s 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
of the acceleration will equal the change of speed
in unit time.
The speeds of a car accelerating on a straight
Key definition The speed increases by 5m/s every second
Velocity change in displacement per unit time and the acceleration of 5m/s2 is constant.
An acceleration is positive if the velocity
The velocity of a body is uniform or constant if increases, and negative if it decreases. A
it moves with a steady speed in a straight line. negative acceleration is also called a
It is not uniform if it moves in a curved path. deceleration or retardation.
Why?
The units of speed and velocity are the
same, km/h, m/s.
Test yourself
60km/h 60 000m
1 What is the average speed of
3600 s = = 17m/s a a car that travels 400m in 20s
b an athlete who runs 1500m in 4minutes? 2 A
Distance moved in a stated direction is called train increases its speed steadily from 10m/s to 20m/s
the displacement. Velocity may also be in 1minute.
defined as a What is its average speed during this time, in
m/s?
b How far does it travel while increasing its
velocity change in displacement
speed?
time taken =
3 a A motorcyclist starts from rest and reaches a
Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector speed of 6m/s after travelling with
constant acceleration for 3s. What is his
quantity. Displacement is a vector, unlike acceleration?
distance which is a scalar. b The motorcyclist then decelerates
at a constant rate for 2s. What is his
acceleration?
Acceleration 4 An aircraft travelling at 600km/h accelerates

When the velocity of an object changes, we acceleration change of velocity v

say the object accelerates. If a car starts
from rest and moving due north has velocity steadily at 10km/h per second. Taking the
2m/s after 1second, its velocity has Δ
increased by 2m/s in 1s and its acceleration t== Δ
time taken for change
is 2m/s per second due north. We write this
as 2m/s2. Key definition
Acceleration is defined as the change
of velocity in unit time, or speed of sound as 1100km/h at the aircraft’s
altitude, how long will it take to reach the ‘sound
road are shown below. barrier’?
Time/s 0 1

Acceleration change in velocity per unit time

13
1.2 Motion In Figure 1.2.2, AB is the speed–time
graph for an object moving with a constant
speed of 20m/s.
Speed–time graphs Values for the speed of the object at 1s
If the speed of an object is plotted against the intervals can be read from the graph and are
time, the graph obtained is a speed–time given in Table 1.2.1. The data shows that the
graph. It provides a way of solving motion speed is constant over the 5s time interval.
problems. ▼ Table 1.2.1
 Speed/m/ 20 20 20 20 20 20 s
s
Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5

You can use the data to plot the speed–time

30
graph. Join up the data points on the graph
paper with the best straight line to give the line
PQ shown in Figure 1.2.3a. (Details for how to
Values for the speed of the object at 1s plot a graph are given on pp. 297–8 in the
intervals can be read from the graph and are Mathematics for physics section.)
given in Table 1.2.2. The data shows that the Figure 1.2.3b shows the shape of a speed–time
speed increases by the same amount (4m/s) graph for an object accelerating from rest over
every second. time interval OA, travelling at a constant speed
▼ Table 1.2.2 over time interval AB and then decelerating
(when the speed
Speed/m/ 20 24 28 32 36 40

is decreasing) over the remains at rest over the

speed/m/s time interval BC. The time interval CD when its
20
steeper gradient in time speed and acceleration
interval BC than in time are zero.
10
interval OA shows that
C the deceleration is constant
O 12345 time/s greater than the
AB acceleration. The object
means that the gradient, speed
speed/m/s deceleratio
▲ Figure 1.2.2 Constant speed and hence the acceleration n
at rest
of the body, are constant
The linear shape (PQ) of
the speed–time graph
shown in Figure 1.2.3a acceleration
over the time period OS. O
1234 5
time/s
Q Figure 1.2.3c shows a speed–time graph for a
40
changing acceleration. The curved shape OX
OABCD
time/s
means that the gradient of the graph, and
hence the acceleration of the object, change
▲ Figure 1.2.3b Acceleration, constant speed and over time period OY – the acceleration is
deceleration
changing.
30
Values for the speed of the object at 1s
speed/m/s intervals are given in Table 1.2.3. The data
P
20 shows that the speed is increasing over time
R interval OY, but by a smaller amount each
second so the acceleration is
10

S
▲ Figure 1.2.3a Constant acceleration decreasing.

14

Speed/m/s 0 17.5 23.0 26.0 28.5 30.0

Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5
▼ Table 1.2.3
 general: The gradient of a distance–time graph
You can use the data to plot the speed–time represents the speed of the object.
graph. Join up the data points on the graph Values for the distance moved by the object
paper with a smooth curve as shown in Figure recorded at 1s intervals are given in Table 1.2.4.
1.2.3c. The data shows it moves 10m in every second
Note that an object at rest will have zero so the speed of the object is constant at 10m/s.
speed and zero acceleration; its speed–time ▼ Table 1.2.4
graph is a straight line along the horizontal
Distance/m 10 20 30 40
axis.
Distance–time graphs Time/s 1 2 3 4

LM/OM = 40m/4s = 10m/s, which is the value of

the speed. The following statement is true in
speed/m/s
X distance–time
30 20 You can use the data to plot the graph shown in Figure 1.2.4a.

40 distance/m
10 Y L
12345 time/s 30
O

a speed–time graph to
calculate acceleration
20
▲ Figure 1.2.3c Changing acceleration

10 M

Using the gradient of O

1 2 3 4 time/s

Figure
The gradient of a speed–time graph ▲ Figure 1.2.4a Constant speed
represents the acceleration of the object.
Figure 1.2.4b shows the shape of a
In Figure 1.2.2, the gradient of AB is zero,
distance–time graph for an object that is at rest
as is the acceleration. In Figure 1.2.3a, the
over time interval OA and then moves at a
gradient of PQ is QR/PR = 20/5 = 4: the
constant speed in time interval AB. It then stops
acceleration is constant at 4m/s2. In Figure moving and is at rest over time interval BC
1.2.3c, when the gradient along OX changes, before moving at a constant speed in time
so does the acceleration. interval CD.
An object is accelerating if the speed
increases with time and decelerating if the
speed decreases with time, as shown in constant

1.2.3b. In Figure 1.2.3c,

the speed is increasing
with time and the
Distance–time constant

graphs
speed
acceleration of the object
is decreasing. at rest
m speed
distance/ at rest
with constant speed OA
B
covers equal
time/s
distances in equal CD
times. Its
distance–time
An object travelling graph is
 gradient of the graph is
▲ Figure 1.2.4b Constant speed
a straight line, like OL in Figure 1.2.4a
for a constant speed of 10m/s. The

15
1.2 Motion but it increases steadily to 40m/s after 5 s. If
the distance covered equals the area under
PQ, i.e. the shaded area OPQS, then
The speed of the object is higher when the
gradient of the graph is steeper. The object is distance = area of rectangle OPRS + area of triangle
travelling faster in time interval AB than it is in 1
PQR = OP ⋅ OS + 2 ⋅ PR ⋅ QR
time interval CD; it is at rest in time intervals OA 1
and BC when the distance does not change. (area of a triangle = 2 base ⋅ height)
When the speed of the object is changing, 1
= 20m/s ⋅ 5 s + 2 ⋅ 5s ⋅ 20m/s
the gradient of the distance–time graph varies, = 100m + 50m = 150m
as in Figure 1.2.5, where the upward curve of
increasing gradient of the solid green line Note that when calculating the area from the
shows the object accelerating. The opposite, graph,
upward curve of decreasing gradient (indicated
by the dashed green line) shows an object
decelerating above T.

At the start of the timing the speed is 20m/s,

40 30 the same on both axes. true even if the
decelerating
The rule for finding acceleration is not
accelerating
the unit of time must be distances travelled is constant. In Figure
A
m
distance/ T 20
area OXY.
1.2.3c, the distance travelled equals the shaded
5
time/s Time/s 0
10
accelerating
Test yourself Speed/m/s 0
5 The speeds of a bus travelling on a
B straight road are given below at
C successive intervals of 1 second.
O
1234
▲ Figure 1.2.5 Non-constant speed 20m/s. Since distance = average speed ⋅ time,
after 5s it will have moved 20m/s ⋅ 5s = 100m.
This is the shaded area under the graph, i.e.
Speed at any point equals the gradient of the
rectangle OABC.
tangent. For example, the gradient of the
In Figure 1.2.3a, PQ is the speed–time
tangent at T is AB/BC = 40m/2s = 20m/s. The
graph for an object moving with constant
speed at the instant corresponding to T is
acceleration.
therefore 20m/s.

a Sketch a speed–time graph using the values.

b Choose two of the following terms which
Area under a speed–time describe the acceleration of the bus:
constant changing positive negative
graph
c Calculate the acceleration of the bus.
The area under a speed–time graph
measures the distance travelled. d Calculate the area under your graph.
In Figure 1.2.2, AB is the speed–time graph for e How far does the bus travel in 4s?
6 The distance of a walker from the start of her walk is
an object moving with a constant speed of
 given below at successive intervals of 1second. a
Sketch a distance–time graph of the following
values.
b How would you describe the speed at which she
Time/s 0 1 2 3 walks?
4 5 6 constant changing increasing
accelerating
Distance/m 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 c Calculate her average speed.

16
Equations for constant acceleration

Equations for constant Going further

acceleration Third equation
Problems involving bodies moving with From equation (1), v = u + at
constant acceleration in a straight line can
From equation (2),
often be solved quickly using some equations
of motion.
s a in a straight line and its speed
increases from u to v in time t, then
First equation
change of speed
t
s av u
If an object is moving with constant t = = −
acceleration t 2
uv 2
1
=+ 2
2 u at
u u at u at 2 =+

++ and so
= =+
time taken average speed
2
∴ at = v – u If s is the distance moved in time t, then
or since average speed = total distance/total
v = u + at (1) time = s/t,
Note that the initial speed u and the final 1 2
s = ut + 2at (3)
speed v refer to the start and the finish of the
Fourth equation
timing and do not necessarily mean the start
This is obtained by eliminating t from equations (1) and
and finish of the motion. (3). Squaring equation (1) we have
v2 = (u + at)2
Second equation ∴ v2 = u2 + 2uat + a2t2
The speed of an object moving with constant 1
= u2 + 2a(ut + 2at2)
acceleration in a straight line increases
1 2
steadily. Its average speed therefore equals But s = ut + 2at
half the sum of its initial and final speeds, ∴ v2 = u2 + 2as
that is, If we know any three of u, v, a, s and t, the others can
uv be found from the equations.
=+
 A sprint cyclist starts from rest and accelerates at 1m/s2
for 20 seconds. Find her final speed and the distance she
Worked example travelled.
uv Since u = 0 a = 1m/s2 t = 20 s Using v =
s
u + at, we have her maximum speed
t
v = 0 + 1m/s2 ⋅ 20s = 20m/s
or and distance travelled
+
2=+ (2)
uv uv
s =t s t()
2
()
(0 20)m/s 20s
2 +⋅
= = = 400

=+
2

2200m

Now put this into practice

1 An athlete accelerates from rest at a constant rate of
0.8m/s2 for 4s. Calculate the final speed of the athlete. 2 A
cyclist increases his speed from 10m/s to 20m/s in 5s.
Calculate his average speed over this time interval. 3
Calculate the distance moved by a car accelerating from rest
at a constant rate of 2m/s2 for 5s.

17
1.2 Motion

Falling bodies
In air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of
paper. In a vacuum they fall at the same rate, as
may be shown with the apparatus of Figure
1.2.6. The difference in air is due to air
pressure
resistance having a greater effect on light tubing
bodies than on heavy bodies. The air resistance to vacuum
to a light body is large when compared with the pump
screw clip
body’s weight. With a dense piece of metal, the
resistance is negligible at low speeds. ▲ Figure 1.2.6 A coin and a piece of paper fall at the same
There is a story, untrue we now think, that in rate in a vacuum.
the sixteenth century the Italian scientist Galileo
Galilei dropped a small iron ball and a large
cannonball ten times heavier from the top of the
Leaning Tower of Pisa (Figure 1.2.7). And we
are told that, to the surprise of onlookers who
expected the cannonball to arrive first, they
reached the ground almost simultaneously.

rubber
stopper

Perspex or
Pyrex tube

paper

1.5m
coin
 said to have experimented with falling objects

▲ Figure 1.2.7 The Leaning Tower of Pisa, where Galileo is

18
Acceleration of free fall

Practical work
 free-falling body therefore increases by about
10m/s every second. A ball shot straight
Motion of a falling object
upwards with a velocity of 30m/s decelerates by
Safety about 10m/s every second and reaches its
Place something soft on the floor to absorb the highest point after 3s.
Why would a stopwatch not be chosen to
impact of the masses.
l
3
Take care to keep feet well away from the measure the time of fall in this experiment?4
l
falling masses. How would you expect the times taken for the
100g and 200g masses to reach the ground to
Arrange your experimental apparatus as differ?
shown in Figure 1.2.8 and investigate the
motion of a 100g mass falling from a height of
2 V a.c.

about 2m.
A tickertape timer has a marker that vibrates
at 50 times a second and makes dots at 1/50s ticker
intervals on a paper tape being pulled timer

through it. Ignore the start of the tape where

the dots are too close.
Repeat the experiment with a 200g mass
and compare your results with those for the
100g mass. tickertape retort stand

1 The spacing between the dots on the

tickertape increases as the mass falls. What
does this tell you about the speed of the
falling mass?
2 The tape has 34 dots on it by the time the
mass falls through 2m. Estimate how long it
has taken the mass to fall through 2m.
100 g
mass
to floor

▲ Figure 1.2.8

Acceleration of free fall All Key definition

bodies falling freely under the force of gravity do Acceleration of free fall g for an object near to the
so with uniform acceleration if air resistance is surface of the Earth, this is approximately constant and is
negligible (i.e. the ‘steps’ on the tape chart from approximately 9.8m/s2
the practical work should all be equally spaced).
This acceleration, called the acceleration of In calculations using the equations of motion,
free fall, is denoted by the italic letter g. Its value g replaces a. It is given a positive sign for
varies slightly over the Earth but is constant in falling bodies (i.e. a = g = +9.8m/s2) and a
each place; on average it is about 9.8m/s2, or negative sign for rising bodies since they are
near enough 10m/s2. The velocity of a decelerating (i.e. a = −g = −9.8m/s2).

19
1.2 Motion
Measuring g
Using the arrangement in Figure 1.2.9, the time for a
steel ball-bearing to fall a known distance is measured
Going further by an electronic timer.
 a rubber ball from the top of a building. It will only take a
When the two-way switch is changed to the ‘down’
second to reach the ground from a height of 5m, so you
position, the electromagnet releases the ball and
will need fast reactions if you use a stopwatch for the
simultaneously the clock starts. At the end of its fall the
measurement. Watch out that you do not hit anybody
ball opens the ‘trap-door’ on the impact switch and the
below!
clock stops.
The result is found from the third equation of motion s = Distance–time graphs for a falling object
ut + 12 at2, where s is the distance fallen (in m), t is the For an object falling freely from rest in a uniform
time taken (in s), u = 0 (the ball starts from rest) and a = gravitational field without air resistance, there will be
g (inm/s2). constant acceleration g, so we have
1 2
Hence s = 2 gt
1 2 A graph of distance s against time t is shown in Figure
s = 2 gt 1.2.10a. The gradually increasing slope indicates the
or speed of the object increases steadily. A graph of s
g = 2s/t2 against t2 is shown in Figure 1.2.10b; it is a straight line
Air resistance is negligible for a dense object such as a through the origin since s∝t2 ( g being constant at one
steel ball-bearing falling a short distance. place).
electromagnet
80

A rough estimate for g can be made by timing the fall of

bearing
20
distance/m
60

ball 43210 time/s

40
distance against time for a body
falling freely from rest
EXT
COM
two-way switch CLOCK 80
electronic timer ▲ Figure 1.2.10a A graph of
OPERATING 60 40 20
adjustable
terminal
12 V a.c.
distance/m
magnet
0 4 8 12 16

hinge trap-door of (time)2/s2

impact switch
▲ Figure 1.2.10b A graph of distance against (time)2 for a
body falling freely from rest

▲ Figure 1.2.9

20
8 A stone falls from rest from the top of a high tower.
Ignore air resistance and take g = 9.8m/s2.
Calculate
a the speed of the stone after 2 seconds
Test yourself b how far the stone has fallen after 2 seconds. 9 At
7 An object falls from a hovering helicopter and hits a certain instant a ball has a horizontal velocity of
the ground at a speed of 30m/s. How long does it 12m/s and a vertical velocity of 5m/s.
take the object to reach the ground and how far Calculate the resultant velocity of the ball at that
does it fall? Sketch a speed–time graph for the instant.
object (ignore air resistance).
 of a cliff and takes 3s to reach the beach below, we can
calculate the height of the cliff by considering the vertical
motion only. We have u = 0 (since the ball has no vertical
Going further
velocity initially), a = g = +9.8m/s2 and t = 3s. The height s
of the cliff is given by
Projectiles
1 2
The photograph in Figure 1.2.11 was taken while a lamp s = ut + 2at
emitted regular flashes of light. One ball was dropped 1 2 2 2
from rest and the other, a projectile, was thrown = 0 ⋅ 3 s + 2(+9.8m/s )3 s
sideways at the same time. Their vertical accelerations = 44m
(due to gravity) are equal, showing that a projectile falls
Projectiles such as cricket balls and explosive shells
like a body which is dropped from rest. Its horizontal
are projected from near ground level and at an angle.
velocity does not affect its vertical motion.
The horizontal distance they travel, i.e. their range,
The horizontal and vertical motions of a body are depends on
independent and can be treated separately. • the speed of projection – the greater this is, the
greater the range, and
• the angle of projection – it can be shown that,
neglecting air resistance, the range is a maximum
when the angle is 45° (Figure 1.2.12).

45°

▲ Figure 1.2.12 The range is greatest for an angle of

projection of 45°.

▲ Figure 1.2.11 Comparing free fall and projectile motion

using multiflash photography
Acceleration of free fall

For example, if a ball is thrown horizontally from the top

 21
1.2 Motion graphs to solve problems

Air resistance: terminal Objects falling in liquids behave similarly

velocity to those falling in air.

When an object falls in a uniform gravitational

field, the air resistance (fluid friction) opposing
its motion increases as its speed rises, so
reducing its acceleration. Eventually, air
resistance acting upwards equals the weight
of the object acting downwards. The resultant
force on the object is then zero since the
gravitational force balances the frictional force.
The object falls at a constant velocity, called its
terminal velocity, whose value depends on
the size, shape and weight of the object.
A small dense object, such as a steel ball
bearing, has a high terminal velocity and falls a
considerable distance with a constant
acceleration of 9.8m/s2 before air resistance
equals its weight. A light object, like a
raindrop, or an object with a large surface ▲ Figure 1.2.13 Synchronised skydivers
area, such as a parachute, has a low terminal
velocity and only accelerates over a In the absence of air resistance, an object
comparatively short distance before air falls in a uniform gravitational field with a
resistance equals its weight. A skydiver constant acceleration as shown in the
(Figure 1.2.13) has a terminal velocity of more distance–time graph of Figure 1.2.10a.
than 50m/s (180 km/h) before the parachute is
opened.

✓ define and calculate acceleration and use

Revision checklist the fact that deceleration is a negative
After studying Topic 1.2 you should know and acceleration in calculations
understand the following:
✓ state that the acceleration of free fall, g, for an
✓ that a negative acceleration is a deceleration object near to the Earth is constant and use the
or retardation. given value of 9.8m/s2

After studying Topic 1.2 you should be able to: ✓ ✓ describe the motion of objects falling in a
define speed and velocity, and calculate average uniform gravitational field.
speed from total distance/total time; sketch, plot,
interpret and use speed–time and distance–time
 22
Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions
2 If a train travelling at 10m/s starts to
1 The speeds of a car travelling on a straight 4 The graph in Figure 1.2.15 represents the
road are given below at successive distance travelled by a car plotted against
intervals of 1 second. time. a State how far the car has travelled at
Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 the
end of 5 seconds. [1] b Calculate the
Speed/m/s 0 2 4 6 8
speed of the car during the first 5 seconds.
[1] c State what has happened to the car
after A.[2] d Draw a graph showing the speed
Calculate of the car plotted against time during the first
a the average speed of the car in m/s [2] b 5 seconds. [3] [Total: 7]
the distance the car travels in 4 s [3] c the
constant acceleration of the car. [2] [Total: 120
7]
2
accelerate at 1m/s for calculate its final speed
distance/m
15s on a straight track, in m/s. 100 80
A
[Total: 4] 40
20
3 The distance–time graph for a girl on a cycle
0123456
ride is shown in Figure 1.2.14. time/s
a Calculate
▲ Figure 1.2.15
i how far the girl travelled [1] ii how long
the ride took [1] iii the girl’s average speed
in km/h [1] iv the number of stops the girl 5 Figure 1.2.16 shows an incomplete
made [1] v the total time the girl stopped speed–time graph for a boy running a
[1] vi the average speed of the girl distance of 100m. a Calculate his
excluding acceleration during the first
stops. [2] b Explain how you can tell from the 4 seconds. [2] b Calculate how far the
shape of the graph when the girl travelled boy travels during i the first 4 seconds [2] ii
fastest. Over which stage did this happen? the next 9 seconds? [2] c Copy and
[2] [Total: 9] complete the graph, showing clearly at
what time he has covered the distance of
F 100m. Assume his speed
60
remains constant at the value shown by
50 the horizontal portion of the graph. [4]
E
60
40 30 20 10 0
distance/km BC A
D
 20
[Total: 10]
speed/m/s
7.5
5.0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.5 20 22
time of
1pm day
time/s
2pm 3pm 4pm 5pm 6pm
▲ Figure 1.2.14 ▲ Figure 1.2.16

23
1.2 Motion a high building. Ignore air resistance and
take g = 9.8m/s2.
a Calculate the speed of the ball after
6 The approximate speed–time graph for a i 1s [2] ii 3s. [2] b Calculate how far it has
car on a 5-hour journey is shown in Figure fallen after
1.2.17. (There is a very quick driver i 1s [2] ii 3 s. [2] [Total: 8]
change midway to prevent driving fatigue!)
a State in which of the regions OA, AB, 9 Figure 1.2.19 shows the forces acting
BC, CD, DE the car is on a raindrop which is falling to the
i accelerating ground.
ii decelerating
B
iii travelling with constant speed. [3] b
Calculate the value of the acceleration, raindrop
deceleration or constant speed in each
region. [3] c Calculate the distance A
travelled over each region. [3] d Calculate
▲ Figure 1.2.19
the total distance travelled. [1] e Calculate
the average speed for the whole journey.
[1] f State what times the car is at rest. [1]
[Total: 12]

8 A ball is dropped from rest from the top of

D raindrop to fall. cause of this
Give the name of force. [1] b What
this force. [1] ii B happens to the
speed/km/h
100 80 is the total force drop when
60
opposing the
O E motion
40
C a i A is the force of the drop. State
20 AB which causes the one possible
0 12345 the motorbike moves in 30seconds. [1] c
time/hours Calculate the speed. [2] [Total: 5]
▲ Figure 1.2.17

600
7 The distance–time graph for a motorcyclist
500
riding off from rest is shown in Figure 1.2.18.
force A = force B? [2] [Total: 4]
a Describe the motion. [2] b Calculate how far
 time/s
400
300
200
100

0 10 20 30

distance/m

▲ Figure 1.2.18

24

1.3 Mass and weight

FOCUS POINTS
★ Define mass and weight and know that weights (and therefore masses) may be compared using a balance
or force meter.
★ Define gravitational field strength and know that this is equivalent to the acceleration of free fall.

★ Understand that weight is the effect of a gravitational field on mass.

★ Describe, and use the concept of, weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.

Images of astronauts walking on the surface of the Moon show them walking with bouncing steps.
The force of gravity is less on the Moon than it is on the Earth and this accounts for their different
movements. In the previous topics you have encountered measurements of space and time, and the
rates of change that define speed and acceleration. You will now encounter a further fundamental
property, the mass of an object. Mass measures the quantity of matter in a body. In the presence of
gravity, mass acquires weight in proportion to its mass and the strength of the gravitational force.
Although the mass of an object on the Moon is the same as it is on the Earth, its weight is less on the
Moon because the force of gravity there is less.

1g=1
Mass kg = 10−3 kg = 0.001 kg
The mass of an object is the measure of the 1000
The term weight is often used when mass is
amount of matter in it. It can be stated that
really meant. In science the two ideas are
mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in
distinct and have different units. The
an object at rest relative to an observer.
confusion is not helped by the fact that mass
The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
is found on a balance by a process we
and until 2019 was the mass of a piece of
unfortunately call ‘weighing’!
platinum– iridium alloy at the Office of Weights
and Measures in Paris. It is now based on a Key definitions
fundamental physical constant which can be
Mass a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at
measured with great precision. The gram (g) is rest relative to an observer
one-thousandth of a kilogram. Weight a gravitational force on an object that has mass
 ▲ Figure 1.3.1 A digital top-pan balance
There are several kinds of balance used to
measure mass. In the beam balance the Weight
unknown mass in
We all constantly experience the force of
one pan is balanced against known masses in
gravity, in other words, the pull of the Earth. It
the other pan. In the lever balance a system of
causes an unsupported body to fall from rest
levers acts against the mass when it is placed
to the ground.
in the pan. A direct reading is obtained from
Weight is a gravitational force on an object
the position on a scale of a pointer joined to
that has mass.
the lever system. A digital top-pan balance is
shown in Figure 1.3.1.

25
1.3 Mass and weight gravity stretch the spring in the balance. The
greater the pull, the more the spring stretches.
For an object above or on the Earth’s surface,
the nearer it is to the centre of the Earth, the
more the Earth attracts it. Since the Earth is not 0

a perfect sphere but is flatter at the poles, the

weight of a body varies over the Earth’s surface.
It is greater at the poles than at the equator. the same wherever it is and, unlike weight, does
Gravity is a force that can act through space, not depend on the presence of the Earth.
that is there does not need to be contact
between the Earth and the object on which it
acts as there does when we push or pull
Test yourself
something. Other action-at a-distance forces 1 An object of mass 1kg has weight of 10N at a
certain place. What is the weight of
which, like gravity, decrease with distance are
a 100g
(i) magnetic forces between magnets and (ii) b 5kg
electric forces between electric charges. When c 50g?
a mass experiences a gravitational force we say 2 The force of gravity on the Moon is said to be one
it is in a gravitational field. Weight is the result sixth of that on the Earth. What would a mass of
12kg weigh
of a gravitational field acting on a mass: weight
a on the Earth
is a vector quantity and is measured in newtons b on the Moon?
(N).

The newton Weight and gravity

The unit of force is the newton. It will be defined The weight W of an object is the force of gravity
later (Topic 1.5); the definition is based on the acting on it which gives it an acceleration g
change of speed a force can produce in a body. when it is falling freely near the Earth’s
Weight is a force and therefore should be surface. If the object has mass m, then W can
measured in newtons. be calculated from F = ma (Newton’s second
The weight of an object can be measured by law, see p. 39). We put F = W and a = g to give
hanging it on a spring balance marked in
newtons (Figure 1.3.2) and letting the pull of W = mg
Taking g = 9.8m/s2 and m = 1kg, this gives W
= 9.8N, that is an object of mass 1kg has weight Gravitational field
9.8N, or near enough 10N. Similarly, an object of The force of gravity acts through space and can
mass 2 kg has weight of about 20N, and so on.
1
2
3
4
ground. It is an invisible, magnetic and electric fields
action-at a-distance force. We will be considered.
5
6
7
8
9
10 try to explain its existence by The gravitational field
1 newton
saying that the Earth is strength is defined as the
surrounded by a gravitational force acting per unit mass.
spring balance field which exerts a force on Rearranging the equation W =
cause an object, not in contact any object in the field. Later, W
with the Earth, to fall to the mg gives g = m.
▲ Figure 1.3.2 The weight of an average-sized apple is object is
about 1 newton.
Key definition
On most of the Earth’s surface: Gravitational field strength force per unit mass
The weight of an object of mass 1 kg is 9.8N.
Often this is taken as 10N. A mass of 2kg has a Gravitational field strength is a vector and
weight of 20N, and so on. The mass of an has both magnitude and direction.

26
weights (and masses) may be compared using a
balance.
Gravitational field
Measurement shows that on the Earth’s
surface a mass of 1kg experiences a force of
9.8N, i.e. its weight is 9.8N. The strength of While the mass of an object is always the
the Earth’s field is therefore 9.8N/kg (near same, its weight varies depending on the value
enough 10N/kg). It is denoted by g, the letter of g. On the Moon gravitational field strength is
also used to denote the acceleration of free only about 1.6N/kg, and so a mass of 1 kg has
fall. Hence a weight of just 1.6N there.
g = 9.8N/kg = 9.8m/s2
We now have two ways of regarding g. When
considering objects falling freely, we can think of Test yourself
it as an acceleration of 9.8m/s2. When an object 3 An astronaut has a mass of 80kg.
of known mass is at rest and we wish to know a Calculate the weight of the astronaut on the
the force of gravity (in N) acting on it, we think Moon where the gravitational field strength is
of g as the Earth’s gravitational field strength of 1.6N/kg.
b On the journey back to Earth, the astronaut
9.8N/kg. The gravitational field strength is
reaches a point X where the gravitational field
equivalent to the acceleration of free fall. strengths due to the Earth and the Moon are
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
The weight of an object is directly State
proportional to its mass, which explains why i the resultant value of the gravitational field
strength at X
g is the same for all objects. The greater the
ii the weight of the astronaut at X.
mass of an object, the greater is the force of
gravity on it but it does not accelerate faster
when falling because of its greater inertia (i.e.
its greater resistance to acceleration).

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 1.3 you should know and
After studying Topic 1.3 you should be able to: ✓
understand the following:
state the units of mass and weight and recall that the
✓ what is meant by the mass of a body
✓ the difference between mass and weight and that weight of an object is the force of gravity on it ✓
 W D W = force ⋅ g [1] c Which of the following
recall and use the equation g m =
properties is the same for an object on the
✓ describe and use the concept of weight as the Earth and on the Moon? A weight
effect of a gravitational field on a mass. B mass
C acceleration of free fall
D gravitational field strength [1] d State the
SI units of
i weight
ii acceleration of free fall
iii gravitational field strength. [3] [Total: 9]

2 a Define gravitational field strength. [2] b On

the Earth the acceleration of free fall is about
9.8m/s2. On Mars the acceleration of free fall
is about 3.7m/s2.
The weight of the Mars Rover Opportunity
27
1.3 Mass and weight
on the Earth was 1850N.
i Calculate the mass of the Rover. [2] ii
Calculate the weight of the Rover
Exam-style questions on Mars. [2] [Total: 6]
3 a Explain what is meant by a gravitational
1 a i Explain what is meant by the mass of an field. [2]
object.
ii Explain what is meant by the weight b State the effect of a gravitational field on
of an object. a mass. [1]
iii Describe how weights may be
compared. [4] b State which of the c Define gravitational field strength. [2] d The
following definitions for weight W is correct. gravitational field strength on Venus is
A W = g/mass 8.8N/kg. The mass of a rock is 200kg.
B W = mass/g Calculate the weight of the rock on Venus. [2]
C W = mass ⋅ g [Total: 7]
 28

1.4 Density
FOCUS POINTS
★ Define density and calculate the density of a liquid and both regular- and irregular-shaped solid objects. ★
Use density data to determine whether an object will float or sink.
★ Use density data to determine whether one liquid will float on another liquid.

A pebble thrown into a pond will sink to the bottom of the pond, but a wooden object will float. Objects
of the same shape and size but made from different materials have different masses. In this topic you
will see how you can quantify such differences with the idea of density. Density specifies the amount of
mass in a unit volume. To measure the density of a material you will need to know both its mass and
its volume. The mass can be found using a balance, and the volume by measurement. If the density of
an object is greater than that of a liquid it will sink, but if the density of the object is less than that of the
liquid it will float.

In everyday language, lead is said to be heavier

density = mass
than wood. By this it is meant that a certain volume
volume of lead is heavier than the same volume
of wood. In science such comparisons are made For a mass m of volume V, the density ρ = m/V.
by using the term density. This is the mass per
unit volume of a substance and is calculated Key definition
from Density mass per unit volume
 gold 19.3 mercury 13.6
The density of lead is 11 grams per cubic
centimetre (11g/cm3) and this means that a glass 2.5 Gases Density/kg/m
3
piece of lead of volume 1cm3 has mass 11 g. A
volume of 5cm3 of lead would have mass 55g. If wood 0.80 air 1.3
the density of a substance is known, the mass (teak)
of any volume of it can be calculated. This ice 0.92 hydrogen 0.09
enables engineers to work out the weight of a
structure if they know from the plans the polythene 0.90 carbon 2.0
volumes of the materials to be used and their dioxide
densities. Strong enough foundations can then
be made.
The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic
metre. To convert a density from g/cm3, Calculations
normally the most suitable unit for the size of Using the symbols ρ (rho) for density, m for
sample we use, to kg/m3, we multiply by 103. mass and V for volume, the expression for
For example, the density of water is 1.0g/cm3 m
density is ρ = V
or 1.0 ⋅ 103 kg/m3. Rearranging the expression gives
The approximate densities of some
common substances are given in Table
1.4.1. m V = ⋅ and V = m
ρ
▼ Table 1.4.1 Densities of some common substances ρ
Solids Density/g/c Liquids Density/g/cm These are useful if ρ is known and m or V have
m3 3
to be calculated. If you do not see how they are
aluminium 2.7 paraffin 0.80 obtained refer to the Mathematics for physics
section on p. 295.
copper 8.9 petrol 0.80

iron 7.9 pure water 1.0

29
1.4 Density
V m 63g

The triangle in Figure 1.4.1 is an aid to 9 g/cm 7 cm 33

∴===
remembering them. If you cover the quantity you ρ
want to know with a finger, such as m, it equals
what you can still see, i.e. ρ ⋅ V. To find V, cover Now put this into practice
V and you get V = m/ρ. 1 A sheet of aluminium has a mass of 200g and a volume
of 73cm3. Calculate the density of aluminium.
2 Taking the density of lead as 11g/cm3, find
m a the mass of 4cm3
b the volume of 55g.

ρ V
Simple density
▲ Figure 1.4.1 measurements
If the mass m and volume V of a substance
Worked example are known, its density can be found from ρ
= m/V.
Taking the density of copper as 9g/cm3, find a the mass of
5cm3 and b the volume of 63g. Regularly shaped solid
a ρ = 9g/cm3, V = 5cm3 and m is to be found. The mass is found on a balance and the
m = V ⋅ ρ = 5cm3 ⋅ 9 g/cm3 = 45 g volume by measuring its dimensions with a
b ρ = 9 g/cm3, m = 63 g and V is to be found. ruler.
Irregularly shaped solid: volume by
displacement
Use one of these methods to find the volume ▲ Figure 1.4.2a Measuring the volume of an irregular solid:
of a pebble or glass stopper, for example. method 1
The mass of the solid is found on a balance.
Its volume is water
measured by one of the displacement methods
shown in Figure 1.4.2. In Figure 1.4.2a the
volume is the difference between the first and displacement can
second readings. In Figure 1.4.2b it is the (filled to over
volume of water collected in the measuring flowing before
solid inserted)
cylinder.

measuring cylinder

solid

measuring cylinder

water

2nd reading

1st reading
▲ Figure 1.4.2b Measuring the volume of an irregular solid:
method 2

water

solid

30
Floating and sinking with water and pouring it into a measuring
cylinder.

Liquid
Floating and sinking
An object sinks in a liquid of lower density than its
own; otherwise it floats, partly or wholly
Test yourself submerged. For example, a piece of glass of
The mass of an empty beaker is found on a density 2.5 g/cm3 sinks in water (density 1.0
balance. A known volume of the liquid is g/cm3) but floats in mercury (density 13.6 g/cm3).
transferred from a burette or a measuring An iron nail sinks in water but an iron ship floats
cylinder into the beaker. The mass of the beaker because its average density is less than that of
plus liquid is found and the mass of liquid is water, due to the low density air enclosed in the
obtained by subtraction. hull.

Air A liquid of low density will float on a liquid of

higher density if the two liquids do not mix.
Using a balance, the mass of a 500 cm3 round
bottomed flask full of air is found and again 1 a Calculate the density of a substance of i
after removing the air with a vacuum pump; the mass 100g and volume 10cm3
difference gives the mass of air in the flask. ii volume 3m3 and mass 9kg.
The volume of air is found by filling the flask b The density of gold is 19g/cm3. Find the
 volume of
i 38g After studying Topic 1.4 you should know and
ii 95g of gold. understand the following:
2 A rectangular steel bar is 4cm long, 3cm wide and ✓ how density is defined and how to perform
1cm thick. When weighed it is found to have a calculations using ρ = m/V.
mass of 96g. Calculate its density in
a g/cm3 After studying Topic 1.4 you should be able to: ✓
b kg/m3.
describe methods to measure the density of a
liquid and a regularly shaped solid
3 The water in a measuring cylinder is at the 50cm3
level. A pebble is dropped into the water and the ✓ describe the method of displacement to measure
water level rises to 60cm3. The pebble is the density of an irregularly shaped solid ✓ predict
completely covered by water. whether an object will float, based on density data
Calculate
a the volume of the pebble ✓ predict whether one liquid will float on another if
b the density of the pebble, if it weighs 60g. they do not mix.

4 Liquid A has a density of 0.8g/cm3 and water has a

density of 1.0g/cm3. If the two liquids do not mix,
which liquid will float on top of the other?

Revision checklist

31
1.4 Density the liquid. [4] c Explain why ice floats on
water. [1]

Exam-style questions d Explain why oil floats on water. [1] [Total:

1 a Choose which of the following definitions 10]

for density is correct.
A mass/volume
B mass ⋅ volume
C volume/mass
D weight/area [1] b Calculate
i the mass of 5m3 of cement of density
3 a A block of wood has dimensions
3000kg/m3 [3] ii the mass of air in a room
of 10 cm ⋅ 8 cm ⋅ 20 cm.
measuring 10m ⋅ 5.0m ⋅ 2.0m if the density
i Calculate the volume of the block in
of
cubic metres. [2] ii The block is placed on
air is 1.3 kg/m3. [3] [Total: 7] a balance and found to weigh 1.2 kg.
2 a Describe how you could determine the Calculate the
density of a liquid. [4] b An empty beaker is density of the block in kg/m3. [3] b
weighed and found to have a mass of 130g. A When a golf ball is lowered into a
measuring cylinder contains 50 cm3 of an measuring cylinder of water, the water
unknown liquid. level rises by 30cm3 when the ball is
All the liquid is poured into the beaker completely submerged. If the ball weighs
which is again weighed and found to have 33 g in air, calculate its density in kg/m3.
a mass of 170 g. Calculate the density of [3] [Total: 8]
32

1.5 Forces
1.5.1 Effects of forces
FOCUS POINTS
★ Understand that the size and shape of objects can be altered by forces.
★ Become familiar with load–extension graphs for an elastic solid and describe an experiment to show how a
spring behaves when it is stretched.
★ Understand that when several forces act simultaneously on an object that a resultant can be determined. ★
Know that, unless acted upon by a resultant force, an object will remain at rest or will continue moving with a
constant speed in a straight line.
★ Understand that solid friction acts to slow an object and produce heat.
★ Explain the terms ‘drag’ and ‘air resistance’ in terms of friction acting on objects.

★ Define the spring constant and the limit of proportionality on a load–extension graph. ★
Apply the equation F = ma to calculate force and acceleration.
★ Describe motion in a circular path and understand the effect on force if speed, radius or mass change.
 A gravitational force causes a freely falling object to accelerate and keeps a satellite moving in a
circular path. Clearly a force can change the speed or direction of travel of an object. A force can also
change the shape or size of an object. If you stand on an empty paper carton it will change its shape
and if you pull on a spiral spring it will stretch. Several forces may act on an object at once and it is
useful to calculate a resultant force to predict their combined effect; both the size and direction of the
forces are needed for this. Friction between a moving object and its surroundings is also important as
it acts to reduce the speed of the object and produce heat. You have already learnt how to quantify
some of these changes and in this topic you will encounter more ways to do so.

Force
A force is a push or a pull. It can cause an A force can also change a body’s shape or
object at rest to move, or if the body is size. For example, a spring (or wire) will
already moving it can change its speed or stretch when loaded with a weight.
direction of motion.

▲ Figure 1.5.1 A weightlifter in action exerts first a pull and then a push.

increasing
33
1.5 Forces

Practical work

Stretching a spring
For safe experiments/demonstrations related force readings along the y-axis (vertical axis) in
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge a load–extension graph. Every pair of readings
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that will give a point; mark them by small crosses
is also part of this series. and draw a smooth line through them.
Safety
Eye protection must be worn (in case the steel

spring snaps).
l
spring

Arrange a steel spring as in Figure 1.5.2.

Read the scale opposite the bottom of the
hanger. Add 100g loads one at a time (thereby
the stretching force take readings from
10

by steps of 1N) and the scale after each hanger mm

one. Enter the 20 30

readings in a table for loads up to 500g. quantity or its symbol followed by / and the
Note that at the head of columns (or rows) in unit.
data tables it is usual to give the name of the Stretching Scale Total
 force/N reading/mm extension/mm stretched beyond its limit of proportionality, E.
OE is a
scale 90

Sometimes it is easier to discover laws by ▲ Figure 1.5.2

1 What is the shape of the graph you plotted? 2

displaying the results on a graph. Do this on Do the results suggest any rule about how the
graph paper by plotting total extension
readings along the x-axis (horizontal axis) and 3 Whatbehaves
spring when it is stretched?
precautions could you take to improve
stretching the accuracy of the results of this experiment?
4 How could you test if the extension of the
Extension in springs spring is proportional to the stretching force?
Springs were investigated by Robert Hooke just
over 350 years ago. He found that the straight line passing through the origin O and is
extension was proportional to the stretching graphical proof that the extension is
force provided the spring was not permanently proportional to the stretching force over this
stretched. This means that doubling the force range. If the force for point A on the graph is
doubles the extension, trebling the force trebles applied to the spring, the proportionality limit is
the extension, and so on. Using the sign for passed and on removing the force some of the
proportionality, ∝, we can write extension ∝ extension (OS) remains.
stretching force
It is true only if the limit of proportionality A
of the spring is not exceeded. E

stretching force/N
Key definition
Limit of proportionality the point at which the load OS
total extension/mm
extension graph becomes non-linear
▲ Figure 1.5.3
The graph of Figure 1.5.3 is for a spring
34
1.5.1 Effects of forces
Key definition
Spring constant force per unit extension

Test yourself
Proportionality also holds when a force is
applied to an elastic solid such as a straight
metal wire, provided it is not permanently
Now put this into practice stretched.
Load–extension graphs similar to Figure
1 In Figure 1.5.3, over which part of the
1.5.3 are obtained. You should label each
graph does a spring balance work? axis of your graph with the name of the
quantity or its symbol followed by / and the
unit, as shown in Figure 1.5.3.
Spring constant The limit of proportionality can be defined
The spring constant, k, is defined as as the point at which the load–extension
graph becomes non-linear because the
force per unit extension. It is the force
extension is no longer proportional to the
which must be applied to a spring to
stretching force.
cause an extension of 1m. If a force F
produces extension x then
F Worked example
k= x
A spring is stretched 10mm (0.01m) by a weight of
Rearranging the equation gives 2.0N. Calculate
F = kx a the spring constant k
 b the weight W of an object that causes an extension Force has both magnitude (size) and
of 80mm (0.08m).
direction. It is represented in diagrams by a
a = = = 2.0 N straight line with an arrow to show its
F direction of action.
k 200 N/m x
0.01m Usually more than one force acts on an
object. As a simple example, an object
b W = stretching force F
=k⋅x resting on a table is pulled downwards by its
= 200N/m ⋅ 0.08m weight W and pushed upwards by a force R
= 16N due to the table supporting it (Figure 1.5.4).
1 Calculate the spring constant of a spring which is Since the object is at rest, the forces must
stretched 2mm by a force of 4N.
balance, i.e. R = W.
2 A 2N weight is applied to a spring which has a spring
constant of 250N/m. Calculate the extension of the R
spring in mm.

Test yourself
2 State two effects which a force may have on
an object.
3 Make a sketch of a load–extension graph for a
spring and indicate the region over which the
extension is proportional to the stretching force.
W
4 Calculate the spring constant of a spring which
is stretched 4cm by a mass of 200g. ▲ Figure 1.5.4
5 Define the limit of proportionality for a In structures such as a giant oil platform
stretched spring.
(Figure 1.5.5), two or more forces may act
at the same point. It is then often useful for
the design
Forces and resultants
35
1.5 Forces

engineer to know the value of the single force,

i.e. the resultant force, which has exactly the
same effect as these forces, If the forces act in
the same straight line, the resultant is found by
simple addition or subtraction as shown in
Figure 1.5.6; if they do not they are added by
using the parallelogram law.
3N

1N 2N

1N

2N 3N

▲ Figure 1.5.5 The design of an offshore oil platform

requires an understanding of the combination of many Parallelogram law
forces.
Safety
Practical work l Take care when using the mass in case it drops.
Arrange the apparatus as in Figure 1.5.7a
with a sheet of paper behind it on a vertical
board. We have to find the resultant of the diagonal OC; if it is equal in size (i.e.
forces P and Q. 9.8cm) and opposite in direction to W then it
▲ Figure 1.5.6 The resultant of forces acting in the same
straight line is found by addition or subtraction.
represents the resultant of P and Q.
C

Complete the parallelogram OACB. Measure

Read the values of P and Q from the spring
A

balances. Mark on the paper the directions of P,

P

Q and W as shown by the strings. Remove the

O

paper and, using a scaleact at O, as in Figure

of 1cm to represent 1N, 1.5.7b. (W = weight of
Use the scale 1cm 1N 9.8cm

draw OA, OB and OD to the 1kg mass = 9.8N;

represent the three
WD

forces P, Q and W which

therefore OD = 9.8cm.) law The parallelogram law for adding two forces
spring balance
is:
(0–10N)
If two forces acting at a point are represented
string
in size and direction by the sides of a
PQ
O parallelogram drawn from the point, their
W resultant is represented in size and direction
1kg by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn
from the point.
List the equipment you would need for
▲ Figure 1.5.7a

P and Q together are balanced by W and so 5

this experiment.
their resultant must be a force equal and 6 What quantity would you vary to test the
opposite to W. law under different conditions?
▲ Figure 1.5.7b Finding a resultant by the parallelogram

36
1.5.1 Effects of forces

Test yourself
6 Jo, Daniel and Helen are pulling a metal
ring.
Jo pulls with a force of 100N in one
direction
and Daniel with a force of 140N in the
opposite
direction. If the ring does not move, what
force does
Helen exert if she pulls in the same
direction as Jo?
7 A boy drags a suitcase along the ground with a
force of 100N. If the frictional force opposing the
motion of the suitcase is 50N, what is the resultant
forward force on the suitcase?
8 A picture is supported by two vertical strings.
If the weight of the picture is 50N, what is the
force exerted by each string?
 by changing its direction of motion or its speed
9 Using a scale of 1cm to represent 10N, find the ▲ Figure 1.5.8 Friction is much reduced for a hover scooter.
size and direction of the resultant of forces of
30N and 40N acting at right angles to each
other. Going further
Mass and inertia
Newton’s first law Newton’s first law is another way of saying that all
matter has a built-in opposition to being moved if it is
Friction and air resistance cause a car to come at rest or, if it is moving, to having its motion changed.
to rest when the engine is switched off. If these This property of matter is called inertia (from the Latin
word for laziness).
forces were absent, we believe that an object,
once set in motion, would go on moving forever Its effect is evident on the occupants of a car that
with a constant speed in a straight line. That is, stops suddenly: they lurch forwards in an attempt to
continue moving, and this is why seat belts are needed.
force is not needed to keep a body moving with The reluctance of a stationary object to move can be
uniform velocity provided that no opposing shown by placing a large coin on a piece of card on
forces act on it. your finger (Figure 1.5.9). If the card is flicked sharply
This idea was proposed by Galileo and is the coin stays where it is while the card flies off.
summed up in Isaac Newton’s first law of coin
motion:
An object stays at rest, or continues to move in a
straight line at constant speed, unless acted on by a
resultant force. card

It seems that the question we should ask about

a moving body is not what keeps it moving but
what changes or stops its motion.
The smaller the external forces opposing a
moving body, the smaller is the force needed to
keep it moving with constant velocity. A hover
scooter, which is supported by a cushion of air
(Figure 1.5.8), can skim across the ground with ▲ Figure 1.5.9 Flick the card sharply
little frictional opposition, so that relatively little The larger the mass of a body, the greater is its
power is needed to maintain motion. inertia, i.e. the more difficult it is to move it when at
A resultant force may change the velocity of rest and to stop it when in motion. Because of this we
an object by changing its direction of motion or consider that
speed. the mass of a body measures its inertia. This is a better
definition of mass than the one given earlier (Topic 1.3)
in which it was stated to be the amount of matter in a
Key definitions body.
Resultant force may change the velocity of an object

the trolley from falling onto the floor.

37
1.5 Forces

The apparatus consists of a trolley to which a

force is applied by a stretched length of elastic
Practical work (Figure 1.5.10). The velocity of the trolley is
found from a tickertape timer or a motion
Effect of force and mass on acceleration sensor, datalogger and computer.
For safe experiments/demonstrations related First compensate the runway for friction: raise
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge one end until the trolley runs down with
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that is constant velocity when given a push. The dots
also part of this series. on the tickertape should be equally spaced, or
a horizontal trace obtained on a speed–time
Safety
Take care when rolling the trolley down the graph. There is now no resultant force on the
l
ramp. Ensure it is clear at the bottom of trolley and any acceleration produced later will
the ramp and use a side barrier to prevent be due only to the force caused by the
stretched elastic.
 (Topic 1.2).
Put the results in a table.
Force (F)/(no. of pieces of elastic) 1 2 3

Acceleration (a)/cm/ten-tick2 or m/s2

Repeat using first two and then three
identical pieces of elastic, stretched side by
side by the same amount, to give two and
three units of force. (b) Mass and acceleration (force constant)
If you are using tickertape, make a tape chart piecesDo the experiment as in part (a) using two
of elastic (i.e. constant F) to
for each force and use it 2to find the acceleration accelerate
produced in cm/ten-tick . Ignore the start of the (stacked onefirstaboveone trolley, then two
the other) and finally
tape (where the dots are too close) and the end three. Check the friction
(where the force may not be steady). If you use the runway each time. compensation of
a motion sensor and computer to plot a Find the accelerations from the tape charts or
speed–time graph, the acceleration can be
obtained in m/s from the slope of the graph
2
computer plots and tabulate the suggest any relationship
tickertape timer
results. between acceleration a and
(or motion sensor)
Mass (m)/(no. oforce F?
9 Do your results for part (b)
Acceleration (a)suggest any

7 For part (a), does a steady

force cause a steady
▲ Figure 1.5.10 acceleration?
8 Do your results in part (a)
trolley stretched elastic

(a) Force and acceleration (mass constant) Fix steady accelerating force.
one end of a short length of elastic to the rod at 10 relationship between a and m?
Name the two independent variable
the back of the trolley and stretch it until the
other end is level with the front of the trolley. 11 How could inyouexperiments
quantities (a) and (b).
use the results to verify
Practise pulling the trolley down the runway, the equation ma?
keeping the same stretch on the elastic. After a F =
few trials you should be able to produce a

38
1.5.1 Effects of forces
the acceleration a is
i directly proportional to the applied force F for
a fixed mass, i.e. a ∝ F, and
Newton’s second law ii inversely proportional to the mass m for
The previous experiment should show roughly a fixed force, i.e. a ∝ 1/m.
that Combining the results into one equation, we
F
get a m ∝
or
Worked example F ∝ ma
Therefore
 A block of mass 2kg has a constant velocity when it is a When the push is increased to 9N the resultant
pushed along a table by a force of 5N. When the push is (unbalanced) force F on the block is (9 − 5)N = 4N
increased to 9N what is (since the frictional force is still 5N).
a the resultant force b The acceleration a is obtained from F = ma where F
b the acceleration? = 4N and m = 2kg.
When the block moves with constant velocity the forces 22
====
acting on it are balanced. The force of friction opposing its
motion must therefore be 5N.
F = kma F
a m4 N 2 kg 2 kg2 m/s
4 kg m/s
squared, otherwise k is not 1.
where k is the constant of proportionality.
One newton is defined as the force which Now put this into practice
1 A box of mass 5kg has a constant velocity when it is
gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration of 1m/s2, pushed along a table by a force of 8N. When the push
i.e. 1N = 1kgm/s2, so if m = 1kg and a = is increased to 10N calculate
1m/s2, then F = 1N. a the resultant force
b the acceleration.
Substituting in F = kma, we get k = 1 and 2 A force F produces a constant acceleration in a
so we can write straight line of 0.5m/s2 on a block of mass 7kg.
Calculate the value of F.
F = ma
This is Newton’s second law of motion.
When using it, two points should be noted.
First, F is the resultant (or unbalanced) force Test yourself
causing the acceleration a in the same 10 Which one of the diagrams in Figure 1.5.11 shows
direction as F. Second, F must be in newtons, the arrangement of forces that gives the block of
mass M the greatest acceleration?
m in kilograms and a in metres per second
The law shows that a will be decelerates. 20 N 40 N M

largest when F is large and m The force and the acceleration

small. are in the same direction. If ▲ Figure 1.5.11
You should now appreciate the forces balance, there is no B
2N4NM
that when the forces acting on A 10 N 12 N M D
a body do not balance there is
20 N 30 N M
a net (resultant) force which
causes a change of motion,
i.e. the body accelerates or C
external forces.
11 In Figure 1.5.12 if P is a force of 20N and the object
moves with constant velocity, what is the value of
change in the motion of the body. However, the opposing force F?
there may be a change of shape, in which
case internal forces in the body (i.e. forces object P F ▲ Figure 1.5.12
between neighbouring atoms) balance the

39
1.5 Forces

Friction
Friction is the force that opposes one surface
12 a What resultant force produces an
acceleration of 5m/s2 in a car of mass
moving, or trying to move, over another. It can be
1000kg? a help or a hindrance. We could not walk if there
b What acceleration is produced in a mass of was no friction between the soles of our shoes
2kg by a resultant force of 30N? and the ground. Our feet would slip backwards,
13 A block of mass 500g is pulled from rest on a as they tend to when we walk on ice. On the
horizontal frictionless bench by a steady force F other hand, engineers try to reduce friction to a
and reaches a speed of 8m/s in 2s. Calculate a
the acceleration
minimum in the moving parts of machinery by
b the value of F. using lubricating oils and ball-bearings.
 reading is slightly less than that for starting
block spring balance friction. Sliding or dynamic friction is
therefore less than starting or static friction.
Placing a mass on the block increases the
force pressing the surfaces together and
increases friction.
FP
When work is done against friction, the
temperatures of the bodies in contact rise
▲ Figure 1.5.13 Friction opposes motion between surfaces (as you can test by rubbing your hands
in contact. together);
kinetic energy is transferred to thermal energy
by mechanical working (see Topic 1.7).
Going further Solid friction can be described as the force
between two surfaces that may impede motion
Newton’s third law and produce heating.
If a body A exerts a force on body B, then body B Friction (drag) acts on an object moving
exerts an equal but opposite force on body A.
through gas (air resistance), such as a vehicle
This is Newton’s third law of motion and states that or falling leaf, which opposes the motion of the
forces never occur singly but always in pairs as a result
of the action between two bodies. For example, when
object. Similarly, friction (drag) acts on an object
you step forwards from rest your foot pushes backwards moving through a liquid. Drag increases as the
on the Earth, and the Earth exerts an equal and opposite speed of the object increases, and acts to
force forward on you. Two bodies and two forces are reduce acceleration and slow the object down.
involved. The small force you exert on the large mass of
the Earth gives no noticeable acceleration to the Earth
but the equal force it exerts on your very much smaller
mass causes you to accelerate.

When a gradually increasing force P is applied Note that the pair of equal and opposite forces do not act
through a spring balance to a block on a table on the same body; if they did, there could never be any
(Figure 1.5.13), the block does not move at resultant forces and acceleration would be impossible.
For a book resting on a table, the book exerts a
first. This is because an equally increasing but downward force on the table and the table exerts an
opposing frictional force F acts where the equal and opposite upward force on the book; this pair of
block and table touch. At any instant P and F forces act on different objects and are represented by
are equal and opposite. the red arrows in Figure 1.5.14. The weight of the book
If P is increased further, the block eventually (blue arrow) does not form a pair with the upward force
on the book (although they are equal numerically) as
moves; as it does so F has its maximum value, these two forces act on the same body.
called starting or static friction. When the
block is moving at a steady speed, the balance

40
1.5.1 Effects of forces

contact
force pair pull of Earth
on book
gravitational
force pair
push of table on book

push of book on table

 pull of book
on Earth

▲ Figure 1.5.14 Forces between book and table

An appreciation of the third law and the effect of friction
is desirable when stepping from a rowing boat (Figure
1.5.15). You push backwards on the boat and, although
the boat pushes you forwards with an equal force, it is
itself now moving backwards (because friction with the
water is slight). This reduces your forwards motion by
the same amount – so you may fall in!

W ON
NE T III

Centripetal force
In Figure 1.5.17 a ball attached to a string is
being whirled round in a horizontal circle. Its
Circular motion direction of motion is constantly changing. At
There are many examples of bodies moving in A, it is along the tangent at A; shortly
circular paths – rides at a funfair, clothes being afterwards, at B, it is along the tangent at B;
spun dry in a washing machine, the planets and so on. It can be seen that motion in a
going round the Sun and the Moon circling the circular path is due to a force perpendicular to
Earth. When a car turns a corner, it may follow the motion.
an arc of a circle. ‘Throwing the hammer’ is a
sport practised at Highland Games in Scotland
string
(Figure 1.5.16), in which the hammer is whirled
A
round and round before it is released.
force in string pulls
▲ Figure 1.5.15 The boat moves backwards when you ball into a
step forwards!
B 1.5.17
circular path
▲ Figure

Velocity has both size and direction; speed has

only size. Velocity is speed in a stated direction
and if the direction of a moving body changes,
even if its speed does not, then its velocity has
changed. A change of velocity is an
acceleration, and so during its whirling motion
the ball is accelerating.
▲ Figure 1.5.16 ‘Throwing the hammer’

41
1.5 Forces acting on it to cause the acceleration. In the
case of the whirling ball it is reasonable to say
the force is provided by the string pulling
It follows from Newton’s first law of motion inwards on the ball. Like the acceleration, the
that if we consider a body moving in a circle to force acts towards the centre of the circle and
be accelerating, then there must be a force keeps the body at a fixed distance from the
centre. the Earth rotates, so appear to be stationary at
A larger force is needed if a particular point above the Earth’s surface –
their orbital period is 24 hours. They are used
● the speed v of the ball is increased, with
for transmitting television, intercontinental
mass and radius constant
telephone and data signals. Geostationary
● the radius r of the circle is decreased, with
satellites need to be well separated so that they
mass and speed constant
do not interfere with each other; there is room
● the mass m of the ball is increased, with
for about 400.
speed and radius constant.
Mobile phone networks use many satellites
This force, which acts towards the centre and in much lower equatorial orbits; they are
keeps a body moving in a circular path, is slowed by the Earth’s atmosphere and their
called the centripetal force (centre-seeking orbit has to
force). be regularly adjusted by firing a rocket engine.
Should the force be greater than the string Eventually they run out of fuel and burn up in
can bear, the string breaks and the ball flies off the atmosphere as they fall to Earth.
with steady speed in a straight line along the
tangent, i.e. in the direction of travel when the
Monitoring satellites
string broke (as Newton’s first law of motion Monitoring satellites circle the Earth rapidly in
predicts). It is not thrown outwards. low polar orbits, i.e. passing over both poles;
Whenever an object moves in a circle (or at a height of 850 km the orbital period is only
circular arc) there must be a centripetal force 100 minutes. The Earth rotates below them so
acting on it. In throwing the hammer it is the they scan the whole surface at short range in a
pull of the athlete’s arms acting on the hammer 24-hour period and can be used to map or
towards the centre of the whirling path. When a monitor regions of the Earth’s surface which
car rounds a bend, a frictional force is exerted may be inaccessible by other means. They are
inwards by the road on the car’s tyres. widely used in weather forecasting as they
continuously transmit infrared pictures of cloud
Satellites patterns down to Earth (Figure 1.5.18), which
are picked up in turn by receiving stations
For a satellite of mass m orbiting the Earth at
around the world.
radius r with orbital speed v, the centripetal
force, F, is the Earth’s gravitational force on
the mass.
To put an artificial satellite in orbit at a certain
height above the Earth it must enter the orbit at
the correct speed. If it does not, the force of
gravity, which decreases as height above the
Earth increases, will not be equal to the
centripetal force needed for the orbit.

Communication satellites
Communication satellites circle the Earth in
orbits above the equator. Geostationary
satellites have an orbit high above the equator ▲ Figure 1.5.18 Satellite image of cloud over Europe
(36000km); they travel with the same speed as

42
1.5.2 Turning effect of forces

Test yourself
car is moving at a constant speed along a straight
14 a Explain the conditions under which friction
road. Describe how the forces acting on the car
occurs.
influence the speed of the car. How is a constant speed
b Name two effects resulting from solid friction. 15 A
achieved?
 16 An apple is whirled round in a horizontal circle on
the end of a string which is tied to the stalk. It is
whirled faster and faster and at a certain speed
the apple is torn from the stalk. Explain why this
1.5.2 Turning effect of happens.
17 Is the gravitational force on a satellite greater or
less when it is in a high orbit than when it is in a
low orbit?
forces FOCUS POINTS

★ Describe and give everyday examples of the turning effect of a force (its moment) and use the appropriate
equation to calculate the moment of a force.
★ Apply the principle of moments to different situations.
★ Recall the conditions for an object being in equilibrium.

★ Apply the principle of moments to situations involving more than two forces about a pivot. ★ Be
familiar with an experiment showing that an object in equilibrium has no resultant moment.

A seesaw in a children’s playground can be balanced if the two children have similar weights or if the
lighter child sits further from the pivot than the heavier child. Each child exerts a turning effect on the
seesaw, either clockwise or anticlockwise, which depends not only on their weight but also on their
distance from the pivot. Forces act in different ways depending on their orientation. In this topic you will
discover that the turning effect of a force (its moment) depends on both its magnitude and the
perpendicular distance from the pivot point. This means that a small force at a large distance can
balance a much larger force applied closer to the pivot. When the combination of all the forces acting
on a body is such that there is no net force or turning effect, the body is in equilibrium (the seesaw is
level) and will not move unless additional forces are applied.
Key definition
Moment of a force moment = force ⋅ perpendicular
Moment of a force distance from pivot
The handle on a door is at the outside edge so
that it opens and closes easily. A much larger In Figure 1.5.19a, a force F acts on a gate at
force would be needed if the handle were near its edge, and in Figure 1.5.19b it acts at the
the hinge. Similarly, it is easier to loosen a nut centre. In Figure 1.5.19a
with a long spanner than with a short one.
moment of F about O = 5N ⋅ 3m = 15Nm
The turning effect of a force is called the
moment of the force. It depends on both the In Figure 1.5.19b
size of the force and how far it is applied from moment of F about O = 5N ⋅ 1.5m = 7.5Nm
the pivot. It is measured by multiplying the force
by the perpendicular distance of the line of The turning effect of F is greater in the first case.
action of the force from the pivot. The unit is the This agrees with the fact that a gate opens most
newtonmetre (Nm). easily when pushed or pulled at the edge
furthest from the hinge.
moment of a force = force ⋅ perpendicular distance
from the pivot

43
1.5 Forces

a
 pivot, like the ruler in Figure effect equals the anticlockwise
1.5.20, the weights must be turning effect and the net
moved moment on the beam becomes
zero. If the beam tends to
hinge (fulcrum)
swing clockwise, m1 can be
3m F 5N b moved further from the pivot to
increase its turning effect;
gate
alternatively, m2 can be moved
nearer to the pivot to reduce its
turning effect. What adjustment
would you make to the position
O of m2 to balance the beam if it is
Balancing a beam 1.5 m 1.5 m O F 5 N tending to swing
To balance a beam about a anticlockwise?
so that the clockwise turning
▲ Figure 1.5.19

Practical work
Balance a half-metre ruler at its centre,
Law of moments
For safe experiments/demonstrations related adding Plasticine to one side or the other
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge until it is horizontal.
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that Hang unequal loads m and m from either side
is also part of this series. of the pivot and alter their distances d and d
1 2

from the centre until the ruler is again

1 2

d1 d2 balanced (Figure 1.5.20). Forces F and F are

exerted by gravity on m and m and so on the
1 2

ruler; the force on 100g is 0.98N. Record the

1 2

results in a table and repeat for other loads

m1 m2
pivot (nail through
and distances.
hole in ruler)

▲ Figure 1.5.20

m1/g F1/N d1/cm F1 ⋅ d1/Ncm m2/g F2/N d2/cm F2 ⋅ d2/Ncm

F1 is trying to turn the ruler anticlockwise 12 Name the variables you will need to
and F ⋅ d1 is its moment. F is trying to cause measure in this experiment.
13 Calculate the moments of a force of 5N
clockwise turning and its moment is F ⋅ d .
1 2

When the ruler is balanced or, as we say, in

2 2
acting at a perpendicular distance from the
equilibrium, the results should show that the pivot of a 10cm
b 15cm
anticlockwise moment F ⋅ d equals the c 30cm.
clockwise moment F ⋅ d .
1 1

2 2
 44
1.5.2 Turning effect of forces

Principle of moments Test yourself

18 A seesaw has a weight of 40N placed 1m from the
pivot and a weight of 20N is placed on the opposite
A lever is any device which can turn about a
Levers pivot. In a working lever a force called the
The law of moments (also called the law of effort is used to overcome a resisting force
called the load. The pivotal point is called the
the lever) is stated as follows:
fulcrum.
When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the If we use a crowbar to move a heavy boulder
clockwise moments about any point equals the (Figure 1.5.22), our hands apply the effort at one
sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same end of the bar and the load is the force exerted
point. There is no resultant moment on an object in by the boulder on the other end. If distances
equilibrium. from the fulcrum O are as shown and the load is
The law of moments is an equivalent statement 1000N (i.e. the part of the weight of the boulder
to the principle of moments. If the clockwise supported by the crowbar), the effort can be
moments are regarded as positive and the calculated from the law of moments. As the
anticlockwise moments are regarded as boulder just begins to move, we can say, taking
negative, then the sum of the moments is zero moments about O, that
when the body is in equilibrium. clockwise moment = anticlockwise
moment effort ⋅ 200 cm = 1000N ⋅ 10 cm
Worked example
effort = 10000N cm
The seesaw in Figure 1.5.21 balances when Shani of
weight 320N is at A, Tom of weight 540N is at B and Harry
200cm = 50 N
of weight W is at C. Find W.
3m 3m Examples of other levers are shown in Figure
A B O C 1m pivot 1.5.23. How does the effort compare with the
load for scissors and a spanner in Figures
1.5.23c and d?
320 N 540 N W
B
OA 10 cm
▲ Figure 1.5.21
OB 200 cm
Taking moments about the pivot, O:
effort
anticlockwise moment = (320N ⋅ 3m) + (540N ⋅ 1m)
= 960Nm + 540Nm
= 1500Nm
clockwise moment = W ⋅ 3m fulcrum A O

By the law of moments,

load
clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
∴ W ⋅ 3m = 1500Nm ▲ Figure 1.5.22 Crowbar
∴ effort
W 1500 Nm
3m = = 500 N
 distance of 2m from the
pivot. Is the seesaw
balanced?
19 A half-metre ruler is
pivoted at its mid-point and
fulcrum
load

side of the pivot at a

the 45cm mark on the ruler. Calculate the
balances when a weight of 20N is placed at weight W.
▲ Figure 1.5.23a Wheelbarrow
the 10cm mark and a weight W is placed at

45
1.5 Forces two trestles, as in Figure 1.5.24. In Topic 1.5.3 we
will see that the whole weight of the plank (400N)
may be taken to act vertically downwards at its
centre, O. If P and Q are the upward forces
exerted by the trestles on the plank (called
effort
reactions), then we have from (i) above
P + Q = 400N (1)
biceps
muscle

As an example, consider a heavy plank resting on

1m 3m 2m 2m
fulcrum
load
P
Q
O
▲ Figure 1.5.23b Forearm
trestle trestle C 400N plank
fulcrum
▲ Figure 1.5.24
effort

= 800Nm
load
Since the plank is in equilibrium
fulcrum load we have from (ii) above
▲ Figure 1.5.23c Scissors
P ⋅ 5m = 800Nm

∴800 Nm
P = = 160 N
Moments can be taken about
effort any point but if we take them
about C, the moment due to
force Q is zero.
clockwise moment = P ⋅ 5m
▲ Figure 1.5.23d Spanner anticlockwise moment = 400N ⋅ 2m

Conditions for
equilibrium
 From equation (1)
Q = 240N

Equilibrium experiment
When the concept of moments
was introduced, we described
an experiment to balance a
beam

5m
Sometimes a number of parallel forces act on an (see Practical work, p. 44). In this experiment
object so that it is in equilibrium. We can then different weights (F) are suspended either
say: (i) The sum of the forces in one direction side of the central pivot and the distance (d)
equals the of each from the pivot is measured when the
sum of the forces in the opposite beam is balanced (in equilibrium). The
direction. (ii) The law of moments must clockwise and anticlockwise moments (F ⋅ d)
apply. are then calculated for each weight. It is
When there is no resultant force and no found that when the beam is in equilibrium,
resultant moment, an object is in equilibrium. the clockwise and anticlockwise moments
are equal in magnitude and there is no
Key definition resultant moment (i.e. no net turning effect)
Equilibrium when there is no resultant force and no on the beam.
resultant moment

46
1.5.3 Centre of gravity

Test yourself
20 The metre ruler in Figure 1.5.25 is pivoted at
its centre. If it balances, which of the following
gravity FOCUS POINTS
equations gives the mass of M?
A M + 50 = 40 + 100
22 The beam shown in Figure 1.5.26 is balanced with
B M ⋅ 40 = 100 ⋅ 50
weights of 160N, 120N and W in the positions
C M ⋅ 50 = 100 ⋅ 40
shown. Calculate the value of W.
D M/50 = 40/100
3m 3m
50 cm 40 cm
A B O C 1m pivot

M 100 g
160 N 120 N W ▲ Figure 1.5.26

▲ Figure 1.5.25 23 Describe an experiment to show that there is no

resultant moment on an object in equilibrium.
21 A seesaw has a weight of 60N placed 0.5m from the
pivot and a weight of 20N is placed on the opposite side
of the pivot at a distance of 1.5m from the pivot. Is the
seesaw balanced? Justify your answer.

1.5.3 Centre of
 ★ Define centre of gravity and the effect its position has on the stability of an object. ★ Be familiar with an
experiment determining the position of the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped plane lamina.

Why are tall vehicles more likely to topple over on a slope than less tall ones? The answer lies in the
position of the centre of gravity. In the presence of gravity an object behaves as if its entire mass is
concentrated at a single point, the centre of gravity. The object’s weight appears to act at this point.
For a symmetrical object, such as a ball, the centre of gravity will be at its centre. In this topic, you will
learn that when an object is suspended so that it can swing freely, it comes to rest with its centre of
gravity vertically below the point of suspension. This enables the centre of gravity of unsymmetrical
objects to be located. You will discover that it is the position of the centre of gravity that controls
stability against toppling. If the centre of gravity remains within the footprint of the base of the object, it
remains stable.
it is supported at
any other point it topples because the moment of
Centre of gravity its weight W about the point of support is not
An object behaves as if its whole mass were zero, as in Figure 1.5.27b. The centre of gravity
concentrated at one point, called its centre of is sometimes also termed the centre of mass.
gravity even though the Earth attracts every part
of it. The object’s weight can be considered to Key definition
act at this point. The centre of gravity of a Centre of gravity the point through which all of an
uniform ruler is at its centre and when supported object’s weight can be considered to act
there it can be balanced, as in Figure 1.5.27a. If

47
1.5 Forces

ab

A tightrope walker has to keep their centre of

0 0 50 100 W them to balance (Figure 1.5.29).
50 100
The combined weight of the
walker and pole is then spread
ruler support
gravity exactly above the rope. out more and if the walker
Some carry a long pole to help begins to topple
▲ Figure 1.5.27

Your centre of gravity is near the centre of your

body and the vertical line from it to the floor
must be within the area enclosed by your feet or
you will fall over. You can test this by standing
with one arm and the side of one foot pressed
against a wall (Figure 1.5.28). Now try to raise raise this leg

the other leg sideways.

▲ Figure 1.5.28 Can you do this without falling over?

Practical work

Centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped

lamina
For safe experiments/demonstrations related
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that ▲ Figure 1.5.29 A tightrope walker using a long pole
is also part of this series. The centre of gravity of a regularly shaped
object that has the same density throughout
is at its centre. In other cases, it can be
found by experiment.

of gravity lies on CD and must be at the

point of intersection of AB and CD. Check
this by hanging the lamina from a third hole.
Also try balancing it at its centre of gravity
on the tip of your forefinger.
A

to one side, they move the pole to the other

side.
Suppose we have to lamina and hang it so
find the centre of that it can swing lamina

gravity of an freely on a nail

irregularly shaped clamped in a stand. It C

lamina (a thin sheet) will come to rest with

of cardboard. its centre of gravity D
B plumb line
nail clamped in stand

Make a hole A in the hole

and mark the plumb line position CD. The

centre of gravity

centre
▲ Figure 1.5.30

vertically below A. To locate the vertical line 14 a How could you make a plumb line? b
through A, tie a plumb line (a thread and a Explain the purpose and use of a plumb
weight) to the nail (Figure 1.5.30), and mark line.
its position AB on the lamina. The centre of 15 When an object is suspended and allowed
gravity lies somewhere on AB. to swing freely, where does its centre of
Hang the lamina from another position, C, gravity lie when it comes to rest?

48
The position of the centre of gravity of an
object affects whether or not it topples over
easily. This is important in the design of such
Toppling things as tall vehicles (which tend to overturn
when rounding a corner), racing cars, reading 1.5.32b. When the top deck only is fully laden
lamps and even drinking glasses. with passengers (represented by sand bags in
An object topples when the vertical line the test), it must not topple if tilted through an
through its centre of gravity falls outside its angle of 28º.
base, as in Figure 1.5.31a. Otherwise it Racing cars have a low centre of gravity
remains stable, as in Figure 1.5.31b, where the and a wide wheelbase for maximum stability.
object will not topple.
a
b

centre of
mass
base

▲ Figure 1.5.31

Toppling can be investigated by placing an

empty can on a plank (with a rough surface to
prevent slipping) which is slowly tilted. The
angle of tilt is noted when the can falls over.
This is repeated with a mass of 1kg in the can.
▲ Figure 1.5.32a A fire truck under test to find its centre of
How does this affect the position of the centre of
gravity
gravity? The same procedure is followed with a
second can of the same height as the first but of
greater width. It will be found that the second
can with the mass in it can be tilted through a
greater angle.
The stability of a body is therefore
increased by (i) lowering its centre of gravity,
and
(ii) increasing the area of its base.
In Figure 1.5.32a the centre of gravity of a fire
truck is being found. It is necessary to do this
when testing a new design since fire trucks (and
other vehicles) may be driven over sloping
surfaces, e.g. ditches adjacent to roadways, and
any tendency to overturn must be discovered.
1.5.3 Centre of gravity ▲ Figure 1.5.32b A coach being tilted to test its stability

The stability of a coach is being tested in Figure

49
1.5 Forces Three terms are used in connection with
stability. Stable equilibrium
Stability An object is in stable equilibrium if when slightly
displaced and then released it returns to its make are shown in Figure 1.5.34. In each case
previous position. The ball at the bottom of the the centre of gravity is vertically below the
dish in Figure 1.5.33a is an example. Its centre point of support and equilibrium is stable.
of gravity rises when it is displaced. It rolls back
because its weight has a moment about the needle
point of contact that acts to reduce the
cork
displacement.
a fork
card

spar

Balancing tricks and toys

Some tricks that you can try or toys you can
dish
ball can
bull-dog clip
point of contact
weight

card
cork
centre of mass
wire
bc

point of
contact bar

matchsticks iron nut

centre of mass

thick
weight
displacement.
▲ Figure 1.5.34 Balancing tricks

A self-righting toy (Figure 1.5.35) has a heavy

▲ Figure 1.5.33 States of equilibrium
base and, when tilted, the weight acting
Unstable equilibrium through the centre of gravity has a moment
An object is in unstable equilibrium if it moves about the point of contact. This restores it to
further away from its previous position when the upright position.
slightly displaced and released. The ball in
Figure 1.5.33b behaves in this way. Its centre of
gravity falls when it is displaced slightly because
there is a moment which increases the
displacement. Similarly, in Figure 1.5.27a, the
balanced ruler is in unstable equilibrium.
Neutral equilibrium
An object is in neutral equilibrium if it stays
in its new position when displaced (Figure
1.5.33c). Its centre of gravity does not rise or
fall because there is no moment to increase
or decrease the ▲ Figure 1.5.35 A self-righting toy

50
1.5.3 Centre of gravity
 Test yourself
24 Where does the centre of gravity lie for
a a uniform ruler
b a sphere of uniform density?
25 a When does an object topple?
b How can the stability of an object be increased?
26 Figure 1.5.36 shows a Bunsen burner in three ▲ Figure 1.5.36
different positions. State the type of equilibrium when
it is in position
iA
ii B
iii C

Revision checklist ✓ combine forces acting along the same straight line
to find their resultant
After studying Topic 1.5 you should know and
understand: ✓ recall the equation F = ma and use it to solve
problems
✓ the significance of the term limit of
✓ describe qualitatively motion in a circular path
proportionality due to a perpendicular force and recall that the
force required to maintain circular motion
✓ Newton’s first law of motion
changes when the speed, radius of orbit or
✓ friction as the force between two surfaces that
mass changes
impedes motion and results in heating and that
friction also acts on an object moving through ✓ define the moment of a force about a pivot and give
the air everyday examples; recall the law of moments and
✓ the conditions for equilibrium use it to solve problems, including the balancing of
✓ that an object’s weight acts through the centre of a beam
gravity.
✓ apply the principle of moments to balance
After studying Topic 1.5 you should be able to:
multiple moments (more than two) about a pivot ✓
✓ recall that a force can cause a change in the describe an experiment to verify that there is no
motion, size or shape of a body resultant moment on an object in equilibrium
✓ describe an experiment to study the relation
between force and extension for springs; plot and ✓ recall that an object behaves as if its whole mass
draw conclusions from load–extension graphs acts through its centre of gravity
✓ describe an experiment to find the centre of gravity
✓ define the spring constant and use the equation
of an object and connect the stability of an object to
k = F/x to solve problems
the position of its centre of gravity.
ABC

51
1.5 Forces variation of the extension of a spring when
different loads are applied. Mention two
precautions you would take to obtain
Exam-style questions accurate results. [6] b The table below
shows the results obtained in an experiment
1 a Describe how you would investigate the to study the stretching of a spring. Copy the
 table and fill in the missing values. What can a sketch showing the direction of the forces. [2]
you say about the relationship between the ii Calculate the resultant of the forces and mark
extension of the spring and the stretching its direction on your sketch. [2]
force? [4]
b The two forces then act at 90° to each
Mass/g Stretching Scale Extension/
force/N reading/mm mm other. Calculate the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force by calculation. [6]
0 20.0 0

100 20.2 [Total: 10]

200 20.4 4 Starting from rest on a level road a girl can

reach a speed of 5m/s in 10s on her bicycle. a
300 20.6 Find the acceleration. [2] b Find the average
speed during the 10s. [2] c Find the distance
400 20.8
she travels in 10s. [2] d Eventually, even
500 21.0 though she still pedals as
fast as she can, she stops accelerating
and her speed reaches a maximum
value.
[Total: 10] Explain in terms of the forces acting why
this happens. [2] [Total: 8]
2 The spring in Figure 1.5.37 stretches from 5 Explain the following using F = ma.
10cm to 22cm when a force of 4N is a A racing car has a powerful engine and is
applied. a Calculate the spring constant of made of strong but lightweight material. [3]
the b A car with a small engine can still
spring. [3] b If the extension is accelerate rapidly. [3] [Total: 6]
proportional to the stretching force when a
force of
6 A rocket has a mass of 500kg.
6N is applied, calculate
a Write down the weight of the rocket on
i the new extension length of the
Earth where g = 9.8N/kg. [1] b At lift-off the
spring [2] ii the final length in cm of the
rocket engine exerts an upward force of 25
spring. [1] [Total: 6]
000N.
i Calculate the resultant force on the
rocket. [2]

3 Two forces of 5N and 12N act at a point. a The

two forces first act in opposite directions. i Make
10 cm
▲ Figure 1.5.37
22 cm

ii Calculate the initial

acceleration of the rocket. [3] [Total: 6]
4N

52
smaller force required if i the car travels
faster [1] ii the bend is less curved [1] iii
the car has more passengers? [1] c
7 A car rounding a bend travels in an arc of Explain why racing cars are fitted with
a circle. tyres called ‘slicks’, which have no tread
a What provides the force to keep the car pattern, for dry tracks and with ‘tread’
travelling in a circle? [2] b Is a larger or a tyres for wet tracks. [2] [Total: 7]
 8 A satellite close to the Earth (at a height of i the lorry [2] ii the box [2] will be affected if
about 200km) has an orbital speed of the box lies on its side in the van rather
8km/s. Take the radius of the orbit to be than its base.
approximately equal to the Earth’s radius of [Total: 9]
6400km.
a Write down an expression for the
circumference of the orbit. [1] b Write
down an equation for the time for one
orbit. [2] c Calculate the time it takes for
the
satellite to complete one orbit. [4] [Total:
7]

9 Figure 1.5.38 shows three positions of the

pedal on a bicycle which has a crank 0.20m
long. The cyclist exerts the same vertically
downward push of 25N with his foot.
Calculate the turning effect in
a A [2] b B [2] c C [2] [Total: 6]

force

chain
crank

AB 53
1.5 Forces

Alternative to Practical
C 12 A physics class is asked to investigate
▲ Figure 1.5.38 the extension of a stretched spring.
Exam-style questions You will be supplied with a spring, a clamp
stand, a half-metre ruler, a set square and a
hanger with 100g weights and sticky tape.
10 The weight of the uniform bar in Figure a Describe how you would carry out the
1.5.39 is 10N. experiment. [5] b Mention any precautions
a Calculate the clockwise moment about the you would take to achieve good results. [3]
pivot. [3] b Calculate the anticlockwise [Total: 8]
moment about the pivot. [3] c Does the
13 a The table below shows the extension
beam balance, tip to the right or tip to the
left? [2] [Total: 8] of a spring for increasing stretching forces.
Stretching force/N 0 1 2 3 5
0 cm 10 40 50 100 cm 4

Extension/mm 0 2 4 6 8. 12
5

3N

▲ Figure 1.5.39
i Plot a graph with extension/mm along
11 a Describe how you could find the centre of the x-axis and stretching force/N on
gravity of an irregular lamina. [5] b A heavy box the y-axis. [4] ii Draw the best line
with a square base and a height twice the through the points; mark the region over
length of a side is to be transported by a lorry. which
Explain how the stability of proportionality holds. [2]
 moment about pivot (F ⋅ d). [2]
iii Indicate the limit of proportionality. [1] b b State which combinations of two different
Calculate the gradient of the graph. [2] c masses could be used to balance the
Determine the spring constant k. [1] beam. [3]
Mass/ Force Ruler d/ F ⋅ d/
[Total: 10] g / reading/cm

50 5 A

50 10 B

14 In an experiment to investigate the law of 50 15 C

moments, a half-metre ruler is balanced at
50 20 D
its centre as shown in Figure 1.5.40.
100 30 E
d1 d2

100 35 F

100 40 G
fulcrum (nail through
m1 m2
hole in ruler)
150 20 H

▲ Figure 1.5.40 150 35 I

Masses of 50g, 100 g and 150g are placed in
turn at the positions given in the table below.
a Complete the table, filling in values for
i the units at the head of each column [1] ii [Total: 10]
force (F) [2] iii distance from pivot (d) [2] iv

54

1.6 Momentum
FOCUS POINTS
★ Define momentum, impulse and resultant force and use the correct equations to calculate them. ★
Solve simple one-dimensional problems using the principle of the conservation of momentum.

When a tennis ball is struck by a racket or a gas molecule rebounds from the side of its container,
their behaviour can be understood by introducing the concept of momentum. Momentum is defined
 as the product of mass and velocity. In a collision, momentum is conserved unless there are
external forces acting such as friction. You can demonstrate conservation of momentum with a
Newton’s cradle (Figure 1.7.10, p. 66); the last ball in the line moves off with the same velocity as
the first. Collisions generally occur over a very short interval of time; the shorter the time interval the
greater the force on the bodies involved in the collision. Crumple zones at the front and rear of a car
help to prolong the collision time and reduce the force of an impact.

Momentum is a useful quantity to consider

that they
A 2 kg mass moving at 10m/s has
when bodies are involved in collisions and momentum 20kgm/s, the same as the
explosions. It is defined as the mass of the momentum of a 5kg mass moving at 4m/s.
body multiplied by its velocity and is measured
in kilogram metre per second (kgm/s) or Key definition
newton second (Ns). Momentum mass ⋅ velocity
momentum = mass ⋅ velocity
In symbols, momentum p = mv and
the change in momentum
Δp = Δ(mv)

Practical work
will record the time taken for the passage of
Collisions and momentum a trolley.
trolley with
Safety ‘interrupt card’

Take care when rolling the trolley down the photogate 1 photogate 2
ramp. Ensure it is clear at the bottom of
l

the ramp and use a side barrier to

sloping

prevent the trolley from falling onto the runwayto timer

floor.
Figure 1.6.1 shows an arrangement which can
be used to find the velocity of a trolley before
and after a collision. If a trolley of length l
takes time t to pass through a photogate, ▲ Figure 1.6.1
then its velocity = distance/time = l/t. A tickertape timer or motion sensor, placed at
Two photogates are needed, placed each side the top end of the runway, could be used
instead of the photogates if preferred.
of the collision point, to find the velocities
before and after the collision. Set them up so
55
1.6 Momentum
Repeat the experiment with another trolley
stacked on top of the one to be pushed so that
two are moving before the collision and three
Attach a strip of Velcro to each trolley so that after.
they adhere to each other on collision and
compensate the runway for friction (see Topic Copy and complete the tables of results.
1.5.1). Place one trolley at rest halfway down Before collision (m at rest)
the runway and another at the top; give the
2

top trolley a push. It will move forwards with Mass m 1

Velocity Momentum

uniform velocity and should hit the second (no. of trolleys) v/m/s mv 1

trolley so that they travel on as one. Using the 1

times recorded by the photogate timer,
calculate the velocity of the moving trolley 2
before the collision and the common velocity
of both trolleys after the collision.
Conservation of 2Why is it necessary to tilt the runway
slightly before taking measurements?
momentum When two or more bodies 3 a Calculate the momentum of a 2kg trolley
moving with a velocity of
i 0.2m/s
act on one another, as in a collision, the total
ii 0.8m/s
momentum of the bodies remains constant,
iii 5cm/s.
provided no external forces act (e.g.
b Calculate the momentum of a trolley
friction).
moving at 3m/s and having a mass
Worked example of i 200g
ii 500g
iii 1kg.
After collision (m1 and m2 together)

Mass Velocity Momentum

m1 + m2 v1/m/s (m1 + m2)v1
(no. of
trolleys)

2
This statement is called the principle of
conservation of momentum. Experiments
3 like those in the Practical work section show
that it is true for all types of collisions.

1 Do the results suggest any connection

between the momentum before the Suppose a truck of mass 60 kg moving with velocity 3 m/s
collision and after it in each case? at rest
abv

collides and couples with a kg

stationary truck of mass 30 3m/s
(Figure 1.6.2a). The two move off
together with the same velocity v which
Total momentum after collision is Now put this into practice
we can find as follows (Figure 1.6.2b). 60 kg 30 kg 60 kg 30 kg

Total momentum before collision is

(60kg ⋅ 3m/s) + (30kg ⋅ 0m/s) = 180 kgm/s ▲ Figure 1.6.2
couples with a stationary trolley of mass 2kg and the two
move off together with the same velocity v. Assuming
momentum is not lost in the collision, calculate the value of v.
2 A trolley of mass 5kg moving with velocity 5m/s collides with
a stationary trolley of mass 2kg.
The 5kg trolley stops and the 2kg trolley moves off with
(60kg + 30 kg) ⋅ v = 90 kg ⋅ v Since momentum is not lost 90 kg ⋅ v
velocity v. Assuming momentum is not lost in the collision,
= 180 kgm/s or v = 2m/s calculate the value of v.
1 A trolley of mass 3kg moving with velocity 5m/s collides and

56
Force and momentum subtracts from the greater, or if they are the
same, they cancel out.
Momentum is conserved in an explosion such
Explosions as occurs when a rifle is fired. Before firing, the
total momentum is zero since both rifle and
bullet are at rest. During the firing the rifle and
bullet receive equal but opposite amounts of
momentum so that the total momentum after
Test yourself firing is zero. For example, if a rifle fires a bullet
Momentum, like velocity, is a vector since it has of mass 0.01 kg with a velocity of 300m/s,
both magnitude and direction. Vectors cannot forward momentum of bullet = 0.01 kg ⋅ 300m/s =
be added by ordinary addition unless they act 3kgm/s
in the
same direction. If they act in exactly opposite ∴ backward momentum of rifle = 3kgm/s
directions, such as east and west, the smaller If the rifle has mass m, it recoils (kicks back) with
 a velocity v such that
mv = 3kgm/s
Force and momentum If a
Taking m = 6kg gives v = 3/6m/s = 0.5m/s. steady force F acting on an object of mass m
1 What is the momentum in kgm/s of a 10kg truck increases its velocity from u to v in time Δt, the
travelling at acceleration a is given by
a 5m/s
b 20cm/s a = (v − u)/Δt
c 36km/h?
2 A ball X of mass 1kg travelling at 2m/s has a Substituting for a in F = ma,
head-on collision with an identical ball Y at rest. X
()
stops and Y moves off. What is Y’s velocity?
=−
3 A boy with mass 50kg running at 5m/s jumps on to
a 20kg trolley travelling in the same direction at Fmvu
1.5m/s. What is their common velocity? −
4 A girl of mass 50kg jumps out of a rowing boat of Δ= Δ
mass 300kg on to the bank, with a horizontal mv mu
velocity of 3m/s. With what velocity does the boat
begin to move backwards?
t
Rockets and jets We also have
t
If you release an inflated balloon with its neck where mv is the final momentum, mu the
open, it flies off in the opposite direction to that initial momentum and FΔt is called the
of the escaping air. In Figure 1.6.3 the air has impulse.
momentum to the left and the balloon moves Since FΔt = mv − mu = Δ(mv)
to the right with equal momentum.
This is the principle of rockets and jet mv p
We can write F t t
engines. In both, a high-velocity stream of hot () Δ Δ
gas is produced by burning fuel and leaves = Δ= Δ
the exhaust with large momentum. The rocket and define the resultant force F as the
or jet engine itself acquires an equal forward change in momentum per unit time.
momentum. Space rockets carry their own This is another version of Newton’s second
oxygen supply; jet engines use the law. For some problems it is more useful than
surrounding air. F = ma.
air balloon
Key definitions
Impulse force ⋅ time for which force acts
Resultant force the rate of change in momentum per
▲ Figure 1.6.3 A deflating balloon demonstrates the
unit time
principle of a rocket or a jet engine.
impulse = FΔt = mv − mu = Δ(mv)

57
1.6 Momentum for a longer time, the impulse is greater and so
also is the gain of momentum (and velocity) of
the ball.
When we want to stop a moving ball such as
Sport: impulse and a cricket ball, however, its momentum has to be
collision time reduced to zero. An impulse is then required in
the form of an opposing force acting for a
The good cricketer or tennis player ‘follows
certain time. While any number of
through’ with the bat or racket when striking the combinations of force and time will give a
ball (Figure 1.6.4a). The force applied then acts particular impulse, the ‘sting’ can be removed
from the catch by drawing back the hands as catch the ball
the ball is caught (Figure 1.6.4b). A smaller The use of sand gives a softer landing for long
average force is then applied for a longer time. jumpers (Figure 1.6.5), as a smaller stopping
force is applied over a longer time. In a car
crash the car’s momentum is reduced to zero
in a very short time. If the time of impact can
be extended by using crumple zones (see
Figure 1.7.11, p. 66) and extensible seat belts,
the average force needed to stop the car is
reduced so the injury to passengers should
also be less.

▲ Figure 1.6.5 Sand reduces the athlete’s momentum

more gently.

Test yourself
5 A force of 5N is applied to a cricket ball for
▲ Figure 1.6.4a This cricketer is ‘following through’ after 0.02s. Calculate
hitting the ball. a the impulse on the ball
b the change in momentum of the ball.
6 In a collision, a car of mass 1000kg travelling at
24m/s comes to rest in 1.2s.
Calculate
a the change in momentum of the car
b the steady stopping force applied to the car.

▲ Figure 1.6.4b Cricketer drawing back the hands to

58
Exam-style questions

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 1.6 you should know and
understand the following:
✔ the relationship between force and rate of change
of momentum and use it to solve problems.
Exam-style questions
1 A truck A of mass 500 kg moving at 4m/s fuel and oxygen to produce exhaust
collides with another truck B of mass 1500kg gases ejected at 5000m/s.
moving in the same direction at 2m/s. a Define momentum. [1] b Calculate the
a Write down an expression for momentum. backward momentum of the ejected gas. [2]
[1] b Calculate the momentum of truck A c Explain what is meant by the principle of
before the collision. [2] c Calculate the conservation of momentum. [2] d Calculate
momentum of truck B before the collision. [2] the increase in velocity of the rocket. [3]
d Determine the common velocity of the [Total: 8]
trucks after the collision. [4] [Total: 9] 4 A boy hits a stationary billiard ball of mass
2 The velocity of an object of mass 10 kg 30g head on with a cue. The cue is in
increases from 4m/s to 8m/s when a force contact with the ball for a time of 0.001 s
acts on it for 2 s. Write down the and exerts a force of 50N on it.
a initial momentum of the object [2] b final a Calculate the acceleration of the ball during
momentum of the object [2] c momentum the time it is in contact with the cue. [2] b
gained in 2 s [2] d value of the force [2] e Work out the impulse on the ball in the
impulse of the force. [2] [Total: 10] direction of the force. [2] c Calculate the
velocity of the ball just after it is struck. [2] d
Give two ways by which the velocity of the
After studying Topic 1.6 you should be able to: ✔ ball could be increased. [2] [Total: 8]
define momentum and apply the principle of
conservation of momentum to solve problems ✔ recall
that in a collision, impulse = FΔt and use the definition
to explain how the time of impact affects the force
acting in a collision.

3 A rocket of mass 10000kg uses 5.0 kg of

59

1.7 Energy, work and power

1.7.1 Energy
FOCUS POINTS
★ Identify different energy stores and describe how energy is transferred from one store to another. ★ Use the
 correct equations for kinetic energy and change in gravitational potential energy. ★ Apply the principle of the

conservation of energy to simple examples and use it to interpret flow diagrams. ★ Apply the principle of the

conservation of energy to complex examples represented by Sankey diagrams.

Energy is a theme that appears in all branches of science. It links a wide range of phenomena and
enables us to explain them. There are different ways in which energy can be stored and, when
something happens, it is likely to be due to energy being transferred from one store to another.
Energy transfer is needed to enable people, computers, machines and other devices to work and to
enable processes and changes to occur. For example, in Figure 1.7.1, the water skier can be pulled
along by the boat only if energy is transferred from the burning petrol to its rotating propeller.
Although energy can be transferred to different stores, the total energy of a system remains
constant. In this topic you will learn in detail about the potential energy associated with the position of
an object in a gravitational field and the kinetic energy which is associated with its motion.

▲ Figure 1.7.1 Energy transfer in action

60
1.7.1 Energy Food and fuels, like oil, gas, coal and wood, are
concentrated stores of chemical energy. The
energy of food is released by chemical reactions
Energy stores in our bodies, and during the transfer to other
stores we are able to do useful jobs. Fuels
cause energy transfers when they are burnt in
Internal energy an engine or a boiler. Batteries are compact
sources of chemical energy, which in use is
Energy can be stored in a number of different transferred by an electric current.
ways.
Gravitational potential energy
Key definition This is the energy an object has because of its
Energy may be stored as kinetic, gravitational potential, position. A body above the Earth’s surface, like
chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear, electrostatic and water in a mountain reservoir, has energy
internal (thermal) stored as gravitational potential energy.
Elastic strain energy
Chemical energy
This is energy an object has because of its
condition. Work has to be done to compress kinetic energy stored in the motor is transferred
or stretch a spring or elastic material and (by mechanical working) to gravitational
energy is transferred to elastic strain potential energy stored in the weight. If the
energy. If the bow string in Figure 1.7.3c on changeover switch is joined to the lamp and the
the next page were released, the strain weight allowed to fall, the motor acts as a
energy would be transferred to the arrow. generator of an electric current that transfers
(by electrical working) kinetic energy stored in
Kinetic energy
the rotating coil of the generator to internal
Any moving object has kinetic energy and the energy in the lamp. Energy is transferred from
faster it moves, the more kinetic energy it has. the lamp to the environment (by
As a hammer drives a nail into a piece of wood, electromagnetic waves and by heating).
there is a transfer of energy from the kinetic
lamp (1.25 V)
energy of the moving hammer to other energy
stores.
changeover
switch
Electrostatic energy
Energy can be stored by charged objects (see
Topic 4.2.1) as electrostatic energy. This
energy can be transferred by an electric large motor/
generator
current.
Nuclear energy
The energy stored in the nucleus of an atom is
to 4Vbattery
known as nuclear energy. It can be transferred
to other energy stores in nuclear reactions such
as fission and fusion (Topic 5.1.2).
line shaft
This is also called thermal energy and is the unit
final fate of other energy stores. It is
transferred by conduction, convection or weight
radiation. (500 g)

▲ Figure 1.7.2 Demonstrating energy transfers

Energy transfers
Demonstration Other examples
The apparatus in Figure 1.7.2 can be used to In addition to electrical working, mechanical
show how energy is transferred between working, electromagnetic waves and heating,
different energy stores. Chemical energy stored energy can be transferred between stores by
in the battery is transferred by an electric other types of waves, such as sound waves.
current (electrical working) to kinetic energy in Sound waves transfer energy from a vibrating
the electric motor. The weight is raised when source to our eardrums or
61
1.7 Energy, work and power

to a microphone. Heating water in a boiler Some energy transfers are shown in Figures
transfers chemical energy stored in a fuel to 1.7.3a to d: a Potential energy is transferred to
internal energy stored in the water. kinetic energy by mechanical working (action of
In summary, energy can be transferred a gravitational force). b Thermal energy stored
between stores in the following ways: in an electric fire element is transferred by
electromagnetic waves and by heating to the
• mechanical working – by the action of a
environment.
force (Topic 1.5)
c Chemical energy (stored in muscles in the
• electrical working – by an electric current
arm) is transferred to elastic energy in the
(Topic 4.2.2) • waves – electromagnetic, sound
bow by mechanical working.
and other waves (Topic 3.3)
d Gravitational potential energy stored in the
• heating – by conduction, convection or
water in the upper reservoir is transferred to
radiation (Topic 2.3).
the kinetic energy of a turbine by mechanical
working.
 a

b d▲ Figure 1.7.3 Some energy transfers

This is also the amount of chemical energy
Measuring energy transfers In an transferred from your muscles to the
energy transfer, work is done. The work done
potential energy of the stone.
is a measure of the amount of energy
transferred. Energy, as well as work, is
measured in joules (J).
Principle of conservation of
For example, if you have to exert an upward energy The principle of conservation of
force of 10N to raise a stone steadily through a energy is one of the basic laws of physics and
vertical distance of 1.5m, the mechanical work is stated as follows:
done is 15J (see Topic 1.7.2). Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it is always
work = force ⋅ distance moved in the direction of force conserved.

62

Representing energy transfers

However, energy is continually being transferred from one store to another. Some stores, such as
1.7.1 Energy those of electrostatic and chemical energy, are
easily transferred; for others, such as internal
energy, it is hard to arrange a useful transfer.
 Ultimately all energy transfers result in the hydroelectric scheme like that in Figure
1 The flow diagram of energy transfers for a 1.7.3d is shown in Figure 1.7.4.
friction) and the energy is brick falls, its gravitational
wasted, i.e. spread out and high-level reservoir
surroundings being heated (as increasingly more difficult to water

a result of doing work against use. For example, when a turbine generator

(gravitational force) transferred to the that some energy energy of falling water
kinetic
to kinetic energy; surroundings by has disappeared, energy of rotating turbine
gravitational potential
potential energy is when the brick hits heating and by
different
energy energy stores required by
transferred by the ground, kinetic sound waves. If it of water electricity
mechanical working energy is seems in a transfer kinetic customers
stores required
energy transferred to surroundings by heating
the ‘lost’ energy is often transferred into and by sound waves
non-useful thermal energy. This appears to be
▲ Figure 1.7.4 Energy transfers in a hydroelectric power
the fate of all energy in the Universe and is
station
one reason why new sources of useful energy
have to be developed.
Kinetic energy (Ek)
2 In thermal power stations, thermal energy Kinetic energy is the energy an object has
transferred from burning fossil fuels heats the because of its motion.
water in a boiler and turns it into steam. The For an object of mass m travelling with
steam drives turbines which in turn drive the velocity v, 1
generators that produce electricity as
described in Topic 4.5. Figure 1.7.5 shows a 22
Sankey diagram for a thermal power kinetic energy = = E mv
k
station, where the thickness of the bars
represents the size of energy transfer at If m is in kg and v in m/s, then kinetic energy
each stage.
is in J.
Since Ek depends on v2, a high-speed vehicle
boiler steam
turbine generator different energy
chemical customers: 1.7.6), has one hundred times
energy output 30%
input 100% the kinetic energy it has at
thermal energy transferred
to surroundings 100km/h.
thermal energy transferred
to surroundings
thermal energy transferred to surroundings
by electricity travelling at 1000km/h (Figure

▲ Figure 1.7.5 Sankey diagram depicting energy transfers

in a thermal power station

▲ Figure 1.7.6 Kinetic energy depends on the square of the velocity.

63
1.7 Energy, work and power
 Transfer of gravitational potential energy to
kinetic energy
Worked example
Safety
Calculate the kinetic energy of a football of mass 0.4kg Place something soft on the floor to absorb
the impact of the masses.
●
(400g) moving with a speed of 20m/s.
1
Ek = 2 mv2 Take care to keep feet well away from the
falling masses.
●
1
Friction-compensate a runway by raising
2
= 2⋅ 0.4kg ⋅ (20m/s)
= 0.2 ⋅ 400 kg m2/s2
the start point slightly so that the trolley
= 80Nm = 80 J
maintains a constant speed on the slope
Now put this into practice when no weight
is attached. Arrange the apparatus as in
Figure 1.7.7 with the bottom of the 0.1kg
1 Calculate the kinetic energy of a ball of mass 0.4kg
moving with a speed of 80m/s.
2 Calculate the kinetic energy of a ball of mass 50g (100g) mass 0.5m from the floor.
moving with a speed of 40m/s.
Start the timer and release the trolley. It will
accelerate until the falling mass reaches the
Potential energy (Ep) floor; after that it moves with constant
Potential energy is the energy an object has
velocity v.

Practical work
because of its position or to the weight mg of the
condition. An object above body. Hence
the Earth’s surface is work done by force = force ⋅
to tickertape timer (or
vertical height = mg ⋅ Δh
trolley friction-compensated runway
∴ the change in gravitational
considered to have gained 100 g
potential energy
an amount of gravitational motion sensor) ▲ Figure 1.7.7 0.5 m
potential energy equal to
the work that has been floor

done against gravity by the

force used to raise it. To
lift an object of mass m
through a vertical height
Δh at a place where the
Earth’s gravitational field
strength is g needs a
force equal and opposite
thread pulley
0.2kg mass raised vertically by 2m.
2 Calculate the gravitational potential energy lost by a
0.4kg mass which falls vertically by 3m.
= ΔEp = mgΔh
1 From your results calculate v inm/s (on the
When m is in kg, g in N/kg (or m/s2) and Δh in
tickertape 50 ticks = 1s). Find the mass of
m, then ΔEp is in J. the trolley in kg. Work out:
Kinetic energy gained by trolley and
Worked example 0.1kg mass = ___J
Potential energy lost by 0.1kg mass =
Taking g = 9.8N/kg, calculate the potential energy gained ___J Compare and comment on the results.
2 Explain why
by a 0.1kg (100g) mass raised vertically by 1m.

ΔEp = mgΔh = 0.1 kg ⋅ 9.8N/kg ⋅ 1m = 1Nm = 1J a the runway should be

friction-compensated b the trolley in the
Now put this into practice
1 Calculate the gravitational potential energy gained by a
experiment will move at a constant speed
 when the mass hits the floor. 3 Calculate the 80cm.
change in gravitational potential energy of a 4 Calculate the kinetic energy of a mass
mass of 300g falling through a distance of of 300g travelling at a speed of 4.0m/s.
64
1.7.1 Energy 1
∴ kinetic energy of boulder as it lands Ek = 2 mv2 1

24 kg (20) m /s
222
=⋅⋅
= 800 kgm2/s2
Conservation of energy = 800Nm
A mass m at height Δh above the ground has Ep mgΔh
Ek 0

Ep Ek
Δh
Worked example
gravitational potential energy = mgΔh (Figure
Ek mgΔh
1.7.8). When an object falls, its speed Ep 0
increases and it gains kinetic energy at the = 800J
expense of its gravitational potential energy. If m
it starts from rest and air resistance is
negligible, the kinetic energy it has gained on b Applying the principle of conservation of energy (and
reaching the ground equals the gravitational neglecting energy lost in overcoming air resistance)
potential energy lost by the mass Ek = ΔEp m

or1
2
2mv = mgΔh
where v is the speed of the mass when it change in potential energy = kinetic energy of boulder as it
lands
reaches the ground.
A boulder of mass 4kg rolls over a cliff and reaches the ∴ ∆Ep = Ek = 800 J
beach below with a velocity of 20m/s. Find: c If Δh is the height of the cliff
a the kinetic energy of the boulder as it lands b the
potential energy of the boulder when it was at the top of ▲ Figure 1.7.8 Loss of gravitational potential energy = gain
the cliff of kinetic energy
c the height of the cliff. ∆Ep = mgΔh
a mass of boulder = m = 4 kg Δ=
40 kgm/s 20m ∴ Δ 2 2 = ⋅==
p

velocity of boulder as it lands = v = 20m/s

This is an example energy which was 4 kg 10m/s
hE mg
of the principle of discussed earlier. 800 J 800 N m
conservation of
resistance.
Now put this into practice
In the case of a pendulum (Figure 1.7.9), kinetic 1 A stone of mass 2kg rolls off the flat roof of a building
and reaches the ground with a speed of 10m/s. Find a
and gravitational potential energy are the kinetic energy of the stone when it reaches the
interchanged continually. The energy of the bob ground
is all gravitational potential energy at the end of b the gravitational potential energy of the stone when it
the swing and all kinetic energy as it passes was on the roof
c the height of the roof. Neglect air resistance. 2 A
through its central position. In other positions it
football of mass 0.4kg rolls off a 30m high cliff. Calculate
has both gravitational potential and kinetic the speed of the football when it lands on the beach
energy. Eventually all the energy is transferred (neglecting air resistance).
to thermal energy as a result of overcoming air
 Ep Ek
Ep
k
Ep E Ek

Ep
▲ Figure 1.7.9 Interchange of potential and kinetic energy
for a simple pendulum

65
1.7 Energy, work and power
Braking distance/metres 6 24 54 9
6

Total stopping 12 36 72 12
Going further distance/metres 0

Elastic and inelastic collisions

In all collisions (where no external force acts) some
Thinking distance depends on the driver’s reaction time
kinetic energy is usually transferred to thermal energy
– this will vary with factors such as the driver’s degree
and, to a small extent, to sound. The greater the
of tiredness, use of alcohol or drugs, eyesight and the
proportion of kinetic energy transferred, the less elastic
visibility of the hazard. Braking distance varies with
is the collision, i.e. the more inelastic it is. In a perfectly
both the road conditions and the state of the car;
elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved.

it is longer when the road is wet or icy, when friction

between the tyres and the road is low, than when
conditions are dry. Efficient brakes and deep tyre tread
help to reduce the braking distance.

Car design and safety

▲ Figure 1.7.10 Newton’s cradle is an instructive toy for When a car stops rapidly in a collision, large forces
studying collisions and conservation of energy. are produced on the car and its passengers, and their
kinetic energy has to be dissipated.
Driving and car safety Crumple zones at the front and rear collapse in such a
Braking distance and speed way that the kinetic energy is absorbed gradually
(Figure 1.7.11). As we saw in Topic 1.6, this extends
For a car moving with speed v, the brakes must be
the collision time and reduces the decelerating force
applied over a braking distance s to bring the car to rest. and hence the potential for injury to the passengers.
The braking distance is directly proportional to the
square of the speed, i.e. if v is doubled, s is quadrupled.
The thinking distance (i.e. the distance travelled while
the driver is reacting before applying the brakes) has to
be added to the braking distance to obtain the overall
stopping distance, in other words
stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance
Typical values taken from the Highway Code are given in
Table 1.7.1 for different speeds. The greater the speed,
the greater the stopping distance for a given braking
force. (To stop the car in a given distance, a greater
braking force is needed for higher speeds.)
▼ Table 1.7.1
Speed/km/h 30 60 90 12 ▲ Figure 1.7.11 Cars in an impact test showing the
0 collapse of the front crumple zone
Thinking distance/metres 6 12 18 2 Extensible seat belts exert a backwards force (of 10000N
4 or so) over about 0.5m, which is roughly the distance
between the front seat occupants and the windscreen. In
a car travelling at 15m/s (54km/h), the effect felt by
 anyone not using a seat belt is the same as that, for
All these are secondary safety devices which aid survival
example, produced by jumping off a building 12m high.
in the event of an accident. Primary safety factors help
Air bags in most cars inflate and protect the driver from to prevent accidents and depend on the car’s
injury by the steering wheel. roadholding, brakes, steering, handling and above all on
the driver since most accidents are due to driver error.
Head restraints ensure that if the car is hit from
behind, the head goes forwards with the body and The chance of being killed in an accident is about five
not backwards over the top of the seat. This prevents times less if seat belts are worn and head restraints are
damage to the top of the spine. installed.

66
1.7.2 Work

Test yourself
1 Name the way by which energy is transferred in the 3 Calculate the kinetic energy of a
following processes a 1kg trolley travelling at 2m/s
a a battery is used to light a lamp b 2g (0.002kg) bullet travelling at 400m/s c
b a ball is thrown upwards 500kg car travelling at 72km/h.
c water is heated in a boiler. 4 a What is the velocity of an object of mass 1kg
2 State how energy is stored in the following a which has 200J of kinetic energy?
fossil fuels b Calculate the potential energy of a 5kg mass
b hot water when it is i 3m and ii 6m, above the ground.
c a rotating turbine (g = 9.8N/kg)
d a stretched spring. 5 It is estimated that 7 ⋅ 106kg of water pours over
the Niagara Falls every second.
If the falls are 50m high, and if all the energy of
the falling water could be harnessed, what power
would be available? (g = 9.8N/kg)

1.7.2 Work
FOCUS POINTS

★ Understand that when mechanical or electrical work is done, energy is transferred. ★

Use the correct equation to calculate mechanical work.

In science the word work has a different meaning from its everyday use. Here work is associated with
the motion of a force. When you lift and move a heavy box upstairs you will have done work in either
sense! In the absence of heat being generated, the work done is a measure of the amount of energy
transferred. When moving the heavy box, chemical energy from your muscles is transferred to
gravitational potential energy. If an electric motor is used to move the box, an equal amount of
electrical work will be done. In this topic you will learn how to calculate the mechanical work done in
different situations.
or electrical work is done in transferring equal
amounts of energy.
Work Mechanical work is done when a force moves.
In an energy transfer, work is done. The work No work is done in the scientific sense by
done is a measure of the amount of energy someone standing still holding a heavy pile of
transferred. The same amount of mechanical books: an upward force is exerted, but no
 motion results. or W = Fd = ΔE
If a building worker carries ten bricks up to the
where ΔE is the energy transferred.
first floor of a building, they do more work than The unit of work is the joule (J); it is the work
if they carry only one brick because they have done when a force of 1 newton (N) moves
to exert a larger force. Even more work is through 1 metre (m). For example, if you have to
required if they carry the ten bricks to the pull with a force of 50N to move a crate steadily
second floor. 3m in the direction of the force (Figure 1.7.12a),
The amount of work done W depends on the the work done
size of the force F applied and the distance d it is 50N ⋅ 3m = 150Nm = 150 J. That is
moves. We therefore measure work by
joules = newtons ⋅ metres
work = force ⋅ distance moved in direction of force

67
1.7 Energy, work and power

If you lift a mass of 3kg vertically through 2m

3 kg
(Figure 1.7.12b), you have to exert a vertically
upward force equal to the weight of the body,
i.e. 30N (approximately), and the work done is
30N ⋅ 2m = 60Nm = 60 J.
2m
Note that you must always take the distance in
the direction in which the force acts.

Test yourself
6 How much work is done when a mass of 3kg (g =
9.8N/kg) is lifted vertically through 6m? 7 A hiker
climbs a hill 300m high. If she has a mass of 51kg,
calculate the work she does in lifting her body to the
50 N
top of the hill.
3m 8 An electric motor does 80J of work in lifting a
box vertically upwards through 5m.
Calculate the weight of the box.

▲ Figure 1.7.12a
▲ Figure 1.7.12b

1.7.3 Energy resources

FOCUS POINTS
★ Understand the various ways that useful energy may be obtained or electrical power generated and give
advantages and disadvantages of each method.
★ Understand efficiency of energy transfer.

★ Know that energy is released by nuclear fusion in the Sun and that research is being carried out into
how energy released from nuclear fusion could produce large-scale electrical energy. ★ Define efficiency
and use the correct equations to calculate it.

Energy is needed to heat buildings, to make cars move, to provide artificial light, to make computers
work, and so on. The list is endless. This useful energy needs to be produced in controllable energy
transfers. For example, in power stations a supply of useful energy is transferred by electric currents
to different energy stores required by electricity customers. The raw materials for energy production
 are energy sources. These may be non-renewable or renewable.

In this topic you will learn that, apart from nuclear, geothermal, hydroelectric or tidal energy, energy
released by nuclear fusion in the Sun (Topic 5.1) is the source for all our energy resources.
Although energy cannot be destroyed, as you learnt in the previous section, it can be transferred
into non-useful stores, such as internal energy. The efficiency of a device measures the useful
energy as a percentage of the total energy supplied.

68
1.7.3 Energy resources Burning fossil fuels in power stations and in
cars pollutes the atmosphere with harmful gases
You will be able to recognise many different types such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
Carbon dioxide emission aggravates the
greenhouse effect (Topic 2.3) and increases
global warming. It is not immediately feasible to
Nuclear fuels prevent large amounts of carbon dioxide
of energy sources. Such sources may be entering the atmosphere, but less is produced
renewable or non-renewable; non-renewable by burning natural gas than by burning oil or
sources represent previously stored energy. coal; burning coal produces most carbon dioxide
Much of the energy used in everyday life is for each unit of energy produced. When coal and
ultimately derived from the release of energy in oil are burnt they also produce sulfur dioxide
the Sun by nuclear fusion. Sunlight is used in which causes acid rain. The sulfur dioxide can
biological processes to store chemical energy be extracted from the waste gases so it does
and can be harnessed to generate electricity not enter the atmosphere or the sulfur can be
directly in solar cells. removed from the fuel before combustion, but
these are both costly processes which increase
Non-renewable energy the price of electricity produced using these
sources Once used up these cannot be measures.
replaced. Two advantages of all The energy released in a nuclear reactor (Topic
non-renewable fuels are (i) their high 5.1) from the fission of uranium, found as an
energy density (i.e. they are ore in the ground, can be used to produce
concentrated sources) and the relatively electricity. Nuclear
small size of the energy transfer device (e.g. fuels do not pollute the atmosphere with carbon
a furnace) which releases their energy, and dioxide or sulfur dioxide but they do generate
(ii) their ready availability when energy radioactive waste materials with very long half
demand increases suddenly or fluctuates lives (Topic 5.2); safe ways of storing this waste
seasonally. for perhaps thousands of years must be found.
As long as a reactor is operating normally it
Fossil fuels does not pose a radiation risk, but if an accident
Fossil fuels include coal, oil and natural gas, occurs, dangerous radioactive material can leak
formed from the remains of plants and animals from the reactor and spread over a large area.
which lived millions of years ago and obtained
energy originally from the Sun. Their energy is Renewable energy sources
stored as chemical energy and at present they These cannot be exhausted and are generally
are our main energy source. Predictions vary as non polluting.
to how long they will last since this depends on
what reserves are recoverable and on the future Solar energy
demands of a world population expected to The energy falling on the Earth from the Sun is
increase from about 7700 million in 2019 to transferred mostly by visible light and infrared
about 9700 million by the year 2050. Some radiation and in an hour equals the total
estimates say oil and gas will run low early in the energy used by the world in a year.
present century but coal should last for 200 Unfortunately, its low energy density requires
years or so. large collecting devices and its availability
 varies. The greatest potential use of solar Solar cells, made from semiconducting
energy is as an energy source for low materials, convert sunlight into electricity
temperature water heating. The energy directly. A number of cells connected together
transferred by electromagnetic waves from can be used to supply electricity to homes
the Sun is stored as internal energy in solar (Figure 1.7.13) and to the electronic equipment
panels and can be transferred by heating to in communication and other satellites. They are
produce domestic hot water at about 70°C also used for small-scale power generation in
and to heat swimming pools. remote areas where there is no electricity
Solar energy can also be used to produce supply. The energy generated by solar cells can
high temperature heating, up to 3000°C or so, if be stored in batteries for later use. Recent
a large curved mirror (a solar furnace) focuses developments have made large-scale
the Sun’s rays onto a small area. The energy generation more cost effective and large solar
can then be used to turn water to steam for power plants are becoming more common.
driving the turbine of an electric generator in a There are many designs for prototype light
power station. vehicles run on solar power (Figure 1.7.14).

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1.7 Energy, work and power provide a useful ‘top up’ to the National Grid.
Wind turbines can be noisy and are
considered unsightly by some people so there is
some environmental objection to wind farms,
especially as the best sites are often in coastal
or upland areas of great natural beauty.

▲ Figure 1.7.13 Solar cells on a house provide electricity.

▲ Figure 1.7.15 Wind farm turbines

Wave energy
The rise and fall of sea waves have to be
transferred by some kind of wave energy
converter into the rotary motion required to drive
a generator. It is a difficult problem and the
large-scale production of electricity by this
means is unlikely in the near future. However,
small systems are being developed to supply
▲ Figure 1.7.14 Solar-powered car island communities with power.
Wind energy Tidal and hydroelectric energy
Infrared radiation from the Sun is also The flow of water from a higher to a lower level
responsible for generating wind energy. Giant from behind a tidal barrage (barrier) or a
windmills called wind turbines with two or hydroelectric dam (tidal energy) is used to drive
three blades each up to a water turbine (water wheel) connected to a
30m long drive electrical generators. Wind farms generator.
of 20 to 100 turbines spaced about 400m apart One of the largest working tidal schemes is
(Figure 1.7.15) supply about 400MW (enough the La Grande I project in Canada (Figure
electricity for 250000 homes) in the UK and 1.7.16). Such schemes have significant
implications for the environment, as they may 20% of the country’s needs. With good
destroy wildlife habitats of wading birds for management, hydroelectric energy is a reliable
example, and also for shipping routes. energy source, but there are risks connected
Over 100 years ago, India was one of the first with the construction of dams, and a variety of
countries to develop hydroelectric power; today problems may result from the impact of a dam
such power provides about 14% of the country’s on the environment. Land previously used for
electricity supply. China is the world’s largest forestry or farming may have to be flooded.
producer of hydroelectricity, generating around

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