Cell Communication Exam Weight
10 to 15%
and the Cell Cycle
Guiding Questions
● In what ways do cells use energy to communicate with one another?
● How do organisms use energy or conserve energy to respond to environmental
stimuli?
● Why and in what ways do cells communicate with one another?
Guiding Question:
Why and in what ways
do cells communicate
with one another?
Topic 4.1
Cell
Communication
Overview of Cell Communication
● Cells can signal to each other Purpose
and interpret the signals they
receive from other cells and the ● Respond to environmental
environment stimuli
○ Sense available nutrients and
○ Signals are most often
adjust metabolism
chemicals ○ Locate a suitable mate (yeast)
○ Inform other cells of how many
cells are around
● Present in diverse species and ○ Coordinate multicellular
responses
processes
Topic 4.1 - Cell Communication
Communication Types - Local Signaling
● Mostly in multicellular
organisms
○ communicate via signaling
molecules
● Communicate by direct contact
○ Some animal cells
● Cell junctions - directly connect
the cytoplasm of adjacent cells
○ Signaling substances (chemicals)
in the cytosol can pass freely
between adjacent cells
Topic 4.1 - Cell Communication
Local Signaling
Examples
Topic 4.1 - Cell Communication ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Communication types - Local Regulators
● Messenger molecules that
travel only short distances
○ Some animal cells
● Paracrine signaling - local
regulator diffuses through
extracellular fluids
● Synaptic signaling - In the
animal nervous system when a
neurotransmitter is released in
response to an electric signal
Topic 4.1 - Cell Communication
Local Regulator Examples
Synaptic signaling with Neurotransmitters
Plant immune response triggers local changes
Topic 4.1 - Cell Communication ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Local Regulator Examples
TED Talk on Biofilm formation and quorum sensing. Morphogenesis in embryo development.
Topic 4.1 - Cell Communication ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Comm. types - Long Distance Signaling
● Hormones
○ Found in plants and animals
● Hormonal signaling in animals is
called endocrine signaling
○ Specialized cells release hormones
○ travel to target cells via the
circulatory system
● The ability of a cell to respond to
a signal depends on whether or
not it has a receptor specific to
that signal
Topic 4.1 - Cell Communication
Long Distance Signaling Examples
Topic 4.1 - Cell Communication ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Long Distance Signaling Examples
Topic 4.1 - Cell Communication ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Topic 4.2
Introduction to
Signal
Transduction
Signal Transduction Pathway Overview
● A signal on a cell’s ● Cells receiving signals
surface is converted go through three
into a specific cellular processes:
response ○ Reception
○ Transduction
○ Response
Topic 4.2 - Introduction to Signal Transduction
1. Reception
● A signaling molecule binds to a receptor
protein, causing it to change shape
● Binding between a signal molecule
(ligand) and receptor is highly specific
● A shape change in a receptor is often
the initial transduction of the signal
● Most are plasma membrane proteins
○ 3 types:
■ G protein-coupled receptors
■ Receptor tyrosine kinases
■ Ion channel receptors
Topic 4.2 - Introduction to Signal Transduction
2. Transduction
● Cascades of molecular interactions
relay signals from receptors to target
molecules in the cell
● Usually a multistep process
○ Can greatly amplify a signal
○ Can coordinate and regulate the
cellular response
● The receptor activates another protein,
which activates another, and so on…
○ At each step, the signal is transduced
into a different form, usually a shape
change in a protein
Topic 4.2 - Introduction to Signal Transduction
Cyclic Amp (cAMP)
● one of the most widely used second messengers
○ Adenylyl cyclase
■ enzyme in the plasma membrane
■ converts ATP to cAMP in response to an extracellular signal
Topic 4.2 - Introduction to Signal Transduction
3. Response
● Cell signaling leads to regulation of
transcription or cytoplasmic
activities
○ The response may occur in the
nucleus or in the cytoplasm
● Many signaling pathways regulate
the synthesis of enzymes or other
proteins, usually by turning genes
on or off in the nucleus
Topic 4.2 - Introduction to Signal Transduction
Signal Termination
● Inactivation mechanisms are an essential aspect of cell
signaling
● If the concentration of external signaling molecules falls,
fewer receptors will be bound
● Unbound receptors revert to an inactive state
Topic 4.2 - Introduction to Signal Transduction
Topic 4.3
Signal
Transduction
Environmental Response
● The environment within an
organism and around it is
constantly changing.
● Changes in the environment can
initiate, alter or limit signal
transduction
○ Ligand concentration
○ Inhibitor presence/absence
Topic 4.3 - Signal Transduction
Types of Cell Responses from
Signal Transduction
Epinephrine stimulation of glycogen breakdown Mating pheromones in yeast
Topic 4.3 - Signal Transduction ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Types of Cell Responses from
Signal Transduction
Regulation of cell division using ligands
(growth factor/cytokines)
Topic 4.3 - Signal Transduction ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Types of Cell Responses from
Signal Transduction
SRY gene pathway and male characteristics HOX gene changes and body plan development
Topic 4.3 - Signal Transduction ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Types of Cell Responses
Pathway for ethylene
formation in plants
Ethylene levels determine fruit ripening
Topic 4.3 - Signal Transduction ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Apoptosis
● Cells that are infected, damaged, or
at the end of their functional lives
often undergo “programmed cell
death”
● Components of the cell are chopped
up and packaged into vesicles that
are digested by scavenger cells
○ Prevents enzymes from leaking out
of a dying cell and damaging
neighboring cells
Topic 4.3 - Signal Transduction
Topic 4.4
Changes in
Signal
Transduction
Pathways
Mutations
● Changes in the sequence of DNA that
codes for proteins
○ Can alter shape, active site location,
etc…
● Changes to any of the
proteins/enzymes involved in signal
transduction can lead to
○ Inability to make proteins
○ Inability to regulate cell cycle/ Cancer
○ Apoptosis of cell
○ Alteration of the pathway
Topic 4.4 - Changes in Signal Transduction Pathways
Pathway Inhibition
● Involves chemicals that block an aspect of
signal transduction
○ External inhibition
■ Inhibits reception - blocks the
reception molecule in the
membrane
○ Internal inhibition
■ Inhibits transduction - blocks one of
the intermediary molecules from
forming Inhibition may make an effective
treatment for certain types of cancer
Topic 4.4 - Changes in Signal Transduction Pathways
Topic 4.5
Feedback
Homeostasis
● Tendency to resist change in order to
maintain a stable, relatively constant
internal environment.
● Typically involves negative feedback loops
that counteract changes of various
properties from their target values, known
as set points.
● Positive feedback loops amplify their
initiating stimuli, in other words, they move
the system away from its starting state.
Topic 4.5 - Feedback
Negative Feedback -
Insulin/Glucagon
regulation of blood
sugar
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Positive Feedback
Lactation in mammals Childbirth
Topic 4.5 - Feedback ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Positive Feedback - Fruit ripening
Topic 4.5 - Feedback ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Topic 4.6
Cell Cycle
Purpose of Cell Division
● Unicellular organisms
○ Reproduction
● Multicellular organisms
○ Development from a
fertilized cell
○ Growth
○ Repair
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
Terminology
● Genome
○ Complete set of genetic information
● Chromosomes
○ DNA molecules packaged within cell
● Chromatin
○ complex of DNA and protein that condenses during
cell division (in eukaryotes)
● Somatic cells
○ non-reproductive cells
○ have two sets of chromosomes
● Gametes
○ reproductive cells
○ sperm and eggs
○ have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
Cell
Cycle-
Mitosis
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
● The cell cycle consists of Mitosis Overview
○ Mitotic (M) phase
■ mitosis and cytokinesis
○ Interphase
■ cell growth
■ Copying chromosomes
■ preparation for cell division
● Interphase
○ about 90% of the cell cycle
○ divided into subphases:
■ G1 phase (“first gap”)
■ G0 (resting phase)
■ S phase (“synthesis”)
■ G2 phase (“second gap”)
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
● Mitosis is conventionally divided
into five phases:
○ Prophase
○ Prometaphase
○ Metaphase
○ Anaphase
○ Telophase
● Cytokinesis is well underway by
late telophase
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
● Includes microtubules, centrosomes, Mitotic
the spindle microtubules, and the Spindles
asters
● Microtubules attach to the
kinetochores move the chromosomes
to the metaphase plate
● Assembly begins in the centrosome
○ microtubule organizing center
● Centrosome replicates
○ migrate to opposite ends of the
cell, as spindle microtubules grow
out from them
● An aster (a radial array of short
microtubules) extends from each
centrosome
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
● Anaphase
○ sister chromatids separate Microtubules in
○ move along the kinetochore
microtubules toward opposite
Mitosis
ends of the cell
● Microtubules shorten
○ depolymerizing at their
kinetochore ends
● Nonkinetochore microtubules
○ overlap and push against each
other, elongating the cell
● Telophase
○ daughter nuclei form at opposite
ends of the cell
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
Cytokinesis
● In animal cells
○ Process of cleavage
○ forms a cleavage
furrow
● In plant cells
○ a cell plate forms
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
Binary
Fission
● Reproduction by cell division
● Prokaryotes
○ bacteria and archaea
● In binary fission:
○ the chromosome replicates
■ beginning at the origin of
replication
○ two daughter chromosomes
actively move apart
Topic 4.6 - Cell Cycle
Topic 4.7
Regulation of the
Cell Cycle
Topic 4.7 - Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Cell Cycle Regulation - Cyclins
● The cell cycle control system is
regulated by both internal and
external controls
● The clock has specific checkpoints
where the cell cycle stops until a
go-ahead signal is received
● regulatory proteins involved in cell
cycle control:
○ cyclins
○ cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)
Topic 4.7 - Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Cell Cycle Regulation - Signals
● Checkpoints come from cellular
surveillance mechanisms within the cell
● Three important checkpoints are those in
the G1, G2, and M phases
○ Go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint
○ Lead to completion of S, G2, and
M phases and divide
● Does not receive the go-ahead signal
○ it will exit the cycle
○ switching into a nondividing state
called the G0 phase
Topic 4.7 - Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Checkpoint failure - Cancer
● Most cells exhibit anchorage ● Cancer cells do not respond normally
dependence—to divide, they must to the body’s control mechanisms
be attached to a substratum ● Cancer cells do not need growth
● Density-dependent inhibition factors to grow and divide:
and anchorage dependence ○ They may make their own growth
check the growth of cells at an factor
optimal density ○ They may convey a growth factor
● Cancer cells exhibit neither type signal without the presence of the
of regulation of their division growth factor
○ They may have an abnormal cell
cycle control system
Topic 4.7 - Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Checkpoint failure - Cancer
Topic 4.7 - Regulation of the Cell Cycle
