THE MICROSCOPE M O D E R N M IC R O S C O P E

 Transmission Electron Microscope

M IC R O S C O P Y (TEM)
 The use of investigation with a  Scanning Microscope
microscope.
 The microscope uses glass lenses to T O T A L M A G N IF IC A T IO N
magnify objects we are not able to see  Ocular Len X Objective Lens = Total
through our naked eye. Magnification.
E xam p le : 10X X 10X = 100 (100
M IC R O S C O P E times larger)
 An optical instrument used for viewing  L o w p o w er len s - low magnification
very small objects, such as mineral about 4x.
samples or animal or plant cells,  H ig h p o w er len s - high magnification
typically magnifies several hundred about 40x and 100x.
times.  R eso lu tio n - the ability of the
microscope to show the details of an
TW O TY P E S O F M IC R O S C O P E : object being examined.
1. ) Simple Microscope  C o n trast - refers to the darkness of the
2. ) Compound Microscope background with reference to the
specimen.
S IM P L E M IC R O S C O P E
 Nothing but a single biconvex lens. It PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE
referred to as a m ag n ifyin g g lass . M ech an ica l P arts
 The object to be viewed in simple  parts of the microscope that are
microscope is placed between the optic involved in giving support or strength to
center and the focus. the instrument. These are also the parts
 Image formed is erect, virtual and that are movable and can be adjusted.
magnified. 1. B o d y tu b e - A long tube. A hollow tube
through which light passes from the
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF objective to the eyepiece.
THE MICROSCOPE 2. R ev o lv in g N o sep iec e - holds the two or
more objectives and can be rotated to easily
 1590 - H an s Jan ss en and his son
change power.
Z ach arias Jan ss en , placed multiple
3. A rm - supports the upper portion of the
lenses and found out that the objects
microscope. It is used to carry the
through the tube appear greatly
microscope. Connects the base and the
enlarged.
body tube together.
 1609 - G alileo G alilei, invented a
4. S tag e - the platform where the slide or
compound microscope using convex
specimen to be examined is placed.
and concave lenses.
5. S tag e C lip - holds or secure the slide in
 1625 - the first term microscope that he
place on a stage.
used by G io van n i F ab e r to refer to the
6. B ase - supports the entire microscope.
compound microscope of Galilei.
Used to carry the microscope. The part
 1665 - R o b ert H o o ke , an English
where the microscope is firmly anchored.
Physicist, coined the term cell in his
7. In clin atio n jo in - a joint found in
publication Micrographia.
microscope at which the arm is attached to
 1676 - A n to n ie V an L eew en h o ek, was
the pillar of the microscope. It is used for
the first to see living cells using his own
tilting the microscope.
single lens microscope. He examined
blood cells, yeast and insects.
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8. F in e ad ju stm en t kn o b - small knob that which means, all cells are from pre-
will focus the image when you are using the existing cells.
high power.  Formally established by Theodor
9. C o u rse ad ju stm en t kn o b - the large Schwann and Matthias Schleiden in
knob that will focus the image when you are 1839.
using the low power. It is used when the  The most basic tenet underlying the
image is blurry and you wanted to focus the field of biology.
specimen.  Formulated by the 3 German scientists:
Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleidin,
Illu m in atin g P arts and Rudolph Virchow.
 Parts of the microscope that provide  Cells are the smallest unit of life.
and capture light illumination.  Cells are the basic unit of organization
1. M irro r - reflects light from the of all organisms.
surroundings to the specimen on the stage.
It is planar on one side and concave on the CELL NUM BER
other. C o n cav e M irro r is used for natural  U n icellu lar - are made of single cell.
light. F lat sid e / P la n ar is used for artificial E xam p le : amoeba, bacteria,
light. chlamydomonas, yeast, and euglena.
2. C o n d en ser - to focus the light onto the  M u lticellu lar - are made of million cells.
specimen. Ensures optimal lightning. E xam p le : plants and animals
3. Iris d iap h rag m - adjust the amount of
light reaching the specimen. Found under C E L L S IZ E
the stage.  Are extremely small therefore can be
observed under microscope. Are
M ag n ifyin g P arts measured in micrometers or microns.
 Are involved in magnifying the image of  M yc o p lasm a - the smallest cell.
the specimens, including the resolution.  N erv e cell - longest cell
1. E ye p iec e o r O cu lar - part of the  O strich eg g - largest cell
microscope that you look through contains a
lens that has a magnification power of 10x. CELL SHAPE
the part through which an observer looks to  Varies in different organism.
view a specimen.  Plant cell is different from animal cell.
2. O b jectiv es - they consist of 4x, 10x, and  Spherical, oval, elliptical, spindle
40x eyepiece lens. The main lenses that shaped, cuboidal, polygonal or
magnify the specimen being observed. columnar,

CELL THEORY PROKARYOTIC CELLS

 1665 - R o b ert H o o ke , observe cells in  A group of organisms that lack true

cork. Coined the term cells nucleus and other membrane bound
 A n to n V an L eeu w en h o ek, created a organelles.
powerful microscope.  Few specified structures
 1827 -33 - R o b ert B ro w n , noticed that  Small and simple
pollen grains in water jiggled around  DNA within the cytoplasm
called “Brownian motion”. discovered  Circular DNA
nucleus.  Have cell membranes
 1838 - M atth ias S ch le id en , a botanist  Cell division by BINARY FISSION
who concluded that all plants are made (bacterial cell)
of cells.  Plasmids + simple flagella
 1839 - T h eo d o r S ch w an n , a zoologist  A R C H A E A B A C T E R IA - the oldest
who concluded that all animals are prokaryotes
made of cells.  Pro means “old” and karyon means
 1855 - R u d o lp h V irch o w , a physician “nucleus”
who did a research on cancer cells and  They are usually microscopic
concluded ‘Omnis cellula e cellula” measuring about 1 to 10 um
 Is about 3.5 billioin years old
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
PARTS OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS
1. G lyco ca lyx - an outer layer that provides
protection. Helps bacteria to hold on to
surfaces and protects them from being
engulfed by macrophages. May exist a rigid
capsule or a more unstructured slime layer.
2. C ell w all - a rigid organelles composed of
cellulose that gives plant cell a box shape.
Gives shape and support to the cell. Found
outside of the plasma membrane and is
composed of peptidoglycan. PLANT CELLS
3. P la sm a m em b ra n e - a structure that  Posses cell walls
prevents the loss of water and electrolytes  Chloroplasts are present
inside the cell. Prevents the entry of  Almost rectangular in shape
unwanted substances into the ell.  Posses large vacuoles
4. P la sm id - a small, circular, extra  Cilia rarely occur in plant cell
chromosomal DNA molecule found in the  Higher plants do not possess centrioles
cytoplasm. Separates from chromosomal  Have no or less number of lysosomes
DNA.  Has plasmodesmata or small pits that
5. N u cleo id - the region where DNA is link one plant cell to another.
concentrated.  Have specialized cells such as root hair,
6. C yto p lasm - a viscous fluid or jelly like which are elongated outgrowths from
material where organelles are embedded. the outer layer of root cells.
The whole inside region of the cell where  Guard cells are specialized to regulate
chromosomes, ribosomes, and other cellular the opening and closing of the stomata.
inclusions are suspended.
7. R ib o so m e - synthesized proteins or the A N IM A L C E L L S
protein factories.  Do not possess cell wall
8. P ilu s (p lu ral, p ili) - short, hairlike  No chloroplasts
appendage on the surface of some bacteria.  Round in shape
Helps bacteria adhere to the surface of host  Have many small vacuoles
cell. It can also be used to transfer genetic  Cilia are present in animal cells
material from one bacterium to another,  Containes centrioles
called sex p ilu s.  Possess many number of vacuoles
9. F lag ellu m (p lu ral, flag ella ) - long,
threadlike structure that facilitates movement Every cell, except for bacteria, has three
in bacteria. main parts: n u cleu s , cyto p las m and cell
10. F im b riae - bristle-like fibers that are m em b ra n e.
shorter than pili. It is primarily used for
bacterial attachment to tissue surfaces. ORGANELLES IN PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
EUKARYOTIC CELLS C E L L M E M B R A N E - sometimes called
p lasm a m em b ra n e , a semi permeable
 Cells containing nucleus and membrane membrane that facilitates the movement of
bound organelles molecules inside and outside the plant or
 Linear DNA animal cell. A thin layer that separates the
 Cellulose cell walls cell from its external environment.
 Cell division by MITOSIS
 No plasmids C Y T O P L A S M - a viscous fluid or jelly like
 Flagella made of microtubules material where organelles are embedded.
 Have both cell membranes and cell wall.
 Measures 10 to 100 um in diameter. C Y T O P L A S M IC O R G A N E L L E S
 Have components that are surrounded 1. E n d o p las m ic retic u lu m (E R ) - series of
by membrane which are called tunnels throughout the cytoplasm transport
organelles.
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proteins from one part of the cell to another. cells. Support the cell to maintain its
S m o o th E n d o p lasm ic R eticu lu m (S E R ), structure and shape.
ribosomes free and function in detoxification
of lipids. R o u g h E n d o p las m ic R eticu lu m IN T E R M E D IA T E F IL A M E N T S - absent in
(R E R ), contains ribosomes and releases plants, most stable component and provide
newly proteins from the cell. structure to the nuclear envelope.
2. G o lg i ap p ara tu s / b o d y - receives
proteins and other compounds from the ER. G L Y C O G E N G R A N U L E S - abundance in
Package and distribute the materials to the liver cells, plays an important role in glucose
plants and animal cell. Stores and releases metabolism
chemicals.
3. M ito ch o n d rio n (p lu ral, m ito ch o n d ria) - B IO L O G IC A L P IG M E N T S - abundant in
the powerhouse of the cell. They produce plant cells, particularly in photosynthetic cells.
much of the energy. Center for cellular
respiration. C H L O R O P L A S T - where the food for plants
4. L yso so m e s - contain hydrolytic enzymes. are made
Digestion center. Also known as garbage
disposal center. Are small, spherical, C H L O R O P H Y L L - traps light and it is used
membrane-bound organelles which contain to produce food for plants.
various kinds of enzymes.
5. S ec re to ry g ran u les - large, dense P E R O X IS O M E S - beaks down fatty acids
granules with membranes. and detoxifies harmful substances.
6. L ip id d ro p lets - store acids and sterols.
N U C L E U S - the control center of the cell
CELLULAR MACROMOLECULES since it contains the DNA. Where
Are substances suspended in the cytoplasm chromsomes are found or the genetic
with varying functions and are not material. The most visible part of the
membrane-bound structures. eukaryotic cell. Also serves as the site for
the converting genetic instructions in DNA
R IB O S O M E S - are not considered into functional substances such as proteins.
organelles because they are not surrounded
by membranes. Has to organic compounds: N U C L E A R M E M B R A N E - composed of two
proteins and RNA. layers which separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm.
C E N T R O S O M E S - part of the cytoplasm
that produces microtubules. N U C L E O P L A S M - dense, protein-rich
substance inside the nucleus.
C E N T R IO L E S - are paired organelles found
only in animal cell. Involved in mitosis. N U C L E O L U S - spherical, unbound
Located near the nucleus. Small cylindrical (structurs reponsible for ribsome formation)
structures made of short microtubules is suspended. Rich in proteins and nucleic
arranged in circles. acids, and is where rRNA is transcribe and
assembled.
C Y T O S K E L E T O N - series of fibers made
from proteins. Provides motility and strength N U C L E A R P O R E S - the exchange of the
for the cell. materials between the cytoplasm and
nucleus takes place. Openings in the nuclear
M IC R O T U B U L E S - are microscopic membrane. These act as selective channels
cylinders that support and give the cell the between the cytoplasm and inside of the
shape. Are long, slender, protein tubes. nucleus, selectively allowing molecules that
Absent in plant cell and provides pathways come in and out of the nucleus.
for certain cellular molecules.
C H R O M A T IN - found inside the nucleus,
M IC R O F IL A M E N T S - pip like structures and which is made up of DNA and proteins and
help provide shape and movement for the forms chromosomes during cell division.

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C H R O M O S O M E S - contains the genes d iffu sio n , which is the net movement of
inherited by the offspring from their parents. solute substances from an area of
Humans have 46 chromosomes. higher concentration to an area of lower
Abnormalities in the chromosome structure concentration.
can lead to a genetic disorder or even death.  S im p le d iffu sio n - the process by
which molecules, atoms, or ions diffuse
V A C U O L E - the storage area of the cell. through a semipermeable membrane.
Stores water, food and waste materials.  F acilita ted d iffu sio n - the movement of
CELL MODIFICATION AND the solutes through protein channels
down the concentration gradients.
ADAPTATIONS  O sm o sis - where solvent molecules
 A process in which an ordinary or such as water move from a region of
generic cell is transformed into a less concentrated solution.
specialized cell in order to do a specific
task for the body. A C T IV E T R A N S P O R T
 M icro v illi - are cytoplasmic extensions  Uses energy in moving solutes across a
that increase the surface area of a cell, membrane by moving up the
increasing the absorption of nutrients. concentration gradient.
 N erv e cells - the transmission of  C arrier p ro tein , the process requires
impulses from the brain to the spinal the expenditure of energy through
cord and different parts of the body. transport proteins.
 R ed b lo o d cells (R B C s) - have a
biconcave-dics shape and are highly T W O T Y P E S O F A C T IV E T R A N S P O R T
deformable. RBCs and platelets lose 1. P rim ary activ e tran sp o rt - directly uses
their nucleus as they mature. chemical energy to transport all species of
 S p erm cells - another specialzed cell solutes.
with parts that help it carry out its 2. S ec o n d ary activ e tran sp o rt - transport
function. Have plenty of mitochondria of substances against a concentration
along their middle piece. gradient involving energy to establish a
 C h ro m ato p h o res - star-shaped cells gradient.
containing bioluminescent pigments that
facilitate the changing of the color of the B U L K o r V E S IC U L A R T R A N S P O R T
body.  Water and small solutes enter and
 N em ato cys ts - stinging cells that leaver the cell through passive and
contain a needle-like structure used to active diffusion
inject a toxic substance into the prey of
interest. TYPES OF BULK TRANSPORT
 Another specialized modification in 1. E xo c yto sis (‘exit” o r o u tsid e) - process
eukaryotic cells is the presence of cell- of removing materials from the cell through
cell ju n ctio n s, the point where two the vesicles that fuse with the plasma
cells are joined in long term membrane.
associations. 2. E n d o cyto sis (‘in sid e” o r en ter) - reverse
process of exocytosis wherein cells engulf
CELLULAR TRANSPORT materials.
C ellu lar T ran sp o rt T Y P E S O F E N D O C Y T O S IS
 Living cells exist in a liquid environment. 1. P h ag o cyto sis (cellu la r eatin g ) - most
common form of endocytosis. Occurs when
TYPES OF CELLULAR TRANSPORT an undissolved materials enters the cell.
1. P as siv e tran sp o rt 2. P in o cyto s is (cellu la r d rin kin g ) - occurs
2. A c tice T ran sp o rt when dissolved subtances enter the cell.
3. R ece p to r-m ed iated - are applied for
P A S S IV E T R A N S P O R T transferring antigenic proteins from
 The movement of substances across exctracellular matrix into the cells.
membranes without the use of energy.
One means of passive transport is
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