The process that account for an individual‟s intensity,

direction and persistence of effort toward attaining .

 Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Motivation
 Motivation is the willingness of a
person to exert high levels of
effort to satisfy some individual
need or want.
 The effort is a measure of intensity.
 Need – Some internal state that
makes certain outcomes appear
attractive.
 forces that energize, direct and sustain a
person’ efforts
Introduction (Cont.)

that that
Motivation leads to results in Some level
is the Choice of of job
psychological behavior performance
process

The Motivation-Behavior-Job Performance Sequence

Need and Importance of
Motivation
 Higher efficiency
 Reduce absenteeism.
 Reduces employee turn over.
 Improves a corporate image.
 Good relations.
 Improved morale.
 Reduced wastages and breakages.
 Reduced accidents.
 Facilitates initiative and innovation.
Types of Motivation
 Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation coming
from within, not from external rewards;
based on personal enjoyment of a task.

 Extrinsic Motivation: Based on obvious

external rewards, obligations, or similar
factors (e.g., pay, grades)
Types of Motives
 Primary Motive: Innate (inborn)
motives based on biological needs
that must be met to survive
 Stimulus Motive: Needs for
stimulation and information; appear to
be innate, but not necessary for
survival
 Secondary Motive: Based on learned
needs, drives, and goals
Psychological Contract: A Set of
Employment Expectations

 Contributions:
 What does each employee expect to
contribute to the organization?
 Inducements:
 What will the organization provide to each
employee in return?
Theories to be discussed
 Maslow‟s Need Hierarchy Theory
 Alderfer‟s ERG Theory
 Mc Clelland‟s Need Achievement Theory
 Herzberg‟s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
 Mc Gregor‟s X & Y Theory
 Vroom‟s Expectancy Model
 Adam‟s Equity Theory
 Locke‟s Goal Setting Theory
 Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs

Lower Order Higher Order

Need: Need:
External needs; Internal needs;
Physiological & Social, Esteem &
Safety needs Self- Self Actualization
Actualization needs
Esteem Needs
Social/Belonging Needs
Safety/Security Needs
Physiological Needs
 Physiological Needs are those required
to sustain life, such as: Air, water,
nourishment, sleep.
 Safety Needs are the needs for shelter
and security; Eg: Living in a safe area,
Medical insurance, Job security,
Financial reserves.
 Social Needs include the need for
belongingness and love; eg: Need for
friends, Need for belonging, Need to give
and receive love.
 Esteem needs include the desire for
self-respect, self-esteem, and the
esteem of others.
 Self-actualization; the need for self-
realization, continuous self-
development, and the process of
becoming all that a person is
capable of becoming.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation

Existence

Relatedness Growth

All needs are operative at one time

E.R.G. Theory
 A variation of Maslow's hierarchy of
needs
 Three groups of needs
 Existence needs: physical and
material wants.
 Relatedness needs: desires for
interpersonal relationships.
 Growth needs: desires to be
creative and productive; to use
one‟s skills.
Comparison of Maslow’s Need
Hierarchy And ERG Theory
 ERG theory demonstrates that more than one
need may be operative at the same time.
 ERG theory does not assume a rigid
hierarchy where a lower need must be
substantially satisfied before one can move
on.
 Alderfer also deals with frustration-
regression. That is, if a higher-order need is
frustrated, an individual then seeks to
increase the satisfaction of a lower-order
need.
 McClelland’s Needs Theory

 The need for Achievement: is the drive to

accomplish challenging goals.
 The need for Power: is the desire to control
others; to influence others‟ behavior according
to one‟s wishes.
 The need for Affiliation: is the desire for
close relationships with others.
 Strong need for achievement people
 Take responsibility for results of behavior
 Willing to take calculated risks
 Set moderate achievement goals
 Prefer to set performance standards for
themselves
 Prefer non-routine tasks to routine
assignments
 Welcome feedback about how well they are
doing
 Strong Need for Power people
 Focuses on "controlling the means of
influencing the behavior of another
person”
 Having strong effects on other people
 Means of influence: anything available to
the person to control the behavior of
another
 Actively searches for means of influence
 Strong Need for Affiliation people
 Focuses on "establishing, maintaining, and
restoring positive affective relations with
others"
 Want close, warm interpersonal
relationships
 Seek the approval of others, especially
those about whom they care
 Like other people, want other people to like
them, and want to be in the company of
others
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 Herzberg investigated the question “What do
people want from their job?”
 He asked people to describe the situations in
which they felt exceptionally Good or Bad
about their job.
 The replies of „Felt Good‟ were significantly
different from „Felt Bad‟.
 He discovered that factors leading to
satisfaction are different from dis-satisfaction.
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory

 Two distinct continua: one for

satisfaction and one for dissatisfaction
 Not a single continuum with
dissatisfaction on one end and
satisfaction on the other
 Herzberg eventually called the satisfiers
motivators; the dis-satisfiers hygiene
factors.
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction

Traditional view

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg's view
Motivators
Satisfaction No satisfaction

Hygiene Factors
No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

 Two independent scales:

 Satisfaction and No Satisfaction
○ These are the motivators

 Dissatisfaction and No Dissatisfaction

○ Hygiene or maintenance factors
 Comparison of Hygiene and Motivators
 Hygiene Factors  Motivators
 Company policies  Recognition
 Supervision  Achievement
 Work conditions  Work itself
 Salary  Responsibility
 Relationship with peers  Opportunity for
 Status advancement
 Security  Growth

These factors contribute to job These factors contribute

dissatisfaction. to job satisfaction.
 McGregor’s Theory X & Y
 Theory X  Theory Y
 Managers are pessimistic  Managers are more
about workers‟ optimistic about
capabilities. workers‟ capabilities.
 Managers believe people  Managers believe
dislike work, seek to people enjoy work,
avoid responsibility, and willingly accept
are not ambitious. responsibility, exercise
self-control, have the
 Employees must be capacity to innovate,
closely supervised. and work is as natural
as play.
Goal Setting Theory
 A goal is what a person tries to attain,
accomplish, or achieve.
 Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how
much effort will need to be expended.
 A specific hard goal that is understood and accepted by
the individual acts as an internal stimulus.
 Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than
does the generalized goal of “do your best.”
 The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal
stimulus.
 Feedback is critical and acts to guide behavior.
Equity Theory of Motivation
 Individuals compare their job inputs and
outcomes with those of others and then
respond so as to eliminate any
inequities.
 Equity theory recognizes that individuals
are concerned not only with the absolute
amount of reward for their efforts, but
also with the relationship of this amount
to what others receive.
Equity Theory of Motivation

Performance Social Reward

Education Benefits
Organizational Level Recognition
Tenure/Seniority Actual Pay
Gender Perks

INPUTS OUTPUTS
Equity Theory of Motivation

 If an imbalance is perceived, what could

be done?
 Change the inputs.
 Change the outcomes.
 Look at another measurement.
 Change one‟s self-perception.
 Choose to leave.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 The strength of a tendency to act in a
certain way depends on the strength of an
expectation that the act will be followed by
a given outcome and on the attractiveness
of that outcome to the individual.

 MF = Expectancy X Instrumentality X ∑
(Valence(s))

 Where, MF= Motivational Force

 (EXPECTANCY) Effort-performance
relationship: The probability perceived by the
individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead
to performance.
 (INSTRUMENTALITY) Performance-reward
relationship: The degree to which the individual
believes that performing at a particular level will lead to
the attainment of a desired outcome.
 (VALENCE) Reward-personal goals
relationship: The degree to which organizational
rewards satisfy an individual‟s personal goals or needs
and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the
individual.
Basic Concepts Of
Expectancy Theory

Effort Performance Outcome

Expectancy Instrumentality

13-34
Motivational determinants
1. MBO
Set SMART goals
 Specific
 Participative
 Decision making
 Performance feedback

 2. Employee involvement
Contd..
 3. Job redesign
 4. Variable pay programs
Job Dissatisfaction
 Employee unrest
 Absenteeism
 Tardiness
 Employee turnover
 Union activity
 Early retirement
LEADERSHIP
 The ability to influence a group toward
the achievement of goals
 Leadership is a process by which a
person influences others to
accomplish an objective and directs
the organization in a way that makes
it more cohesive and coherent.
Managers Vs Leaders

Manager Characteristics Leader Characteristics

 Administers • Innovates
 A copy • An original
 Maintains
• Develops
• Focuses on people
 Focuses on systems and structures
• Inspires trust
 Relies on control
• Long range perspective
 Short range view
• Asks what and why
 Asks how and when • Eye on horizon
 Eye on bottom line • Originates
 Imitates • Challenges the status quo
 Accepts the status quo • Own person
 Classic good soldiers • Does the right thing
 Does things right
Trait Theories

 Proposed by „Ghiselli‟.
 What characteristics or traits make a person a leader?

 Great Man Theory: Individuals are born either with

or without the necessary traits for leadership
 Trait theories of leadership sought personality, social,
physical or intellectual traits that differentiate leaders
from non leaders
 Technical, conceptual and human skills (Katz 1974)
 e.g. inborn traits can be intelligence, understanding,
perception, high motivation, socio-economic status,
initiative, maturity, self assurance etc.
TRAIT APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP

LEADERS ARE “BORN,” NOT MADE

 Physical characteristics: appearance, height, age

 Personality: extroversion, persistence, self-
assurance, decisiveness
 Intelligence: knowledge, ability, judgment
 Social characteristics: tact, diplomacy, sociability,
fluency
Trait Theories (Weaknesses)

 All traits are not identical.

 Some traits may be acquired through training and may
not be inherited.
 Most important and least important traits can not be
identified.
 Traits required to „attain‟ leadership may not be same as
required to „sustain‟ leadership.
 It fails to explain many leadership failures even after
presence of required traits.
 At times many traits are there in follower but they could
not lead.
 Traits are not uniformly distributed from top to bottom.
Behavioral Theories

Behavioral Theory
Leadership behaviors can be taught.
vs.
Trait Theory
Leaders are born, not made.
Behavioral Theories
This theory proposes that specific behaviours differentiate
leaders from non-leaders.

 Ohio State Studies: initiating structure (task or goal

orientation) vs consideration (recognition of individual
needs and relationships)

 University of Michigan studies: Employee oriented

(genuine concern for people) vs production oriented
genuine concern for task)
Ohio State Studies
Initiating Structure
The extent to which a leader is likely to define and
structure his or her role and those of subordinates in
the search for goal attainment

Consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to have job
relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for
subordinate‟s ideas, and regard for his/her feelings
Behavioral Approach
 Ohio State Studies/University of Michigan

 Initiating Structure/Production Orientation

 Consideration/Employee Orientation

 Assumption: Leaders can be trained

Managerial Grid
Management styles in Managerial Grid
 Impoverished Management (1,1)
 Task Management/ Authority Obedience
(9,1)
 Country Club (1,9)
 Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
 Team Management (9,9)
Managerial Grid
 Given by Blake and Mouton in 1969.
 Initial step consist of Grid Seminar: In this
previously trained managers help others to
analyse their management styles.
 It is done through specially designed
questionnaire for the managers to
determine where they stand on Concern for
People and Concern for Production.
 Each participant approach is scored using
a number ranging from 1 (Low) to 9 (High).
The Managerial Grid
9,9
High 9
1,9
Country club management
Team management
Work accomplishment is from
Thoughtful attention needs of people
committed people, interdependence
for satisfying relationships leads to through a “common stake” in organization
8 A comfortable, friendly organization purpose leads to relationship
atmosphere and work tempo of trust and respect
7
Concern for people

5
5,5
Organization Man Management
4 Adequate organization performance
possible through balancing the necessity to
get out work with maintaining
morale of the people at a satisfactory level
3 9,1
1,1
Impoverished Management Authority-Obedience
Exertion of minimum effort to get Efficiency in operations results
2 from arranging conditions of
required work done is appropriate
to sustain organization membership work in such a way that human
Low elements interfere to a minimal degree
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Low Concern for production High
Likert Leadership Styles
Four systems
 System 1: Exploitive authoritative
 System 2: Benevolent authoritative
 System 3: Consultative
 System 4: Participative group
management
System 1: Exploitive Authoritative

 Management uses fear and threats.

 Communication is top down with most
decisions taken at the top.
 Superiors and subordinates are distant.
System 2: Benevolent Authoritative

 Management uses rewards.

 Information flowing upward is restricted
to what management wants to hear and
whilst policy decisions come from the
top some prescribed decisions may be
delegated to lower levels.
System 3: Consultative

 Management offers rewards, occasional

punishments.
 Big decisions come from the top whilst
there is some wider decision making
involvement in details and
communication is downward whilst
critical upward communication is
cautious.
 System 4: Participative Group
Management
 Management encourage group participation.
 Involvement in setting high performance goals
with some economic rewards
 Communication flows in all directions and is
open and frank with decision making through
group processes with each group linked to
others by persons who are members of more
than one group called linking pins;
 Subordinates and superiors are close.
 The result is high productivity and better
industrial relations.
Contingency Theories

 Leadership as being more flexible –

different leadership styles used at different
times depending on the circumstance.
 Suggests leadership is not a fixed series of
characteristics that can be transposed into
different contexts.
Contingency Theories
 All Consider the Situation
 Fiedler Contingency Model
 Hersey and Blanchard‟s Situational
Leadership Model
 Assumptions underlying the different models:
 Fiedler: Leader‟s style is fixed.
 Other‟s: Leader‟s style can and should be
changed.
Fiedler Contingency Model
 Basic convention is that the
appropriateness of leadership style
depends upon their matching with
situational requirement.
 Fiedler model consist of three elements:
 Leadership styles
 Situational variables and
 their interrelationships.
Fiedler- Leadership styles
 Leadership styles:
 Two dimensions- task directed &
relationship oriented.

LPC measures- task or relationship-

oriented leadership style ( think of all the
coworkers you have ever had and describe
one person you least enjoyed working
with)
Fiedler-Defining the situation
o Leader Member Relations - the degree of
confidence, trust, and respect subordinates
have on their leader
o Task Structure - the degree to which task
assignments are in the procedure
(Structured/ unstructured).
o Position Power - influence derived from
one's formal structural position in the
organization eg. Hire, fire, promotion etc.
 Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)
Scale
Pleasant 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Friendly 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unfriendly
Rejecting 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Accepting
Tense 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Relaxed
Cold 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Warm
Supportive 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Hostile
Boring 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Interesting
Quarrelsome 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Harmonious
Gloomy 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cheerful
Open 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Closed
Backbiting 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Loyal
Untrustworthy 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Trustworthy
Considerate 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Inconsiderate
Nasty 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Nice
Agreeable 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Disagreeable
Insincere 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Sincere
Kind 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unkind
 Scoring
 Your final score is the total of the numbers you
circled on the 16 scales

57 or less = Low LPC (task motivated)

58-63 = Middle LPC (socio-independent leaders,
self directed and not overly concerned with the
task or with how others view them)
64 or above = High LPC (motivated by
relationships)
Hersey and Blanchard’s
Theory
 Called as Situational Leadership Theory.
 Focuses on followers & readiness.
 Followers: the one who accept or reject
leadership.
 Readiness: the extent to which the people
have the ability and willingness to
accomplish a specific task.
Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Theory
The fundamental underpinning of the situational
leadership theory is that there is no single "best"
style of leadership.

 Effective leadership is task-relevant, and the most

successful leaders are those that adapt their
leadership style to the maturity/readiness.
 The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership
Model rests on two fundamental
concepts; leadership style and the individual or
group's maturity level.
 Leader Behaviour Types

Hersey and Blanchard characterized leadership style in terms of

the amount of Task Behavior and Relationship Behavior that
the leader provides to their followers.
They categorized all leadership styles into four behavior types,
which they named S1 to S4:

S1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which

the leader defines the roles of the individual or group.

S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, he or

she is now using two-way communication and providing the socio-
emotional support that will allow the individual or group being
influenced to buy into the process;
S3: Participating - this is how shared decision-making
about aspects of how the task is accomplished and the
leader is providing less task behaviours while maintaining
high relationship behavior;

S4: Delegating - the leader is still involved in decisions;

however, the process and responsibility has been passed
to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to
monitor progress.

Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders

to use all the time. Effective leaders need to be flexible,
and must adapt themselves according to the situation.
 Maturity Levels

The right leadership style will depend on the person

or group being led.

Maturity Levels are task-specific. A person might be

generally skilled, confident and motivated in their
job, but would still have a maturity level M1 when
asked to perform a task requiring skills they don't
possess.
 M1 - They still lack the specific skills required for the
job in hand and are unable and unwilling to do.
 M2 - They are unable to take on responsibility for the
task being done; however, they are willing to work at
the task. They are novice but enthusiastic.
 M3 - They are experienced and able to do the task but
lack the confidence or the willingness to take on
responsibility.
 M4 - They are experienced at the task, and comfortable
with their own ability to do it well. They are able and
willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility
for the task
 High Moderate Low

M4 M3 M2 M1

Very capable and Capable but Unable and Unable but

confident unwilling willing insecure
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
Style of Leader

(High)
Low High Task
Relationship and low
and relationship
Low task

Relationship behavior

High
relationship
And High Task
low task And
High
relationship

(Low) Task behavior (High)

Immature
High Moderate Low
Mature

M4 M3 M2 M1

Maturity of follower( s)
What skills do leaders need to develop
interpersonal relationship?
 Skills required

•Coping with stressors

2.Managing
•Managing time
stress
•Delegating

1.Developing 3. Solving
Self-awareness Problems
creatively
•Using the rational approach
•Determining values •Using the creative approach
and priorities •Fostering innovation in others
•Identifying cognitive style
•Assessing attitude toward change
•Interpersonal Skills

•Gaining power
•Coaching •Exercise influence
•Counseling •Empowering others
•Listening 5. Gaining power
and influences

4. Communication 6. Motivating others

supportively

7. Management
conflict

•Diagnosing poor performance

•Identifying causes •Creating a motivating environment
•Selecting appropriate strategies •Rewarding accomplishment
•Resolving confrontations
GROUP DYNAMICS
•The social process by which people
interact in a group environment.
•The term „Group Dynamics‟ was
popularized by management thinker “Kurt
Lewin.”
Group Dynamics
A field of social science focusing on the
nature of groups- the factors governing
their formation and development , the
elements of their structure, and their
interrelationships with individuals, other
groups and organizations.
GROUP
Group is a collection of individuals…….
the members accept a common task,
become interdependent in their
performance , and interact with one
another to promote its accomplishment.
Types of Groups
Formal Groups structured to perform specific tasks.

•Command Group - Those who can legitimately give

orders to others.

•Task Group – Composed of individuals with some

specific interests and expertise in a specific area
regardless of their positions.
Types of Groups
Informal Groups
Emerge naturally in response to organizational or
member interests.

Primarily satisfied needs of its group members.

Types of Groups
Informal Groups (Types)

•Interest Groups - A group of individuals come

together to satisfy common interest.

•Friendship Groups – Develops because their members

are friends, often seeing each other outside the
organization.
Why people join Groups?
•Security
•Status
•Self-esteem
•Affiliation
•Power
•Goal Achievement
Stages of Group Development

8–80
 Tuckman‟s Five-Stage Theory
of Group Development (continued)

Forming Storming Norming Performing

“What do the “How can I best

Individual “How do I fit “What‟s my
others expect perform my
Issues in?” role here?”
me to do?” role?”

“Why are we
“Can we agree
fighting over
Group “Why are we on roles and “Can we do the
who‟s in
Issues here?” work as a job properly?”
charge and who
team?”
does what?”
Group Development

Forming -Orientation, guidance (dependence)

Storming - conflict,roles and responsibilities,
rules and procedures, individual recognition
(counter dependence)
Group Development (contd)
Norming - issue resolution, develop
social agreements, cohesion, establish
group norms (interdependence)
Performing - mutual assistance, creativity,
understanding goals and roles
(independence)
Adjourning- closure, symbolism,
ceremonies, and emotional support.
Group Cohesion
Affected by the ability of the group to:

Work as a unit, share tasks, recognize member

contributions;
-VS-
Conflict, role ambiguity, lack of motivation;
-Attracts-
High performers, opportunists, achievers;
-Affected by-
Group size, cliques, protest, self-interest behavior
Group Processes & Decision
Making
 Process to arrive at a decision.
 Specific objectives – Identify problems –
Search for alternatives – evaluate
alternatives – choice of alternatives – action
– Result – Feedback
 Techniques-
 1. Brainstorming
 2. Delphi
 3. Nominal Group
Group vs. Team
Group Factor Team
Share Information Goal Collective
Performance
Neutral Synergy Positive
Individual Accountability Individual & Mutual
Random & Varied Skills Complementary
R. Meredith Belbin,
2000
Medium/Large Size Limited
Immaterial Selection Crucial
Solo Leadership Shared/Rotating
Focus on leader Perception Mutual Understanding
Convergence Style Role spreads
Coordination
Togetherness, Spirit Dynamic Interaction
Persecution of
Opponents