Socialisation and Identity
1. The Process of Learning and Socialisation
• Socialisation:
o Definition: Socialisation is the lifelong process through which
individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, behaviors, and
social skills appropriate to their social position within a society. It
begins at birth and continues throughout an individual's life, shaping
their identity and how they interact with the world.
o Stages of Socialisation:
▪ Primary Socialisation: Occurs in early childhood within the
family. During this stage, children learn basic norms and
values, language, and social roles. The family plays a crucial
role in this stage, as it is the first and most influential agent of
socialisation.
▪ Secondary Socialisation: Occurs later in life through
institutions like schools, peer groups, media, and religious
organizations. This stage involves learning appropriate
behaviors for broader societal roles outside the family.
▪ Tertiary Socialisation: Refers to the process of learning that
takes place when adults adapt to new roles, such as becoming a
parent, starting a new job, or adjusting to retirement.
• Culture, Roles, Norms, Values, and Beliefs:
o Culture: Encompasses the shared beliefs, behaviors, objects, and
other characteristics common to the members of a particular society or
group. It includes language, traditions, rituals, norms, and symbols
that create a collective identity.
o Roles: These are the patterns of behavior expected of individuals in
different positions within society. For example, a teacher, parent, or
police officer all have specific roles that come with particular
expectations.
o Norms: These are the rules or guidelines regarding what kinds of
behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a culture. Norms can
be formal, such as laws, or informal, such as customs or traditions.
o Values: Core principles and standards that are considered inherently
worthwhile or desirable within a society. Values guide the choices and
behaviors of individuals and influence societal norms.
o Beliefs: Specific ideas that people hold to be true, often linked to
cultural or religious traditions. Beliefs shape values and norms and are
integral to a society’s worldview.
• Agencies of Socialisation:
o Family: The first and most significant agent of socialisation. Families
teach children basic norms and values, provide emotional support, and
establish the foundation for future social interactions. The family is
essential in transmitting cultural values and shaping individual
identities.
o Education: Schools are critical agents of secondary socialisation.
They teach not only academic skills but also social skills through the
hidden curriculum, which includes norms such as discipline, time
management, and respect for authority. Education also plays a role in
social stratification, as it can reinforce or challenge existing social
inequalities.
o Media: Mass media, including television, newspapers, and social
media, is a powerful agent of socialisation. It influences public
opinion, shapes cultural norms, and can perpetuate or challenge
stereotypes. Media is particularly influential in shaping perceptions of
reality and influencing social behavior.
o Peer Groups: These are groups of individuals of similar age and
social status who influence each other's attitudes and behaviors. Peer
groups become especially influential during adolescence, as
individuals seek to establish their identities outside of the family.
o Religion: Provides a moral framework and shapes social identity
through shared beliefs and practices. Religious institutions reinforce
norms and values, often providing guidelines for ethical behavior and
social interaction.
• Social Control:
o Definition: Social control refers to the mechanisms, strategies, and
institutions that societies use to encourage conformity to norms and
rules, and to discourage deviance. Social control is essential for
maintaining social order and stability.
o Types of Social Control:
▪ Formal Social Control: Involves the use of laws, regulations,
and institutions like the police, courts, and prisons to enforce
compliance with societal norms and laws. It is official and
legally sanctioned.
▪ Informal Social Control: Involves the use of unwritten rules
and social expectations to influence behavior. This type of
control is enforced through social pressures, such as approval,
disapproval, praise, gossip, and ostracism.
o Sanctions: These are reactions by society to individuals’ behavior,
which can be positive (rewards for conforming behavior) or negative
(punishments for deviant behavior). Sanctions are an essential part of
social control and help to reinforce norms and values.
Sociological Material:
• Durkheim’s Theory of Socialisation:
o Emile Durkheim, a founding figure in sociology, emphasized the
importance of socialisation in creating social cohesion and
maintaining social order. He believed that socialisation instills shared
values and norms in individuals, which are essential for the
functioning of society.
• Parsons and Functionalism:
o Talcott Parsons, a key figure in functionalist theory, argued that
socialisation is a mechanism through which society integrates
individuals. According to Parsons, each person learns the roles and
expectations necessary for the stability and continuity of society.
• Mead’s Symbolic Interactionism:
o George Herbert Mead, a symbolic interactionist, focused on the
development of the self through social interaction. Mead proposed
that individuals develop a sense of self through role-taking and by
interacting with others. This self-concept is central to how individuals
perceive themselves within society.
Social Control, Conformity, and Resistance
1. Social Control
• Social Control:
o Definition: Social control refers to the ways in which society
regulates and enforces behavior through norms, laws, and institutions.
It ensures conformity and compliance with societal expectations,
helping to maintain social order and stability.
o Mechanisms of Social Control:
▪ Formal Mechanisms: Include laws, regulations, and the
enforcement actions of institutions such as the police, judicial
systems, and government agencies. Formal social control is
explicit, codified, and legally sanctioned.
▪ Informal Mechanisms: These include unwritten rules, cultural
expectations, and social sanctions such as praise, ridicule, and
gossip. Informal control is maintained through social
interactions and is less overt than formal mechanisms but
equally powerful in shaping behavior.
o The Role of Sanctions:
▪ Positive Sanctions: Rewards or positive feedback given for
conforming to societal norms, such as praise, awards, or
promotions.
▪ Negative Sanctions: Punishments or negative consequences
imposed for deviant behavior, such as fines, imprisonment, or
social ostracism.
2. Conformity
• Conformity:
o Definition: Conformity is the act of aligning one’s attitudes, beliefs,
and behaviors with the norms or expectations of a group or society. It
is a fundamental aspect of social life and contributes to social
cohesion.
o Reasons for Conformity:
▪ Social Pressure: The influence exerted by others in a group to
adopt certain behaviors or attitudes. Peer pressure, especially
during adolescence, is a powerful motivator for conformity.
▪ Sanctions: Individuals conform to avoid negative sanctions
(punishments) or to gain positive sanctions (rewards). For
example, people may conform to laws to avoid fines or jail
time.
▪ Identification: People conform to groups that they value and
want to belong to. This type of conformity is often driven by
the desire to maintain social bonds and group identity.
▪ Internalization: Occurs when individuals adopt the norms and
values of a group because they believe them to be right. This
type of conformity is more enduring and reflects deep-seated
beliefs.
• Types of Conformity:
o Compliance: Outwardly conforming to group norms while privately
disagreeing. This is often done to avoid conflict or to gain social
acceptance.
o Identification: Conforming to the expectations of a role or group that
one identifies with, often because it aligns with one’s self-concept.
o Internalization: Fully accepting and integrating group norms and
values into one’s own belief system.
3. Resistance
• Resistance:
o Definition: Resistance involves rejecting, opposing, or challenging
societal norms and control mechanisms. It is a critical component of
social change, as it can lead to the reevaluation and transformation of
societal norms.
o Forms of Resistance:
▪ Subcultures: Groups that develop their own norms and values
that differ from or oppose those of the mainstream culture.
Examples include youth subcultures like punks, goths, or
skaters, who often express resistance through fashion, music,
and lifestyle choices.
▪ Social Movements: Organized collective efforts to bring about
or resist social, political, or cultural change. Social movements
often arise in response to perceived social injustices and can
lead to significant societal transformations (e.g., civil rights
movement, feminist movement).
▪ Civil Disobedience: A form of non-violent resistance where
individuals deliberately disobey certain laws or regulations as a
form of protest. Historical examples include Mahatma Gandhi’s
nonviolent resistance to British colonial rule in India and the
civil rights sit-ins in the United States.
▪ Everyday Acts of Resistance: Small, often unnoticed acts of
defiance or non-conformity in daily life. These can include
subtle behaviors like ignoring norms, bending rules, or quiet
forms of rebellion against authority.
Sociological Material:
• Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Studies:
o Milgram’s experiments in the 1960s revealed the extent to which
individuals would obey authority figures, even when asked to perform
actions that conflicted with their personal morals. The study
highlighted the powerful role of authority in enforcing conformity.
• Erving Goffman’s Dramaturgical Analysis:
o Goffman likened social life to a theatrical performance where
individuals manage their behavior to create specific impressions in the
minds of others. This management of self-presentation is a form of
social control, as individuals conform to social norms to maintain
their social roles.
Social Identity and Change
1. Social Identity
• Social Identity:
o Definition: Social identity is the part of an individual's self-concept
derived from their membership in social groups, such as gender,
ethnicity, religion, nationality, and social class. It influences how
individuals see themselves and how they are perceived by others.
o Components of Social Identity:
▪ Class Identity: Refers to the way individuals define themselves
and are defined by others based on their socio-economic status.
Class identity is shaped by factors such as income, occupation,
education, and lifestyle.
▪ Gender Identity: The personal sense of one’s own gender,
which can correspond with or differ from one’s sex assigned at
birth. Gender identity influences roles and behaviors in society,
and can be shaped by cultural expectations.
▪ Ethnic Identity: Involves a sense of belonging to a particular
ethnic group and involves shared cultural traits, language,
religion, and traditions. Ethnic identity is a significant aspect of
how individuals connect with their heritage and community.
▪ Age Identity: Refers to how individuals perceive themselves
and are perceived by others based on their age group (e.g.,
child, adolescent, adult, elderly). Age identity is influenced by
societal expectations and norms associated with different life
stages.
• The Construction of Social Identity:
o Social identities are constructed through socialisation, cultural
traditions, and interaction with others. Individuals learn the norms and
values associated with their social identities through their experiences
with family, education, media, and peer groups.
o Intersectionality: Social identities are not isolated but intersect with
each other, creating complex layers of identity. For example, the
experience of a Black woman may be shaped differently by her
gender, race, and class compared to a White woman or a Black man.
o Identity Politics: Social identity groups may mobilize around shared
experiences and identities to advocate for rights, recognition, and
social justice. This can include movements for gender equality, racial
justice, or LGBTQ+ rights.
2. Changing Social Identities
• Globalisation and Identity:
o Globalisation: The increasing interconnectedness and
interdependence of the world’s cultures, economies, and populations.
Globalisation has significant implications for social identity, as it
exposes individuals to diverse cultures, ideas, and values, leading to
the creation of hybrid identities.
o Cultural Convergence: The idea that globalisation leads to a
homogenization of cultures, where local cultures are overshadowed by
dominant global cultures (often Western). This can result in a loss of
traditional identities and the rise of a global monoculture.
o Cultural Divergence: Opposite to convergence, some argue that
globalisation can also lead to the revival and strengthening of local
identities in response to global pressures. This may result in cultural
preservation efforts and a reassertion of traditional identities.
o Hybrid Identities: These are identities that are formed through the
mixing and blending of different cultural influences, leading to new,
hybrid forms of identity. For example, individuals who live in
multicultural societies may adopt aspects of multiple cultures, creating
a unique, blended identity.
• Increased Choice in Identity Formation:
o In modern societies, individuals have more freedom to choose and
shape their identities than in the past. This is due to greater access to
information, mobility, and the breakdown of traditional social
structures.
o Reflexive Identity: Sociologist Anthony Giddens argues that in late
modernity, individuals engage in reflexive identity formation,
constantly reflecting on and revising their identities based on new
experiences and information. This ongoing process of self-
construction allows for greater personal agency in shaping one’s
identity.
• Cultural Shifts and Identity:
o Postmodernity: The cultural and intellectual state characterized by
the questioning of grand narratives and fixed identities. In a
postmodern context, identity is seen as fluid, fragmented, and
constructed through discourse and media representations.
o Consumer Culture: In consumer-driven societies, identity is
increasingly shaped by consumption patterns, brand affiliations, and
lifestyle choices. People express their identities through the products
they buy, the media they consume, and the lifestyles they adopt.
o Identity and Technology: The rise of digital technologies and social
media platforms has transformed how identities are formed and
expressed. Online identities may differ from offline identities, and
individuals often curate their digital personas to fit certain social
expectations.
Sociological Material:
• Anthony Giddens on Reflexive Identity:
o Giddens emphasized that in contemporary society, identity is not
static but is continuously shaped by the choices individuals make. He
argued that in a world of rapid change, individuals must constantly
reconstruct their identities in response to new information and
experiences.
• Stuart Hall on Cultural Identity:
o Stuart Hall argued that cultural identities are not fixed or unchanging
but are fluid and constantly evolving. He suggested that in the context
of globalisation, individuals often form hybrid identities that
incorporate elements from different cultures. Hall also discussed the
role of diaspora in shaping identities that are rooted in multiple
cultural traditions.
