PHOTOGRAPHY

Paper - III
Photography
 The word photography comes from the Greek, which actually means
writing or drawing with light.
 Light travels outwards in all directions from any light source, whether a
candle, a light bulb or the sun.
 When light strikes an object it is reflected back and we are then able to see
it.
 The speed of light is constant but when light rays reach a lens they slow
down, bend and become refracted.
 The camera lens receives rays of light from every point of the subject in
front of it.
 It refracts them so that they collectively converge creating an upside
down, back-to-front image.
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Camera

 The word “ Camera” is adapted from the

Latin word “Camera Obscura” meaning
“Dark Room”: When there is a small hole in
a dark room, you'll find the outside scenery
reflected upside down on the opposite wall.
This discovery is recorded by Aristotle
around 4th century B.C.
 This principle was adapted to create a
drawing apparatus, which was further
developed, and thus evolved the camera.
 A still film camera is made of three basic
elements: an optical element (the lens), a
chemical element (the film) and a
mechanical element (the camera body
itself).

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PARTS OF CAMERA

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PARTS OF CAMERA

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PARTS OF CAMERA

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Photograph
 “Photograph” originally meant “A picture drawn with light and
shadow”.
 At the very start, people had to use wet photographic plates
instead of film, so that the light exposure time was long and the
setting of the apparatus took a lot of time and trouble. Also the
black and white nature of the film made it look like a picture.

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Basics of Photography
GETTING THE EXPOSURE RIGHT
That means, the picture is neither too dark nor too light!
In the old days of film cameras, it was how much light is
allowed to reach the light sensitive film. In digital cameras,
the ‘sensor’ replaces the film but the principle is just the
same –to control how much light hits the sensor.

There are three things which control exposure:

1. The aperture
2. The shutter speed
3. The setting of the ISO

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A) THE APERTURE
 Inside the lens, there is a mechanism that opens to allow light to pass
through the lens into the camera (and onto the sensor).
 The amount or size of the opening varies and is referred to as an ‘f’ number,
for example f2, f2.8, f4 etc.
 The range of apertures are : f1.4, f2, f2.8, f4, f5.6 f8, f11, f16, f22, f32

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DEPTH OF FIELD
 When you focus on a subject, a certain distance, both in front of the subject
and behind the subject is also in focus. This area is called the depth of field.

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B) THE SHUTTER SPEED
 Inside the camera is a shutter, which is a bit like a curtain and opens, usually for a
split second and then closes. The sensor in the camera is exposed to the scene it sees
through the lens and the detail is captured and saved as a picture on the card in the
camera.

 The time the shutter is

open is called the shutter
speed and is normally
stated in fractions of a
second: 1/4 , 1/8 , 1/15
1/30 , 1/60 , 1/125,
1/250 , 1/500 , 1/1000,
1/2000 , 1/4000

 Shutter speed controls the

‘movement’ in a picture.

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C) THE ISO SETTING
 The final factor that controls exposure is the ISO setting. The ISO range of digital
cameras is vast and typically:
100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200, 6400
 On high end digital cameras, the range extends to: 12800, 25600, 51200, 102400.
 The ISO number refers to how sensitive the sensor (or film in the old days), reacts to
light.
 Good lighting conditions = Low ISO speeds = 100 ISO or 200 ISO
 Overcast or cloudy conditions = Medium ISO speeds = 400 ISO or 800 ISO
 Poor light or floodlight conditions = Fast ISO speeds = 1600 ISO to 6400 ISO

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Light Sources
 Light is the most fundamental component of a photograph. It
not only causes the image to form, but its visual quality goes
a long way toward establishing the look and feel of the
picture. Learning to see and work with the subject lighting is
a critical skill for making effective photographs.
 light’s most important characteristics include its strength,
quality, and direction.

Types of Lightings:
1. Studio Light
Professional photographers work entirely with artificial light in a
studio, usually an open room used for controlled picture taking.
One of the biggest advantages of working in a studio is it allows you
to set up the lighting exactly as you want it.

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There are two types of lights used in studios:
 Hot lights
 Strobe lights
Hot lights are named for the heat they generate when turned on. They provide
continuous illumination, like household light bulbs. The least expensive type, called
photofloods (or simply “floods”), looks like an oversized light bulb. High-end
professional hot lights also are available for stronger light and more consistent
illumination A basic hot light consists of a bulb set inside a reflective housing that
directs the light forward.
A strobe light, commonly called a strobe, is a device used to produce regular flashes
of light. The light source is commonly a xenon flash lamp, or flashtube, which has a
complex spectrum and a color temperature of approximately 5,600 kelvins. To obtain
colored light, colored gels may be used.

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 2. Positioning Light

Most important lighting decision is where to position the lights in relation to your
subject. This will have a critical impact on your picture, regardless of whether you are
using powerful studio strobes or 60-watt household bulbs—or on-camera flash or even
natural light.
In fact, most of the time good artificial light should closely simulate natural light.
 Key light: The key light, or main light, is the light that provides most of the
illumination and sets the overall tone when lighting a scene. Because it’s the
strongest light, it should be positioned first.
The most common position for a key light is where it can shine down on the subject
from the front and the side, at approximately a three-quarter angle. Placing the key
light at an angle to the subject will brighten one side and create shadows on the
other, producing a more three-dimensional and usually more pleasing effect. If you
position the key light so it illuminates the subject from one side, you will get a more
dramatic, high-contrast effect called sidelighting, this placement also emphasizes
textural qualities of the subject. Some photographers also use backlighting, where
the key is positioned behind the subject, creating a silhouetted effect.

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 Fill light: Sometimes a single key light is all the light
you need, but if the shadows it creates appear too
dark, add an additional fill light (or more than one) to
provide balance. A fill is usually an additional light
source positioned opposite the key light. It is weaker
than the key light in power, so it complements rather
than competes

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3. Electronic Flash

The most commonly used type of artificial lighting is

electronic flash. Most of the time, flash is used in
low-light situations when you otherwise don’t have
enough light to get a good exposure.
Many cameras have an electronic flash built in, but
most cameras need a separate unit called on-camera
flash, these units slide into a bracket, called a shoe,
located on top of the camera. A shoe often provides
an electrical connection to the shutter and is thus
called a hot shoe.

 Flash Cubes
 Ring Flash

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OPTICAL FILTERS
 Camera filters attach directly to the front of your lens and have
a variety of purposes.
 Photographers use a filter simply to protect the front of their
lenses from scratching or other damage.
 One can also use filters to modify exposure or the quality of the
light entering the camera in order to control contrast, tonality,
glare, and reflection, or to produce a special visual effect.
 The most commonly used filters are made of glass and are
mounted inside a threaded rim that allows you to screw the
filter onto the front of the lens. Gelatin and optical-quality
plastic filters can also be used.
 Glass filters are sized in millimeters according to their diameter.
This size must correspond with the diameter of the front of the
lens. Common glass filter sizes include 49mm, 52mm, 55mm,
58mm, 62mm, 67mm, and 72mm.

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Filter Types
There are several filters made
specifically for photographing in black-
and white.

 Lens-protecting filters :
Lens-protecting filters (clear, UV, and
skylight) are the most common filters in
use. The front of your lens is highly
vulnerable to physical damage from dirt,
dust, fingerprints, moisture, and other
elements. To minimize damage, many
photographers keep a clear filter on the
front of all their lenses at all times.
The filters most commonly used for this
purpose are a UV and a skylight.

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Filter Types
 Colored filters :Colored filters change the
black-and-white appearance of colors in the
original scene, often increasing image contrast.
Filters work this way because they allow more
light of their own color to pass through to the
film than light of opposite colors.

 Polarizing filters : A polarizing filter can reduce

subject glare or reflection from smooth
surfaces, such as glass, plastic, and water. The
filter fits on the front of the camera lens like
any other filter but you rotate it until you see
the glare or reflection reduced or eliminated.

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 TYPES OF
CAMERA

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SINGLE- LENS REFLEX CAMERA
 In SLR Camera , one can view, compose, focus, and take a Picture
through a single lens with the help of a reflex mirror.
 You can’t see directly through the lens, because the film and
shutter are in the way. They have to be positioned right behind
the lens. So the SLR redirects the light from the lens to your eye
with a reflex mirror, focusing screen, pentaprism, and viewfinder.
 Reflex mirror : The reflex mirror is located in the camera body
right behind the lens and in front of the film. It’s positioned at a
45-degree angle; when light comes through the lens, the mirror
reflects it upward. The mirror also is hinged; when you press the
shutter button, it flips up and out of the way as the shutter
opens, permitting light to expose the film.

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Focusing screen : Light reflected upward strikes a focusing screen, a textured sheet of
thin plastic or glass. This is where the right-side-up (but still laterally reversed) image
forms for you to view and focus. The screen is positioned at exactly the same total
distance from the lens as it is from the film. Thus, when you’ve focused the image on
the focusing screen, it also will be in focus on the film.

Pentaprism :The hump on the top of the camera body incorporates a pentaprism, which
is a prism or mirror system that reflects and directs the image from the focusing screen
to a viewfinder. It also allows you to hold your camera at eye level for viewing.
The pentaprism also is usually integrated with the camera’s through-the-lens meter and
exposure controls, and reflects the displays of f-stop, shutter speed, and other meter
settings and markers you see when looking through the viewfinder.

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RANGE FINDER CAMERA
 A rangefinder camera has a single lens like an SLR, but you don’t view
and focus through it.
 The rangefinder works with a prism behind a window located on the
opposite side of the lens from the viewfinder (on the top left as you
look at the front of the camera).
 As you turn your lens to focus the subject, the prism rotates and
bounces light sideways to a mirror in the viewfinder.
 This produces a double image of the subject—one from the viewfinder
and one from the prism. The double image appears as a translucent
rectangular or square patch floating in the middle of the viewfinder.
The image from the prism moves as you focus the lens; when the two
images superimpose, the subject is in exact focus.
 Rangefinder cameras have no reflex mirrors, which allows you to
maintain sight of your subject at all times.
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VIEW CAMERA
 It has a lens mounted on a front standard to capture the scene
and a slot on a rear standard to hold the film. Between the
front and rear standards is a collapsible bellows, a light-tight
accordion-like tube made of cloth, leather, or some other
material.
 A view camera takes large-format sheets of film or a high-
quality digital back, making it capable of producing finely
detailed, sharp photographs.
 The view camera lens is mounted on a lens board, and in the
rear there is a focusing screen called a ground glass. A film
holder, a removable accessory that contains the film or digital
back, is inserted between the bellows and the ground glass.
 The bellows sits on a rail (or a platform); you turn a knob on the
front or back of the camera and the bellows collapses or
expands to achieve focus.

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You view and focus the subject on the ground glass, which is positioned behind the lens and bellows;
the image forms upside down and laterally reversed. Ambient light makes the image hard to see, so
you must cover your head and the ground glass with a dark focusing cloth to keep extraneous light
out. When your subject is in focus, you slip a film holder or digital back between the ground glass and
the bellows, or replace the ground glass with a digital back, remove the dark slide that covers the film
on one side of the holder, and take your picture.

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Other Camera Types
 PIN & SHOOT CAMERA
You can compose your subject through an open
window located on the top left or center of the
camera back. The viewfinder shows approximately
what the final photograph will look like. With such
cameras no focus is necessary, because the lens is
designed and preset by the manufacturer to produce
a sharp image from a distance that ranges from
about 4 or 5 feet away from your subject to infinity.
On a typical point-and-shoot, hold the shutter button
halfway down to activate and achieve focus, and the
camera sets the exposure settings (f-stop and shutter
speed) and then click the button for capturing.

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 INSTANT CAMERA

The instant camera is a type of camera which uses self-

developing film to create a chemically developed print
shortly after taking the picture.

 TWIN LENS REFLEX

A twin-lens-reflex (TLR) camera has two lenses stacked one over the other. On top is the
viewing lens, through which you compose and focus your subject; on the bottom is the
taking lens, through which you expose the film to light.
A fixed mirror, positioned behind the viewing lens at a 45-degree angle to the film,
reflects light up to a focusing screen, so you can see the subject. The film is positioned
behind the taking lens. The two lenses are mechanically linked, and as you focus the
viewing lens (generally using a knob on the camera body), both lenses move
simultaneously. Thus, when the image on the focusing screen is sharp, the image on the
film also will be sharp.
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DIGITAL CAMERA
 A digital camera (DSLR) works a lot like a film camera, except it
uses an electronic sensor rather than film to capture light. Light
from the subject passes through the lens and falls on the
sensor; the pattern of light recorded by the sensor is stored as
a digital file of the image either in the camera or on a
removable memory card. The digital image files can then be
downloaded to a computer or to a portable hard drive.

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MIRRORLESS CAMERA
 A mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera (MILC) or mirror-less
camera contains a single, removable lens and uses a digital
display system rather than an optical viewfinder. The camera
does not have a reflex mirror or optical viewfinder like a
conventional digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR), but an
electronic viewfinder which displays what the camera image
sensor sees.

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Camera Lens
 A lens is a tool used to bring light to a fixed focal point. In a film
camera, the lens sends the light to the film strip, while in a
digital camera (like DSLRs or mirrorless cameras), the lens
directs light to a digital sensor.
 Camera lenses are made up of a series of glass plates that are
convex (curved outward) or concave (curved inward).

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Camera Lens Characteristics
 All lenses filter and focus light so that it hits the sensor or film strip correctly.
However, there are factors that determine how a camera lens affects the look
and quality of the final photo.
 Focal length of the lens is the distance between the lens and the image sensor
when the subject is in focus, usually stated in millimeters (e.g., 28 mm, 50
mm, or 100 mm).
 Smaller numbers have a wider angle of view and show more of the scene;
larger numbers have a narrower angle of view and show less.
 Depth of Field -is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects
that are in acceptably sharp focus in an image. The depth of field can be
calculated based on focal length, distance to subject, the acceptable circle of
confusion size, and aperture.
 Magnification of a lens is defined as the ratio of the height of an image to the
height of an object. It is also given in terms of image distance and object
distance. It is equal to the ratio of image distance to that of object distance.
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Types of Lenses
 Prime lenses. Primes have a fixed lens focal length, making
them faster and sharper. While prime lenses are less flexible
due to the fixed focal length, they are also fast and lightweight,
making them easy to travel with.
 Zoom lenses. Zooms use a series of lenses to allow different
focal lengths from a single lens, making them more flexible but
not as fast.
They contain more glass,
which aids in their flexibility,
but they also tend to be
bigger and heavier than
prime lenses.

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 STANDARD LENS
Standard lenses can be used for a variety of different types
of photography. Their focal lengths fall somewhere in the
middle, usually between 35mm and 85mm. They have an
angle of view which is roughly the same as the angle that
the human eye can comfortably view, meaning that they
produce images which appear "natural" to the viewer.

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 MACRO LENS
A Macro lens is one designed especially for close-up
photography. The focal length ranges from 50-200mm which
gives them very good sharpness and contrast, meaning that
they produce some really eye-catching photos.
Macro lenses are useful for photographing any subject at
very close range. Typical subjects include insects, animals,
and plants, but they are also popular for taking extremely
detailed photos of everyday objects.

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 WIDE ANGLE LENS
A wide angle lens is one with a short focal
length. They provide an angle of view beyond
that of a standard lens, allowing them to
capture more of the scene in a single shot.
Wide angle lenses are ideal for fitting a large
area into your frame. This is especially useful
for landscape photography or street
photography. With wide angle lenses, almost
everything is in focus, unless your subject is
very close to the lens.
Focal length ranges from 24-35 mm.

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 TELEPHOTO LENS
Telephoto lenses are a type of zoom lens with multiple focal points. These
types of lenses are great for isolating a subject that is far away. A telephoto
lens has a long focal length and provides a high level of magnification, allowing
you to photograph subjects at a moderate to far distance. They tend to be
bigger and heavier than other types of lens.
Telephoto lenses are popular for any type of photography where you can't get
near to the subject, including wildlife and sports events. They are also
commonly used in portrait photography, where a moderate telephoto lens will
provide a natural, undistorted perspective.

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 Special Lenses
 Fisheye lens. A fisheye lens is an ultra-wide-
angle lens that can take in a full 180 degree
radius around it. Fisheye lenses are so
named because they distort an image’s field
of view, making even a room in a house look
like a bubble.
 Tilt shift lens. A tilt shift lens allows the
photographer to change the position of that
imaging circle. (Tilt the orientation)
 Infrared lens. These lenses play with light
rather than perspective, filtering out or
block most of the visible light spectrum
except infrared for a unique visual effect.
Wavelengths used for photography range
from about 700 nm to about 900 nm. Film
is usually sensitive to visible light too, so an
infrared-passing filter is used.
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TYPES OF LENS

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Photographic Film
 Photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent film base
coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing
microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals.
 The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine
the sensitivity, contrast, and resolution of the film.
 In black-and-white photographic film, there is usually one
layer of silver halide crystals. When the exposed silver halide
grains are developed, the silver halide crystals are converted
to metallic silver, which blocks light and appears as the black
part of the film negative.
 Color film has at least three sensitive layers, incorporating
different combinations of sensitizing dyes : Blue - Green –
Red sensitive layers.

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Black & white Film
 Black-and-white films consist of a
clear, flexible, plastic support, called
the base, coated with a
microscopically thin emulsion.
 The emulsion is a chemical
compound of light-sensitive silver
halide crystals suspended in gelatin.
 It is coated with a protective layer to
minimize scratching (and other
physical damage caused by handling)
and backed by an anti-halation layer
that helps promote image sharpness.
 The anti-halation layer absorbs most
of the light that would otherwise be
reflected back up through the
emulsion, scattering the light.
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BLACK & WHITE PHOTOGRAPHY
 There are important characteristics of black-and-white films:
 FILM SPEED
 GRAIN

 Film speed : A film that is highly sensitive to light is called a

fast film, ; a film with low sensitivity is called a slow film.
 A film with a higher ISO number needs less light to properly
capture an image than a film with a lower ISO number.
 For example, ISO 400 film is more sensitive to light than ISO
100; it will take four times more light to properly expose ISO
100 film as it will take to properly expose ISO 400 film (400 ÷
100).

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 Grain : The silver halide crystals that are exposed to light forms
small black clumps of metallic silver, called grain, that make up the
photographic image.
 Grain looks a little like particles of sand. When we view the film
through a magnifier or looking at an enlarged print. The size of the
individual clumps can vary according to the type of film you use.
 Slow- and medium-speed films (ISO 200 or lower) produce smaller
particles of silver, and are therefore called fine-grain films. Such
films reproduce subject tones smoothly and render subject detail
finely and accurately.
 Fast-speed films (ISO 400 and higher) use larger particles of silver to
create the image.

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How Film Records an Image?
 The emulsion contains silver halide crystals, which capture the light
projected by the lens onto the film’s surface.

 Certain areas of the film receive more exposure than other areas,
since light areas of the subject reflect more light than dark areas. For
instance, a white sweater reflects more light than blue jeans, so more
light will expose the area of the film representing the sweater than will
expose the area representing the jeans.

 When you take a picture, an image of your subject forms as an

invisible pattern of altered silver halide particles in the emulsion. This
is called a latent image. Chemical development converts the film’s
exposed silver halides to black particles of metallic silver, making the
image visible.
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How Film Records an Image?

 Film development takes place in proportion to exposure. In other

words, when film is exposed , a lot of silver forms in the brighter
areas of the subject and renders those areas dark on the film;
relatively little silver forms in darker areas.

 Thus your developed film contains a tonally reversed image—a

negative. The light areas of the original scene are dark and the dark
areas of the scene are light. Making a print from the negative
reverses the image to produce a positive, correctly representing the
tones of the subject.

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Black & White Photographic Processing

 Key stages in production of Ag-based

photographs.
 Two silver halide particles, one of which is
impinged with light (hν) resulting in the
formation of a latent image (step 1).
 The latent image is amplified using
photographic developers, converting the
silver halide crystal to an opaque particle of
silver metal (step 2).
 Finally, the remaining silver halide is
removed by fixing (step 3).

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 Black and white Negative processing
• The film is soaked in water to swell the gelatin layer to facilitate the action of
the chemical treatments.
• The developer converts the latent image to macroscopic particles of metallic
silver.
• A stop bath, typically a dilute solution of acetic acid or citric acid, halts the
action of the developer. A rinse with clean water may be substituted.
• The fixer makes the image permanent and light-resistant by dissolving
remaining silver halide. A common fixer is hypo, specifically ammonium
thiosulfate.
• Washing with clean water removes any remaining fixer as residual fixer can
corrode the silver image, leading to discoloration, staining and fading.

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 Developing Film: Black & White
 The washing time can be reduced and the fixer more completely
removed if a hypo clearing agent is used after the fixer.
 Film may be rinsed in a dilute solution of a non-ionic wetting agent to
assist uniform drying, which eliminates drying marks caused by hard
water. Film is then dried in a dust-free environment, cut and placed
into protective sleeves.
 Once the film is processed, it is then referred to as a NEGATIVE. The
negative may now be printed/scanned.
 Dodging & Burning are techniques used
during the printing process to manipulate
the exposure of select areas on
a photographic print, deviating from the rest
of the image's exposure.
 Dodging decreases the exposure and lightens
the print area
 Burning increases the exposure and darkens
then print to areas of the print that should be
darker.
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 Enlargers
 Negatives usually are enlarged to prints of the
desired final size. The enlarger is a projection
system on a vertical column mounted on a
horizontal baseboard.

 It has a lens, a film holder (negative carrier), and a

lighting system (typically a lamp and condenser
lens) for illuminating the negative. Raising or
lowering the enlarger head on the column controls
the image magnification; adjustment of the lens-to-
negative distance focuses the image on the
enlarging paper on the baseboard. In enlargers
that focus automatically these two adjustments
are linked mechanically to keep the image sharp
all the time. Enlargers are made in various sizes to
take different maximum negative formats.

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Printing
 The simplest printing equipment is the contact printing frame
in which the negative and printing paper are held together
behind a glass plate during exposure to a suitable lamp. A
printing box is essentially a printing frame with a built-in light
source. Contact printing gives a positive of the same size as
the negative.

 Printing papers
 Papers for enlarging and contact printing are produced in grades
of differing exposure range—i.e., ratios of shortest to longest
exposure to produce the lightest tone and a full black,
respectively. The various grades yield prints of a normal tone
range from negatives of different contrasts: a soft paper grade for a
high-contrast negative, a normal paper for a normal negative, a
hard paper for soft negatives.

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Black and White Reversal Processing
TURNING YOUR NEGATIVES INTO POSITIVES
This process has three additional stages:

 Following the First Developer and rinse, the film is

bleached to remove the developed negative image. (This
negative image is composed of metallic silver formed in the
First Developer step. The bleach used here only affects the
negative, metallic silver grains, it does not affect the
unexposed and therefore undeveloped silver halide.)
 The film then contains a latent positive image formed from
unexposed and undeveloped silver halide salts.
 The film is fogged, either chemically or by exposure to light.
 The remaining silver halide salts are developed in the
second developer, converting them into a positive image
composed of metallic silver.
 Finally, the film is fixed, washed, dried and cut
58 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
 Light and Energy

Energy from the sun comes to the Earth in visible and invisible portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Human eyes are sensitive to a small portion of that spectrum that includes the visible colors -- from the
longest visible wavelengths of light (red) to the shortest wavelengths (blue).
Light is neither a wave nor a particle, but has properties of both. Light can be focused like a wave, but
its energy is distributed in discrete packets called photons. The energy of each photon is inversely
related to the wavelength of the light -- blue light is the most energetic, while red light has the least
energy per photon of exposure. Ultraviolet light (UV) is more energetic, but invisible to human eyes.
Infrared light is also invisible, but if it is strong enough our skin detects it as heat.
59 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
Spectral Sensitivity of Photographic Materials

 Spectral sensitivity is the relative efficiency of detection, of light or other signal, as a

function of the frequency or wavelength of the signal.

 In photography, film and sensors are often described in terms of their spectral
sensitivity, to supplement their characteristic curves that describe their
responsitvity. A database of camera spectral sensitivity is created and its space
analyzed. For X-ray films, the spectral sensitivity is chosen to be appropriate to the
phosphors that respond to X-rays, rather than being related to human vision.

 In sensor systems, where the output is easily quantified, the responstivity can be
extended to be wavelength dependent, incorporating the spectral sensitivity. When
the sensor system is linear, its spectral sensitivity and spectral responsivity can both
be decomposed with similar basis functions.

60 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Developing Film: Color
 COLORED FILMS :Silver halides have intrinsic
sensitivity only at a wavelength shorter than
about 450 nm. So, Organic molecules/dyes
known as spectral sensitizers are added to
the surface of the grains to make them
more sensitive to blue, green and red light.
These molecules must adsorb (attach) to
the grain surface and transfer the energy
from a red, green, or blue photon to the
silver-halide crystal as a photo-electron.
 Other chemicals are added internally to the
grain during its growth process, or on the
surface of the grain. These chemicals affect
the light sensitivity of the grain, also known
as its photographic speed.

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Color Film
Layers of 35 mm color film:
1. Film base
2. Subbing layer
3. Red light sensitive layer
4. Green light sensitive
layer
5. Yellow filter
6. Blue light sensitive layer
7. UV Filter
8. Protective layer
9. Visible light exposing film

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Colored Film structure
 A top layer of plain gelatin, which protects the underlying layers against abrasion and
damage.
 The first emulsion layer, which contains blue-sensitive silver halide plus a yellow-forming
colour coupler. This is a colourless substance that reacts with the decomposition
products of the developing agent to generate dye in all areas where a silver image is
produced and in proportion to the density of that silver image.
 A yellow filter layer, which holds back blue light from the subsequent emulsion layers. It
disappears during the bleaching stage of processing.
 The second emulsion layer, which contains blue- and green-sensitive silver halide plus a
magenta-forming colour coupler. The blue sensitivity is suppressed by the yellow filter
layer.
 The next emulsion, which is blue-and-red sensitive (blue again being suppressed) and
contains a cyan-forming colour coupler.
 A substrate, which ensures optimum adhesion of the emulsion layers to the film base and
may also contain light-absorbing silver to prevent the scattering of light by reflection from
the support surface (halation).
 The film base, or support, of clear cellulose acetate derivative (or sometimes polyester),
typically about 0.005 inch thick.
 The back of the support, which carries a light-absorbing layer (an alternative to the
antihalation layer in the substrate); on roll film this also acts as an anticurl layer.

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Color Film Processing
 The processing sequence for colour materials is longer
than for black-and-white films and requires more
solutions.
 Development needs very precise timing and temperature
control.
 Colour films can be processed in sets of tanks in
temperature-controlled water jackets with provision for
standardized solution agitation.

64 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Color Processing
Chromogenic materials use dye couplers to form colour images.
Modern colour negative film is developed with the C-41 process and colour negative print
materials with the RA-4 process.

The C-41 and RA-4 processes consist of the following steps:

 The colour developer develops the silver negative image by reducing the silver halide
crystals that have been exposed to light to metallic silver, this consists of the developer
donating electrons to the silver halide, turning it into metallic silver; the donation oxidizes
the developer which then activates the dye couplers to form the colour dyes in each
emulsion layer, but only does so in the dye couplers that are around unexposed silver
halide. This reaction causes the couplers to form a color, and this color varies depending
on how the silver-halide grains were spectrally sensitized. A different color-forming
coupler is used in the red-, green- and blue-sensitive layers.

 A rehalogenising bleach converts the developed metallic silver into silver halide.
 A fixer removes all silver halide, leaving only the dyes.
 The film is washed, stabilised, dried and cut.

In the RA-4 process, the bleach and fix are combined.

The silver image and any remaining unexposed silver halide is removed in a
combined bleach-plus-fix solution called the BLIX).

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Making the Prints: Color
Steps in developing the color print paper after it is
exposed:
 The latent-image sites are developed, and oxidized developer
molecules combine with the color-forming couplers to create a
silver image and a dye image. The reaction is stopped by a
washing step.
 The silver image and any remaining unexposed silver halide is
removed in a combined bleach-plus-fix solution (called the
BLIX).
 The print is then carefully washed to remove any residual
chemicals.
 The print is dried.
Once again, the gelatin binder swells to allow the
processing chemicals access to the silver-halide grains, and
allows fresh water to rinse out residual silver.
The white light exposure is the equivalent of a color print
exposure. Only blue light gets through the color negative
and exposes the color paper. The exposed color paper then
forms yellow dye in the blue-sensitive layer, and the
original color is reproduced.
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 Panchromatic films: Panchromatic films are type of
emulsion that is sensitive to all wavelengths of visible light.
They were introduced in 1904.
 Orthochromatic Films : sensitive to violet, blue, green,
and yellow but not to red—were also used for general
photography.
 Infrared films: Developed in 1919. Photographic
materials having light sensitivity in the infrared region
were based on sensitizing dyes such as kryptocyanine
 X-ray Films : sensitive to x rays

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 DIGITAL CAMERA
MECHANISM

69 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Digital Camera
 Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and
built the first electronic camera using a charge-coupled
device image sensor in 1975.
 The 8 pound camera recorded 0.01 megapixel black and white
photos to a cassette tape. The first photograph took 23
seconds to create. To play back images, data was read from
the tape and then displayed on a television set .

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Comparison between Digital camera & Human eye

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 HOW A
DIGITAL
CAMERA
WORKS??

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Image Sensors
 An image sensor is a device that converts an optical
image(Light) into an electronic signal. On the surface of
each of these fingernail-sized silicon chips is a grid
containing hundreds or thousands or millions of
photosensitive diodes called photosites, photo elements,
or pixels.
 Two major types of digital image sensor are :
1. CCD (Charge Coupled Device)
2. CMOS ( Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor)
 CCD and CMOS sensors perform similarly in absorbing
photons, generating electrons and storing them, but differ
in how the charge is transferred and where it is converted
to a voltage. Both end up with a digital output.

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CCD v/s CMOS Sensors
 Once the light is converted into electrons, the differences between the two
is the main sensor types.
 The next step is to read the value (accumulated charge) of each cell in the
image.

 CCD Sensor - The first digital cameras used CCD (Charged Coupling
Devices) to turn images from analog light signals into digital pixels.
They're made through a special manufacturing process that allows the
conversion to take place in the chip without distortion. This creates high
quality sensors that produce excellent images. But, because they require
special manufacturing, they are more expensive than their newer CMOS
counter parts.
 CMOS Sensor - there are several transistors at each pixel that amplify and
move the charge using more traditional wires. The CMOS approach is
more flexible because each pixel can be read individually.

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 Advantages of CCD Sensors -
1. Conversion takes place in the chip without
distortion

2. CCDs have very high uniformity – Technique for

HD quality images (not videos)

3. More sensitive – Produce Better Images in Low

Light

4. Produce cleaner and less grainy Images - low-

noise images

5. CCD sensors is produced for longer period of time

Disadvantages of CCD Sensors

-
1. CCD sensors Consume much more power
2. HD Video – Less pixel rates
3. CCDs are expensive as they require special
manufacturing.
CCD Sensor
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 Advantages Of CMOS Sensor -
1. CMOS consumes less power

2. CMOS sensors are cheaper

3. These Sensors produce better HD

videos
4. CMOS cameras are used on
Phones, Tablets
5. CMOS imager clearly has
better performance

Disadvantages Of
CMOS Sensor-
1. CMOS suffer more from
structured noise.
2. CMOS sensors need more light for
better image

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Capturing Color
 Each photosite is colorblind. In order to get a full color image, most
sensors use filtering (A filter is a transparent body that allows light of
only certain color to pass through it) to look at the light in its three
primary colors. Once all three colors have been recorded, they can be
added together to create the full spectrum of colors to see on computer
monitors and color printers
 Bayer Filter

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Capturing Color : Bayer Filter
 The most common pattern of filters is the Bayer filter pattern. This pattern
alternates a row of red and green filters with a row of blue and green filters.
The pixels are not evenly divided -- there are as many green pixels as there
are blue and red combined. This is because the human eye is not equally
sensitive to all three colors. It's necessary to include more information from
the green pixels in order to create an image that the eye will perceive as a
“true color.”
Bayer color filter
mosaic
Each two-by-two
sub mosaic contains
2 green, 1 blue and
1 red filter, each
covering one pixel
sensor.

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 The advantages of this method are that only one sensor is required,
and all the color information (red , green and blue) is recorded at the
same moment. That means the camera can be smaller, cheaper, and
useful in a wider variety of situations. In other words, it makes it
possible to create an affordable handheld digital camera. The raw
output from a sensor with a Bayer filter is a mosaic of red, green and
blue pixels of different intensity

COLOR
 Colors in a photographic image are usually based on the three primary
colors red, green, and blue (RGB). This is called the additive color system
because when the three colors are combined or added in equal quantities,
they form white. This RGB system is used whenever light is projected to
colors as it is on the display monitor (or in your eye).
Although the digital camera can record 12 bits or 4096 steps of brightness
information, almost all output devices can only display 8 bits or 256 steps
per color channel. The original 12-bit (212 = 4096) input data must be
converted to 8-bits (28 = 256) for output.
 Each color's brightness can range from 0 to 255, for 256 .Zero indicates
pure black, and 255 indicates pure white. 256 colors each of red, green and
blue may not seem like a lot, but actually it is a huge number because 256 x
256 x 256 = more then 16 million individual colors. So , at last an image in
the form of a binary file.

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 Image resolution is typically described in PPI, which refers to how many
pixels are displayed per inch of an image.
 Higher resolutions mean that there more pixels per inch (PPI), resulting in
more pixel information and creating a high-quality, crisp image.
 Images with lower resolutions have fewer pixels, and if those few pixels are
too large (usually when an image is stretched), they can become visible like
the image below.
 PPI (Pixels Per Inch) refers display resolution, or, how many individual
pixels are displayed in one inch of a digital image.
 DPI (Dots Per Inch) refers to printer resolution, or, the number of
dots of ink on a printed image.

80 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Photo-Micrography
 A micrograph or photomicrograph is a
photograph or digital image taken through a
microscope to show a magnified image of an
object.
 Photomicrography is the practice or art of using
microscopes to make photographs.
 It may be performed simply by connecting a
camera to a microscope, thereby enabling
the user to take photographs at reasonably
high magnification.
 A micrograph contains extensive details of
microstructure.
 An electron micrograph is a micrograph
prepared using an electron microscope.

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Macro-photography
 Macro photography is extreme close-up photography, usually of very small
subjects and living organisms like insects, in which the size of the subject in
the photograph is greater than life size (though macrophotography also
refers to the art of making very large photographs.
 A macro photograph is one in which the size of the subject on the negative
or image sensor is life size or greater.
 The ratio of the subject size on the film plane (or sensor plane) to the actual
subject size is known as the reproduction ratio. A macro lens is capable of
reproduction ratios of at least 1:1.

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 Crime scene
photography

83 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Crime Scene Photography

 It is the procedure to record the evidences at the crime scene

which can be presented in the court and used to reconstruct the
scene of crime.

 Purpose of Crime Scene Photography

1) To record the original scene and related area
2) To record the initial appearance of physical evidence
3) It will provide investigators and others with this permanent
visual record of the scene for later use
4) To represent in court trials and hearings

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Admissibility of photographic evidence

Three major points of qualification of a photograph in court are:

1. Objects pictured must be material or relevant to the point in

issue

2. The photograph must not appeal to the emotions or tend to

prejudice the court

3. The photograph must be free from distortion and not

misrepresent the scene or the object

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EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR CRIME
SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
The following items should be available to the crime scene
photographer in order to photograph most scenes and evidence:

Camera
A high quality digital camera preferably a SLR camera should be used.
It must have at least ten megapixel or more. It should have image
sensors and manual exposure settings like ISO or sensitivity, focusing
zone, exposure modes, bracketing modes, white balance, delay timer,
mirror lock, radio trigger, step aperture & shutter speed etc.
The body of the camera should be sturdy and water resistant since
the field of crime scene is always vulnerable to variable situation and
needs immediate action for collection of evidence.

Normal lens
A normal lens provides the best perspective for most photographs.

Wide–angle lens
A wide-angle lens is needed for taking pictures in small rooms or other
compact areas. A 28 to 35 mm lens is considered a wide–angle lens for
a 35mm camera.
86 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR CRIME
SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
Close–up lens or close–up accessories
Normal lenses do not generally focus closer than
about three feet. A macro lens or a close–up
accessory for the normal lens is needed to
photograph small items of evidence. A close–up
lens is a simple secondary lens used to enable
macro photography.
Filters
There are many evidences that can not be seen by
human eyes and camera as both see in visible end
of electromagnetic spectrum.
 Evidence like Blood on dark clothing, gunshot
residue, bite marks, semen, ink differences,
partially burned items can be made visible with
a UV/IR filter.
 There are Colour barrier filters (red, yellow,
orange) can cancel the background hue making
the evidence / prints/ impressions visible.

87 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Electronic flash
Electronic flash provides extra light that is often needed when photographing indoors,
outdoors at night, filling in shadows in bright daylight scenes and for lighting evidence.
Extra batteries
Batteries can drain away at times , may be because it was not fully charged or because
of an extensive crime scene. For this reason back up batteries should be carried.
Tripod
Sturdy and lightweight tripods are necessary to make the camera rest on a stationary
location for long exposures and for positioning the camera during certain types of
evidence photography.
Digital Storage Card
Memory cards for the camera should have fast reading and writing capability. It is
important to make redundant copy of images without disturbing the metadata.

Photo log and notebook

It is important for recording information about every photograph that you take at a
crime scene. The notebook should be carried for recording various notes regarding
crime scene.

88 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Scales and measuring tape
Scales and measuring tape should be kept it in the kit for
perfect recording of scene of crime and evidences.

ABFO #2 scale
The ABFO #2 scale is the preferred scale for photographing
injuries, impressions and bitemarks. This is an extremely
essential item which judges the actual size of the evidence by
seeing the image/ photograph.
The ABFO No. 2 Scale was designed by the American Board
of Forensic Odontology.

89 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Cardinal Rules of CS Photography

 Cardinal rules are basic rules for crime scene photography

 These rules must be followed by a crime scene photographer

There are mainly 3 cardinal rules for crime scene photography

a) Fill the frame

b) Maximum depth of field

c) Keep the film plane parallel

90 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

a) Fill the frame
 The frame of the film should be filled with the things which
are important enough.
 This thing should be followed for single evidence as well as an
entire crime scene
 Many times the primary subject gets lost in the background.
So the unnecessary background elements should be
eliminated as much as possible
 This can be done by following techniques:
 Get closer to the subject to eliminate unwanted objects and areas
around the primary subject. But the main subject should be covered
entirely
 Eliminate the irrelevant background, foreground and areas on the left
and right of the subject. Only the relevant things should be included
in the frame.

91 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

  The photograph should be either completely shadow free or
completely covered with shadow. The light should be equal in the
whole frame.

 Under effect of lens flare, objects that are important will be backlit
and underexposed. So Lens flare should be eliminated. Avoid
photography with the sun in front of you if possible if it is not
possible then cover the lens with hood or cover with hand.

92 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

b) Maximum depth of field
 Depth of field is the range of distance in front of and behind
an object focused by the camera.
 For most crime scene photography, maximizing the depth of
field is a critical skill.
 Small depth of field focuses front or rear scene on the frame.
 The crime scene photographer should adjust the camera
variables (e.g. aperture, focusing, shutter speed etc) so that
maximum depth of field can be obtained.
 Wide aperture gives small depth of field while small aperture
gives large depth of field.
 Hyper-focal focus maximize the depth of field on large outdoor
crime scenes and the background is infinite.
 Zone focusing gives good depth of field when the background
is not infinite but the crime scene is large.
93 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
 Front focus Rear focus

Correct focus

94 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

c) Keep the film plane parallel
 The film plane should be parallel to the subject that is to be
photographed
 The photographs are always two dimensional. So they display
only length and breadth. Depth of object is always absent,
while the objects are always three dimensional
 When the diagonal view of the subject is taken, a part of the
subject appears far from the observer and a part appears
closer to the observer.
• Diagonal view is allowed only when the subject is very much
wide (e.g. wide building)
• When a midrange photograph is taken, try to keep the film
plane parallel to the imaginary line connecting the evidence
and the fixed feature
• Having the film plane parallel is very much essential for close
range photographs. If the photograph is not parallel to the
subject, it can not be used for comparison purpose
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96 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
Procedure of Crime Scene Photography
During the crime scene photography, following things are used
to make them accepted easily in the court and the images
themselves be self documenting.
A. Photo Identifier
 Every roll of film should begin with the first frame of film
being a photograph of the photo identifier
 It is a slip containing the basic information on the first frame
of each roll like case number, date & time, address or
location, name of the photographer roll number
 It enables every roll of film to be associated back to the
photographer and specific crime scene
 If one case does not require entire roll of film, the film can be
left in the camera and a new photo identifier can be used to
begin the photography of a new crime scene

97 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

B. The Photo Memo Sheet

 Photo memo sheet is a form to log all the specific data related to
the camera, film and specific variables used to capture each
individual photograph

 It includes information like lens used aperture, filter used, light

(flash) etc as well as information of photo identifier

 The best time to log a photograph on the photo memo sheet is

immediately after taking the photograph

 When the case eventually goes to court after a long period of time,
it can be used to refresh the memory of each specific photograph

 If any particular image did not come as expected, photo memo

sheet can be used to figure out what went wrong

98 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

C. The labeled scale

 It is the scale containing information like case number, date &

time, location, name of photographer, evidence number, name
of the subject being photographed
 Labeled scale is included in one of the close up photograph of
the subject
 Whenever the scale is used, they should be positioned on the
same plane as the evidence they are associated with
 It is recommended to use the scale which reflect light same as
the evidence

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 TYPES OF CRIME SCENE
PHOTOGRAPHY

100 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Types of photographs
 Overall photographs
 The crime scene is needed to be related to the general
surroundings of it. Also the evidences should be related to the
crime scene
 Such kind of photographs gives idea about the crime scene
and helps in reconstructing the CS

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 Midrange Photographs

 Midrange photographs document individual evidence items

 The purpose of the midrange photographs is to show a
relationship between an individual item of evidence and a
fixed feature of the scene previously photographed in overall
photographs
 The film plain should be kept to an imaginary line drawn
between the evidence and the and the fixed feature
 The background and the fore ground should be correct
 Only necessary things should be present in the frame

102 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

 Close up photograph
 Close up photograph is taken by filling the frame with just the item
of evidence, while maintaining the film plane parallel to the evidence
 The first close up photograph should show the evidence as it was
found on the scene. Nothing should be added or removed from the
scene
 Then the evidence should be photographed with a fully labeled scale
on the same plane. With a scale in the image, it will be possible to
enlarge the original image to life size, so that it can be possible to
enlarge the original image to life
 After that a close up photograph with the evidence again filling the
frame , but with a portion of scale in view
 Sometimes altered close ups are necessary to obtain clear and better
background. Alteration made should be noted down
 When a dead body is photographed, a series of photographs is taken
from all four sides of the body, a full face shot and a photograph by
keeping the film plane parallel to the body is taken. This is called
body panorama.
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104 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
 Photography of
Fingerprints
and Documents

105 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Fingerprints & Documents
 Most common evidence found at the crime scene
 A latent print can be visible or developed on a surface but cannot be
lifted.
 Signatures on documents should be clicked appropriately.
 Example; a fingerprint in blood; Signature on stamp
 Use of lighting, filters, processing controls and enhancement
techniques should be used.

Digital Images
 Photographs should be taken in color mode.
 When photographing evidence containing fine detail with a digital
camera it is highly recommended the images be captured as RAW
files.
Raw files are unprocessed data directly from the imaging sensor and
saved in their true, 12 or 14 bit color depth.

106 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Procedures in Photographing Fingerprints

 Establishing the
Location of the
Print

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 Close-up Range
 35 mm or good quality digital camera with a macro lens or close–
up accessory can be used.
 Use a tripod; helps with the positioning of the camera and also
steadies the camera.
 Photograph the latent print with the camera’s film plane parallel
to the fingerprint surface or document.

108 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Lighting Methods for Fingerprints and Documents

 45 degree lighting
 It uses one or more lights positioned at 45–degree angles.
 If only one light is used, a white or silver reflector can be placed on the
opposite side of the evidence to reflect some of the light back toward the
evidence, reducing shadows.
 Used for photographing the item’s shape and size.

 Direct Reflective Lighting

 Light is reflected directly off the subject into the lens.
 This is done by placing the subject at a 10–degree
angle from the lens to film plane and placing the light
source at a 10–degree angle from the subject. The
light source reflects at a 20–degree angle into the
lens.
 It is used to minimize shadows within the evidence
109 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
 Oblique Lighting
 Oblique lighting uses a light source positioned at a low angle.
 It creates shadows on the surface of the evidence, photographing
impressions, tool marks and certain types of fingerprints.
 A very low oblique angle of lighting can be used to photograph
dusty footwear impressions and indented writing.
 Used in soft substances, for e.g., wax, putty, clay, adhesive tape,
grease, or dust too.
 Fingerprints on glass (windows, drinking glasses, etc.) can be
photographed by placing a white card behind the glass and using
a low oblique angle of light.

110 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

  Diffused Lighting
 It uses an opaque material placed between the
light source and the subject to soften the light.
This usually results in even lighting with reduced
reflections and hot spots.
 Opaque material- section of a white bed sheet or
an empty water bottle
 It is used for photographing evidence with shiny or
reflective surfaces.

 Bounce Lighting
• Bounce lighting uses light bounced off a white or
reflective surface.
• The bounce surface may be positioned at
different locations (above or to one side of the
subject) to create the desired effect. This usually
produces even non–glare lighting with low
contrast.
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 Transmitted Lighting
 The angle of the transmitted lighting can be adjusted from 90–
degrees to 45–degrees for the desired effect.

 It is used for photographing transparent or translucent subjects.

 Effective in photographing evidence such as a fingerprint on a

drinking glass.

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 Examples of
Indented Writings

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 Fingerprints

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Use of Filters
 Types of Filters:
1. Red Filter
2. Green Filter
3. Yellow Filter
4. Orange Filter

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116 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
UV Photography
 Some materials will absorb ultraviolet rays
while others reflect it.
 Some others have partial absorption while some
have partial reflection.

These differences in reaction can be recorded,

photographically when materials are illuminated
with this radiation.

117 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Methods of UV Photography
A. Reflected Method - illuminating the subject with a ultra-violet
lamp while excluding all visible light in exposing energy

B. Fluorescence Method – subjecting fluorescent materials to

ultra-violet rays, often in visible light spectrum

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119 Dr. Kanica
UV Chugh, Assistant Professor
Photography
Infrared Photography

 Taking of photographs with radiations between

700-1000 nanometers of electromagnetic spectrum

 The difference between ordinary photography and

IR photography lies in the type of film and filter
used, and in the focusing method

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Method of Infrared Photography
A. Infrared Reflected Method - done using an infrared film
and using small lens openings like f/11 or f/16

B. Infrared Luminescence Method – done inside a darkroom

with materials that luminesce when illuminated with visible
light especially in the blue – green region

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 Charred Documents
 IR photography is useful in revealing contents of the
charred documents.
 Oblique lighting can also be used to contrast the
writing vs the charred background.

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 Crime Scene
Videography

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VIDEO
 Presents scene differently than either sketching or
photography
 Gives better “feel” for scene than sketching or photography
 Is the more intuitive way we “see” things in this world.

Reasons for Video

 Video should be the first step in archiving a crime scene
 Provides walk-though feel
 Closer to how we view the world, which makes it a natural
viewing medium
 Versus staccato and static nature of photographs
 Detached overview in a sketch.
 Gives and immediate understanding of how evidence
relates to the crime.
 Sketch and photographs reinforce what video presents.

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Documentary of the Scene

 Role of the forensic videographer ; Same as any forensic

archivist
 Capture the scene in as an original state as possible.
 Not to consider scene as work of art but as a response to
what the scene is saying.
 Scene dictates the process and the resulting video.
 Making a documentary of the scene.
 Scene video informs its viewers about a topic or an issue, which in
this instance is the crime scene.
 Like any endeavor that is worthwhile and done correctly, making a
crime scene documentary is difficult and tedious.

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Why Video? Isn’t Photography Sufficient?
OBJECTIVE REASON

Unbiased It is the running narrative of a sequential

Documentation “walk through” of the crime scene.

Video provides the same information but in

Visual Proof of the
a “live” format. Eg: Such as seeing the
Crime
flames move during a fire accident.

Use the video as demonstrative evidence for

Testimony the judge, which presents the scene in a
better–to–view format that is almost “live”.

Long Delays between the crime and the

Refresh Memory
court can change or dull scene details.
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Forensic Video Essentials
Establishing/Close-up/Zoom
 Establishing video shows the backdrop of the scene.
 After each establishing video, the evidence in the video is shot
using the macro function on camera
 Close-up detail.
 During establishing video, videographer Uses zoom and macro
characteristics of camera lens (Zoom speed is critical because it
allows viewer to observe items in video that videographer might not
consider important. )
 Shoots the evidence using both
 Can also show archivist’s bias about what is important
 Slow zoom is essential because it allows for a more detailed
study of the surrounding area captured by the video.

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 Two General Categories of Forensic Video
 The Scene Video
 The Topic Video

Camera Speed & Position

Initial Video of Evidence at a Scene
 The secret to competent video is to slow
down and obey the speed limit.
 Consider the speed limit to be 8-10
seconds/quarter turn or slower.
 Face an object - bloody knife lying in one
corner of the room. Mission: Show its
relationship to a body lying on the opposite
side of the room
 Body is most visible object at scene: Capture
its location
 Count off seconds in your head & slowly pan
from body to knife.
 The angle is less than 180 degree.
 Panning from the body to the knife should take no
fewer than 10-15 seconds.
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The Scene Video
 The Scene Video is the video equivalent of the walk-through
taken by the team leader and the first officer. It is a
continuous process, ideally without interruption from
beginning to end. Along the way, each area of the scene is
captured on video. As videoing continues, the videographer
slowly walks through the scene capturing as much as
possible.

Preparing for the Scene Video

 As with all documentary filming, research is the key to
producing a quality product. From a crime scene perspective,
the essential research means becoming familiar with the
scene

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Checklist Before Starting
 Walk through the scene with team leader to learn scene geometry.

 Map the scene layout and determine video sequence, e.g., where to
begin and where to end.

 In second walk-through assess video and camera-specific

challenges, e.g., lighting, scene obstacles, weather issues, white
balance, ISO settings, etc.

 Discuss with team leader what video should include:

 Include entrance/egress points, important potential evidence,

indoor/outdoor considerations, video perspectives, etc.

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The Walk Through – Scene Video

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A Mid-Range Video (Topic Video)
 A new paradigm for forensic video/documentary
 Scene videoed twice,

 Done after the Scene Video

 Secondarily during the photographic archiving process using digital
capability of SLR cameras.

 Captures individual & specific parts of scene

 Visible evidence & immediate evidentiary relationships

 Records the area individually from perspective of photographer

taking establishing video using the same SLR camera.
 Captures evidential relationships in midrange format

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Capturing Scene Perspective

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134 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
135 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
Photogrammetry
Photos – light Gramma – to draw ; Metron – to measure
 “Photogrammetry is the technique of measuring objects from
photographs”

 “The art, science and technology of obtaining reliable spatial

information about physical objects and the environment
through the processes of recording, measuring and interpreting
image data.”

 Two distinct types of photogrammetry:

 Aerial / space-borne photogrammetry
 Close range photogrammetry

 Remember this: Photogrammetry is the metric interpretation

of image data

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Photogrammetry portrayed as systems approach. The input is usually referred to
as data acquisition, the “black box" involves photogrammetric procedures and
instruments; the output comprises photogrammetric products.

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Relationships of the Mapping Sciences as they relate to Mathematics
and Logic, and the Physical, Biological, and Sciences

138 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Types
Topographic photogrammetry Close range photogrammetry

 Used for industrial

 Used for mapping Earth or planets
measurement
 Imaging system is based on an aircraft
 Imaging system is handheld
or spacecraft
 Target is the object being
 Target is the ground surface
measured
 Image data is processed to create new
spatial information products
 Image data is processed to make precise
measurements

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What can photogrammetry do?
• The simple answer: make accurate 2D and 3D
measurements
• Information required: images and sensor (camera)
parameters

Single Sensor 2D
+ =
photograph parameters measurement

Multiple Sensor 3D
+ =
photographs parameters measurement

• Close range photogrammetry: 3D only

• Topographic photogrammetry: 2D and 3D depending
upon specific application

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Why Photogrammetry
 Very Precise
 Time Effective
 Cost Effective
 Based On Well Established And Tested Algorithms.
 Less Manual Effort
 More Geographic Fidelity
 Corrects all sorts of distortions.
 provide a reasonable geometric modeling alternative when little is known
about the geometric nature of the image data.
 provide an integrated solution for multiple images or photographs
simultaneously
 achieve a reasonable accuracy without a great number of GCPs
 create a three-dimensional stereo model or to extract the elevation
information

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142 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor
Functional Details

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Types of Photographs

True Low
Terrestrial Vertical
Photographs Oblique
Tilted
Aerial

Oblique High

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Image Requirements
 A block should have at least one pair of images (Satellite or
Photo) which overlap:

Overlap Region

60 %
O v e r la p

Stereo Pair

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Camera & Sensors Types
 Cameras
 Frame Camera
 Digital Camera
 Video Camera (Videography)
 Non-Metric Camera (35m, Medium and Large Format
Cameras)
 Pushbroom Sensors
 Generic
 Spot
 IRS-1C

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Stereo Aerial Photography

147 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor

Digital Camera
 The image plane of a digital camera to be used to
record spatial objects contains a two dimensional field
of sensors.

 CCD sensors (Change Coupled Devices) predominate

in digital photogrammetric cameras. Such cameras are
known as CCD Cameras

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Satellite topographic mapping
 Stereo data can be collected on same orbit, or different orbits
(beware of changes)

 Satellite may have to be rotated to point sensor correctly

 Optimum base to height ratio is 0.6 to 1.0

 Atmospheric effects (refraction, optical thickness) become

more significant at higher look angles

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SPOT
 1 panchromatic, 3 multispectral channels
 Panchromatic pixel size of 10m
 Multispectral pixel size of 20m
 Good for relief mapping at 1:50000

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BRANCHES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Analogue Photogrammetry
 Using optical, mechanical and electronical components, and where the
images are hardcopies. Re-creates a 3D model for measurements in 3D
space.

Analytical Photogrammetry
 The 3D modelling is mathematical (not re-created) and measurements are
made in the 2D images.

Digital Photogrammetry
 Analytical solutions applied in digital images. Can also incorporate
computer vision and digital image processing techniques.

Softcopy Photogrammetry
 ”Softcopy” refers to the display of a digital image, as opposed to a
”hardcopy” (a physical, tangible photo).

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Photogrammetry Products
 3D points

 LiDAR has become the technology of choice for deriving highly

accurate terrain data and 3D models, and it is commonly used
for a variety of mapping applications.

152 Dr. Kanica Chugh, Assistant Professor