Global Environmental Issues

● Today the human communities are facing an unprecedented

environmental crisis with respect to climate change and global
warming.
● Never before has the world faced such an existential crisis with
respect to livelihoods and survival. The recent Amazonian and
Australian wildfires and once in a century flood in our own state
of Kerala are testimony to this fact.
● The Himalaya, the highest and youngest mountain chain of the
world and on whose rivers almost 1.5 billion human population
survives are warming at an unprecedented rate – almost 3 times
that of the global average.
● The melting Himalayan glaciers as a result are likely to have
cascading effects in terms of floods, landslides, erosion and
increasing desertification.
Continue……..
● The sea-level rise as a result of warming of the Arctic and
the Antarctic glaciers are also likely to disrupt the
hydrological cycle and result in increasing cyclones,
hurricanes and typhoons along with the submergence of
low-lying islands such as Maldives, Mauritius and
Madagascar.
● The race for rapid economic development the world over
is likely to contribute to more warming during the 21st
and 22nd century and if left unstopped, it may lead to
major impacts on agriculture, economies, health and well-
being of human communities.
● It is high time that we take urgent pragmatic and scientific
solutions to solve this grave problem of climate change
and global warming. In this context, it is necessary to
understand the science, causal factors and possible
solutions of climate change and global warming.
Climate Change
● Climate change is one of the most predominant
challenges of today’s world. It is threatening the very
existence of human communities and human
civilizations throughout the world and is affecting all
spheres of life ranging from agriculture, economy,
livelihoods, food and water security, ecosystem
degradation, natural disasters, environmental hazards,
etc.
● Climate change is defined as average change in weather
conditions (temperature, precipitation, humidity, etc.) of a
region over a minimum period of 30 years. Climate
change can have both natural and anthropogenic causes.
Climate and Weather
What causes Earth’s climate to
change?

● Changes in the atmosphere

● Natural processes
● Volcanoes
● Tectonic plate movement
● Changes in the sun
● Shifts in Earth’s orbit
● Human activities – any activity that releases
“greenhouse gases” into the atmosphere
Climate Changes Currently Happening
Natural causes
● There can be many factors that can cause climate change
naturally. For example, increased volcanic activity can emit
large amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and ash particles into
the atmosphere that can increase the temperature of the
region as they absorb more solar radiation.
● Other natural factors include changes in eccentricity, axial tilt
and precession of Earth’s orbit (commonly referred to as the
Milankovitch cycles).
● All of these three factors (eccentricity, axial tilt and
precession) are related to the amount of solar radiation
reaching the Earth’s atmosphere and in turn the average
temperature of Earth’s surface.
● For example, the orbit in which the Earth revolves around the Sun changes
from nearly circular to mildly elliptical over a cycle of about 1,00,000 years.
The more elliptical the orbit becomes the less solar radiation Earth receives.
Thus, if the orbit becomes more elliptical, the average temperature of Earth
decreases.
● Similarly, the tilt of Earth’s axis (currently at
23.5°) varies between 21.5° and 24.5°, over a
cycle of about 41,000 years.
● Increased tilt leads to greater amount of solar
radiation reaching the Earth’s surface and
greater temperature on Earth’s surface.

●
● Precession is the wobbling of the Earth as it spins
on its axis with a periodicity of 23,000 years. More
wobbling leads to an even distribution of solar
radiation on the Earth’s surface, and less wobbling
leads to an increase in temperature in either the
Northern or Southern Hemisphere. Naturally,
climate change can also occur due to changes in
temperature of the Sun itself.
● The sun possesses an 11-
year periodic ‘Solar Cycle’ in
which the magnetic activity
on the surface of the Sun
changes.
● More magnetic activity leads
to formation of ‘sunspots’ or
regions of reduced surface
temperature. In the 11-year
solar cycle, some years are
characterized by increased
number of sunspots and
some with lean number of
sunspots.
● The years having records of
less number of sunspots are
the ones that have recorded
more temperature than the
● The last natural cause of climate change is the slowing
down or speeding up of ‘Atlantic Conveyor Belt’.
● The Atlantic Conveyor Belt is a name given to the system
of ocean currents in the Atlantic Ocean that mixes the
warm waters of Atlantic with the cold waters of the Arctic
and Antarctica.
● Through this mixing, the average temperature of Earth’s
surface is maintained at 15° C. Scientific evidence
indicates that slowing down of this Atlantic Conveyor Belt
leads to decades of rapid global warming.
The Greenhouse
Effect

What is it?
Anthropogenic
causes
● The anthropogenic or man-made causes of climate change
are the increase in concentrations of Greenhouse Gases or
GHGs such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), water vapor (H2O),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
These Greenhouse Gases are capable of absorbing incoming
solar radiation in the atmosphere.
● Therefore, an increase in the concentration of GHGs in the
atmosphere leads to an increase in the temperature of the
Earth’s surface. Normally, GHGs are present in concentrations
of less than 1% in the Earth’s atmosphere.
● However, their concentrations have progressively increased in
the atmosphere after the Industrial Revolution (~ 1850 A.D.)
due to the burning of fossil fuels in industries and
automobiles, agriculture, land-use change, landfills, tourism,
etc. It should however be borne in mind that GHGs are very
essential for existence of life on the Earth.
Based on this data, it becomes clear that energy production and
usage are the largest contributor to GHG emissions. That leads us
into our next section on electrical energy production – where does it
come from?
● In absence of GHGs, the average temperature of
Earth’s surface would have been −18 °C as
compared to the present average temperature of 15
°C because other than the GHGs, no other gases
have the property of absorbing solar radiation.
● In absence of GHGs, all of the incoming solar
radiations would have either been reflected back or
lost into the atmosphere and the Earth would have
transformed into a ‘Cold Planet’. However, the excess
concentrations of GHGs could also threaten the
existence of life on this Earth as it would lead to
‘Global Warming’ and Earth transforming into a ‘Hot
Planet’.
● Already, the concentrations of carbon dioxide and
methane have increased by 40% and 150%,
respectively since the pre-industrial period (before
1850). Therefore, every effort should be made to
combat the increase of GHG emissions as soon as
possible.
The levels of anthropogenic GHG are rising every year – especially CO2. (In the
graph, CO 2 FOLU stands for Forestry/Other Land Use.) The percent increases at
the top are particularly interesting because we have increased the amounts even
more in the first decade of this century than in the 30 years prior.
● Global warming is defined as an increase in the average
temperature of Earth (from the current 15°C) due to the
increase in the concentration of Greenhouse Gases
(GHGs). These main GHGs are: carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), water
vapour (H2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). The main sources of these
GHGs are:
● Carbon dioxide (CO2) – Mainly emitted from the burning
of fossil fuels (coal, petrol and diesel) in the industries
and automobiles.
● Methane (CH4) – Mainly emitted from the decomposition
of organic waste in the landfills and agricultural fields
(mainly rice fields) as a result of anaerobic digestion.
● Nitrous oxide (N2O) – Mainly emitted from combustion of
coal and petrol, sewage, wastewater and fertilizers.
● Ozone (O3) – Mainly produced due to chemical
reaction of volatile organic
● compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, ethanol, etc.
(used mainly in paints, sprays, etc.) in the
troposphere.
● Water vapour (H2O) – Produced mainly as a result
of the evaporation of water during the water cycle.
● Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – Emitted mainly due to
the use as a coolant in the refrigerators and air-
conditioners (ACs).
● Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) – Emitted as a by
product of use in air-conditioners and aerosols.
● Of all the GHGs, CO2 is the biggest contributor in
global warming (76%), followed by methane (16%),
nitrous oxide (6%) and CFCs along with HFCs (2%).
Of greater concern is the average residence time of
these GHGs in the atmosphere (time for which the
gases are present in the atmosphere).
● Nitrous oxide has the highest average residence time of
114 years, followed by CO2 (30-95 years), CFCs (45 years)
and methane (12 years).
● Thus, if one molecule of CO2 is emitted into the
atmosphere in 2020, it can continue to cause global
warming till 2050-2115. Therefore, it is very important to
control the emission of these GHGs as soon as possible.
● China, the European Union and United States of America
are the top GHG emitters, together contributing more than
one-half (50%) of the GHG emission worldwide. Sector-
wise, the electricity and energy generation account for the
highest GHG emission (31%), followed by transportation
(15%), manufacturing (12%), agriculture (11%) and forestry
(6%).
● The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) have predicted that if the emission of GHGs
continues at its current pace, the average temperature of
Earth’s surface are likely to rise by 1.5 °C between 2030
 GLOBAL
CLIMATE CHANGE

What's going to happen?

Impacts of Climate Change and Global
Warming
Melting of Polar Icecaps and Sea Level
Rise
● The increasing temperature levels as a result of global warming
and climate change are likely to result in accelerated melting of
glaciers and ice in Arctic and Antarctica and consequently
increase in average sea level of Indian, Atlantic and Pacific
oceans.
● A sea level rise of just 1 m would be sufficient enough to
completely submerge the low-lying islands such as Maldives,
Mauritius, Fiji, etc. The increased sea levels would also lead to
the intensification of water cycle and increased frequency of
floods, cloudburst, cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes all around
the world.
● Besides the Arctic and Antarctica, global warming is also likely to
lead to loss of ice and glacier covers in the major mountain
system such as Andes and the Himalaya.
● The loss of glacier cover in the headwaters of these major
mountain systems would result in reduced water flow in the
rivers flowing from these mountains such as Ganga,
Brahmaputra and Indus.
Loss of Biodiversity
● Global warming and climate change are one of the most predominant drivers of
biodiversity loss all around the world, leading to extinction and extermination of
species.
● Species that are likely to suffer the highest risk are the ‘endemic species’ (species
found only small restricted localities), ‘migratory species’ (species that migrate
long-distances from one place to the other), ‘alpine species’ (species that are
found on the top of the mountains) and ‘specialist species’ (species that are
found only in one kind of climate). Some of such species are penguins, polar
bears, pandas, snow leopards, purple frog, monarch butterflies, Himalayan yaks,
etc.
● These species are unlikely to adapt to the changing climate conditions and are
likely to go extinct such as the Dinosaurs.
● Even coral reefs – underwater ecosystems that harbor greatest biodiversity of
ocean fishes and marine organisms and provide one of the largest ecosystem
services on Earth, are facing collapse due to ‘coral bleaching’ – a phenomenon
in which the coral dies and turns white in color due to increasing temperature
and acidification of oceans. Half of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia is already
dead due to the phenomenon of coral bleaching.
Impact on Agriculture
● Climate change is likely to have significant impacts on
agriculture of a given region leading to decrease in
productivity and shifts in cropping patterns in tropical
biomes while increasing agricultural productivity in
temperate biomes. However, it is likely to lead in
disproportionate shifts in cropping patterns all over the
world.
● For example, in India the patterns of Rabi and Kharif
seasons are likely to change by at least one month.
● Climate change would also lead to widespread
proliferation and dispersal of non-native pests and exotic
invasive species such as Parthenium, Lantana, Prosopis
and Conyza that would lead to invasion of agricultural
lands and decrease soil fertility and agricultural
productivity of a region.
 Impact on Human Health
● Climate warming and increased temperature and
humidity levels are likely to help in the
widespread proliferation of vector-borne
diseases such as malaria, dengue,
schistosomiasis, yellow fever, etc. besides food
and waterborne diseases. The 2003 heat wave in
France resulted in approximately 15,000 human
deaths.
Impact on
Economy
● Documentation of the impacts of climate change on
economy is difficult due to multiple interrelated direct and
indirect effects. However, some reports such as that of
International Labour Organization (ILO) indicated that
climate change would lead to loss of approximately 2.2% of
working hours every year, 80 million full time jobs and 2,400
billion US dollars.
● Economics costs due to climate change would also rise in
terms of health cost, infrastructure, insurance and energy
costs. Fisheries, that constitute important source of
livelihoods for millions of people all around the world are
also likely to be significantly impacted leading to monetary
and employment losses.
Ozone Layer Depletion
● Ozone (O3) layer depletion refers to the process of thinning of
ozone layer in the stratosphere due to the presence of Ozone
Depleting Substances (ODS) emitted due to anthropogenic
activities. The major ODS are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons,
carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, and methyl chloroform.
CFCs are mainly used as coolants in air conditioners and
refrigerators, propellants in aerosol cans and as in manufacture of
insulation and packaging materials. Halons are used in fire
retardants, methyl bromide in pesticides and methyl chloroform
and carbon tetrachloride in industrial solvents.
● All these substances release either chlorine or bromine and cause
catalytic destruction of ozone in the stratosphere.
● The scientists (Sherwood Rowland, Mario Molina and Paul
Crutzen) who explained the process of ozone layer depletion due
to ODS were awarded Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995.
● The chlorine that are released from the ODS
cause the destruction of ozone molecule in the
presence of sunlight in a couple of chain
reactions:
● i. Cl (Chlorine) + O3 (Ozone) = ClO (Chlorine
monoxide) + O2 (Oxygen)
● ii. ClO (Chlorine monoxide) + O (Oxygen) = Cl
(Chlorine) + O2 (Oxygen)
● The chlorine released in the above process (2nd
step) goes on to break another molecule of
ozone. Like this, one molecule of chlorine can
destroy over 1,00,000 molecules of ozone over a
period of 50 years.
● Maximum ozone layer depletion (thinning of ozone layer)
occurs in Antarctica between September and November
every year. Two important conditions favor the ozone
depletion during these seasons: (i) Presence of sunlight in
the Polar Regions, and (ii) Development of circumpolar
vortex (mass of cold air around the southern polar region).
● The presence of sunlight promotes the catalytic destruction
of ozone while the development of circumpolar vortex
causes the water vapor in the atmosphere to cool rapidly
and form ice crystals.
● The ice crystals thus formed adhere to each other to form
‘Polar Stratospheric Clouds’ that in turn provide a platform
for the chlorine and bromine to destroy ozone molecules.
● When the circumpolar vortex breaks down after November,
the ozone-depleted air spread to the neighbouring regions
of Australia, New Zealand and South America and starts
thinning the ozone layer out there.
● Recognizing the disastrous consequences of using
ODS, a worldwide agreement was signed in 1987 in
Montreal, popularly known as ‘Montreal Protocol’ to
ban the use of ODS globally, and CFCs.
● It was initially decided in the agreement that 50%
reduction in CFC production would be achieved by
1998 and would be replaced by hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs).
● Unlike CFCs, HFCs and HCFCs do not destroy ozone
molecules. The satellite measurements revealed in
1997 that ODS had started declining in the atmosphere
and ozone layer has started recovering. In the absence
of further use of ODS, the ozone layer is slated to fully
recover by 2050.
 Acid rain
● Acid rain is defined as the rainfall with pH (a unit of measuring
acidity or basicity) values of 5.6 or less due to the chemical
reaction of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides with water vapor in
the atmosphere.
● The term “acid rain” was first coined by a British chemist, Robert
Angus Smith in 1872 after observing the impact of acid rain on
buildings with heavy industrial activities.
● Acid rain can either occur in the form of wet deposition (as
rainfall) or dry deposition (dry particles of sulfuric and nitric acid).
● Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind
and air currents.
● The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to
form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and
other materials before falling to the ground.
● While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause
acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes,
most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The
major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
● Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two-thirds
of SO2 and one-fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come
from electric power generators.
● Vehicles and heavy equipment.
● Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
● Sulfur dioxide is mainly produced from coal burning
industries, smelters, petroleum refineries and thermal
power plants.
● While nitrogen oxides are mainly produced from motor
vehicles and automobiles that run on petrol and diesel.
● In India, cases of Acid rain have been reported from
Agra, Mumbai and Delhi.
Sources of Acid Rain
Formation of acid
rain
Forms of Acid
Deposition
1. Wet Deposition
● Wet deposition is what we most commonly think of as acid rain. The
sulfuric and nitric acids formed in the atmosphere fall to the ground
mixed with rain, snow, fog, or hail.
2. Dry Deposition
● Acidic particles and gases can also deposit from the atmosphere in
the absence of moisture as dry deposition. The acidic particles and
gases may deposit to surfaces (water bodies, vegetation, buildings)
quickly or may react during atmospheric transport to form larger
particles that can be harmful to human health. When the accumulated
acids are washed off a surface by the next rain, this acidic water flows
over and through the ground, and can harm plants and wildlife, such as
insects and fish.
● The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that deposits to earth
through dry deposition depends on the amount of rainfall an area
receives. For example, in desert areas the ratio of dry to wet deposition
is higher than an area that receives several inches of rain each year.
Effects of acid
rain
Effects of acid
rain
● Damage to Buildings and Infrastructure:
● Acid rain has the most damaging effect on buildings and
historical monuments. One of the most noteworthy
examples is the yellowing of Taj Mahal due to acid rain in
Agra. The sulfuric and nitric acid of acid rain reacted
with the marble (calcium carbonate) of the Taj Mahal to
form crystals of calcium sulphate and caused yellowing
of the historical monument (a phenomenon now referred
to as the ‘Marble Cancer’).
● To protect the Taj Mahal from further degradation due to
acid rain, the Government of India in 1995 decided to ban
industries located in the neighbouring areas of Agra,
mathura, Bharatpur and Firozabad ('Taj Trapezium') that
burnt fossil fuels and polluted the air of Agra and caused
acid rain.
2. Damage to Aquatic Ecosystems:
● Acid rain can cause damage to aquatic life especially
fishes and phytoplanktons as a result of water acidification.
● Acid rain can also lead to the leaching of harmful heavy
metals such as zinc, mercury, manganese and lead from
the surrounding rocks into the water bodies and cause
heavy metal toxicity in the aquatic organisms.
● Formation of deformed embryos and young ones and
destruction of food base of fishes (insect larvae, etc.) can
also occur as a result of acid rain.
3. Damage to Terrestrial Ecosystems:
● Acid rain can cause dieback diseases (reduced growth and
mortality) in trees by damaging the cuticle, damaging the
chlorophyll and leaching of nutrients from the leaves.
Besides causing damage to the trees and foliage, acid rain
can also cause soil acidification that leads to the leaching of
essential elements such as calcium and magnesium from
the soil. Loss of these essential elements leads to reduced
growth of plants and decrease in photosynthetic activity.
● In addition, death of microbes also happens due to soil
acidification that in turn effect plant-microbe interactions in
the ecosystem.
● Evidence also indicates that acid rain causes decrease in
the rate of nitrogen fixation in the soil, leads to death of roots
of the plants in some cases and increased sensitivity to
diseases and pathogens.
 Kyoto Protocol
■ It is an international treaty to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Kyoto Protocol applies to 6 greenhouse gases;

■ Carbon dioxide (CO2)

■ Methane (CH4)
■ Nitrous oxide (N2O)
■ Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
■ Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
■ Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
■ It is an extension to the 1992 UNFCCC.

Major Green House Gases Contributing to Global Warming

1. Carbon dioxide – 57%
2. Chlorofluorocarbons -25%
3. Methane -12%
4. Nitrous oxide – 6%
Montreal Protocol

● The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, negotiated in September
1987, calls for 50 per cent reduction in CFC production from 1986 levels by 1999.
● This protocol signed by 24 of the 46 countries attending a Conference in Montreal seeks to inhibit
the production, consumption and trade of ozone-depleting compounds.
● The compounds are divided into groups: Group I (certain CFSs) and Group II (specific halons) each
subject to different limitations.

Developed Country 2000

Developing Country 2010
Oct 2016 – Kigali Agreement
● 5˚C
 Environmental protection

Environmental protection can be done by formulating some guidelines, policies and

laws by the government.
■ India is the first country in the world to have made provisions for the protection
and conservation of environment in its Constitution. On 5th June, 1972, environment
was first discussed as an item of international agenda in the U.N. Conference on
Human Environment in Stockholm and thereafter 5th June is celebrated all over the
world as World Environment Day.
■ Soon after the Stockholm Conference our country took substantive legislative
steps for environmental protection.
■ The Wildlife (Protection) Act was passed in 1972,
■ followed by the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974,
■ the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980,
■ Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and subsequently
■ the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
■ Provisions for environmental protection in the Constitution of India were
made within four years of Stockholm Conference, in 1976, through the 42nd
amendment as follows:
■ Article 48-A of the Constitution provides: “The state shall endeavor to
protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife of
the country.”
■ Article 51A(g) provides: “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to
protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers
and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.”
■ Thus our Constitution includes environmental protection and conservation
as one of our fundamental duties.
■ Some of the important Acts passed by the Government of India are
discussed here.
■ These Acts have the force of law and these environment laws are powerful
tools for implementing environmental protection.
Environmental Legislations In India
● In India, environmental protection and improvement has
been in practice since ancient times to the present age. In
ancient India, simple but quite effective laws were in
place to protect and conserve environment.
● The long history of environmentalism in India is signified
with the passage and codification of several acts e.g. The
Indian Motor Vehicle Act, The Factories Act, The Indian
Forest Act, The Mines and Minerals (Regulation and
Development) Act, The Industries (Development and
Regulation) Act, The Forest (Conservation) Act, The
Merchant Shipping Act.
● The present-day Constitution of India allows the State to
protect and improve the environment in order to
safeguard public health, forests and wildlife.
1. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
● The Wildlife Act provides the State Wildlife Advisory Boards provisions
to regulate hunting and trade of wild animals, birds and their products.
● The State Wildlife Advisory Boards can also establish sanctuaries and
national parks and judicially impose penalties for violating the Act.
● This Act was amended in 1982, to introduce provisions for the capture
and transportation of wild animals to scientific institutions and bodies
for management of animal populations.
● In 1991, the parent Act was comprehensively amended to insert special
chapters dealing with the protection of specified plants and the
regulation of zoos.
● The major activities and provisions in the Act can be summed up as
follows:
● It defines the wildlife related terminology.
● Appointment of Wildlife Advisory Board, wildlife warden,
definition of their powers and duties etc.
● Listing of endangered wildlife species and provisions to
prohibit their hunting
● Protection to some endangered plants like Bed dome cycad,
Blue Vanda, Ladies slipper orchid, pitcher plant etc.
● Constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
● Trade and commerce in some wildlife species with license for
sale, possession, transfer etc.
● Ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
● It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to
offenders.
● Several conservation projects for individual endangered
species like lion (1972), tiger (1973), crocodile (1974) and
brown antlered deer (1981) were started under this act. This
Act is adopted by all Indian states.
2. The Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974
● The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974, defines water pollution, as the direct or indirect
discharge of sewage, industrial effluents or any liquid,
gaseous or solid substance into water which alters the
physical, chemical or biological properties of water to
make it harmful or injurious to public health and health of
animals or of aquatic organisms’.
● This Act lead to the creation of Central Pollution Control
Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Boards
(SPCBs).
● CPCB primarily promotes cleanliness of streams and
wells in the different states of India.
● The other functions of the board are;
To lay down the standards for a stream or well, and in
consultation with the State Government concerned
modify or annul those standards.
● plan and cause to the executed a nationwide programme for the
prevention, control and abatement of water pollution;
● Preparation of manuals, codes or guides related to treatment and
disposal of sewage and trade effluents. Also, collection,
compilation and publication of technical and statistical data
related to water pollution and the measures devised for its
effective prevention and control.
● advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the
prevention and control of water pollution; Providing technical
assistance and guidance to the SPCBs and coordinating their
activities
● Control and abatement of water pollution through investigation
and research related to problems related to water pollution.
● The functions of State Pollution Control Boards are similar to
those of Central Pollution Control Board but they are to be
executed at state level, and these are governed by the directions
of CPCB.
● The board advises the state govt. the location of any industry that
might pollute a stream or a well.
● The board is authorized to take samples from industrial
streams, well or trade effluent or sewage and it lays down
standards for effluents
● The board is licensed to take legal samples of trade
effluents in accordance with the prescriptions in the act. In
the presence of the occupier or his agent, the collected
sample is divided into two parts, sealed, signed by both
parties, then it is sent for analysis to some recognized lab.
If the samples cross maximum permissible limits, then
consent is refused to the unit.
● Industries has to apply for consent from the board in a
prescribed format, providing all technical details, along
with a prescribed fee.
● After application analysis of the effluent is carried out and
consent is provided for a fixed duration.
● The board suggests efficient methods for utilization,
treatment and disposal of trade effluents.
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
It provides for maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by
preventing and controlling its pollution. Water pollution is defined as such
contamination of water, or such alteration of the physical, chemical or biological
properties of water, or such discharge as is likely to cause a nuisance or render the
water harmful or injurious to public health and safety or harmful for any other use
or to aquatic plants and other organisms or animal life.
The definition of water pollution has thus encompassed the entire probable agents
in water that
may cause any harm or have a potential to harm any kind of life in any way.
The salient features and provisions of the Act are summed up as follows:
(i) It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface and
ground water.
(ii) It provides for the establishment of Central and State Boards for pollution
control.
(iii) It advises them with powers and functions to control pollution. The Central and
State Pollution Control Boards are widely represented and are given
comprehensive powers to advise, coordinate and provide technical assistance for
prevention and control of pollution of water.
(iv) The Act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit of the Central
and State Pollution Control Boards.
(v) The Act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters and procedure
for the same. The main regulatory bodies are the Pollution Control Boards, which
have been conferred the following duties and powers:
(A) Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):
■ It advises the Central govt. in matters related to
prevention and control of water pollution. Coordinates the
activities of State Pollution Control Boards and provides
them technical assistance and guidance.
● Organizes training programs for prevention and control of
pollution.
● Organizes comprehensive programs on pollution related
issues through mass media.
● Collects, compiles and publishes technical and statistical
data related to pollution.
● Prepares manuals for treatment and disposal of sewage
and trade effluents.
● Lays down standards for water quality parameters.
● Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or
abatement of pollution.
● Establishes and recognizes laboratories for analysis of
water, sewage or trade effluent sample.
(B) State Pollution Control Boards:

These boards also have similar functions to be executed at state level and are governed by the directions of CPCB.

■ The Board advises the State govt. with respect to the location of any industry that might pollute a stream or a well.

■ It lays down standards for effluents and is empowered to take samples from any stream, well or trade effluent or sewage

passing through an industry.

■ The State Board is empowered to take legal samples of trade effluent in accordance with the procedure laid down in the

Act. The sample taken in the presence of the occupier or his agent is divided into two parts, sealed, signed by both parties and

sent for analysis to some recognized lab. If the samples do not conform to the prescribed water quality standards (crossing

maximum permissible limits), then ‘consent’ is refused to the unit.

■ Every industry has to obtain consent from the Board (granted for a fixed duration) by applying on a prescribed proforma

providing all technical details, along with a prescribed fee following which analysis of the effluent is carried out.

■ The Board suggests efficient methods for utilization, treatment and disposal of trade effluents.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
Salient features of the act are as follows:
(i) The Act provides for prevention, control and reduction of air pollution.
(ii) In the Act, air pollution has been defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise) in the
atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be harmful to human beings or any other living creatures or plants or
property or environment.
(iii) Noise pollution has been introduced as pollution in the Act in 1987.
(iv) Pollution Control Boards at the Central or State level have the regulatory authority to implement the Air Act. Just parallel to
the functions related to Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, the Boards perform similar functions related to
improvement of air quality. The Boards have to check whether or not the industry strictly follows the norms or standards laid
down by the Boards under section 17, regarding the discharge of emission of any air pollutant. Based upon analysis report
consent is granted or refused to the industry.
(v) Just like the Water Act, the Air Act has provisions for defining the constitution, powers and function of Pollution Control
Boards, funds, accounts, audit, penalties and procedures.
(vi) Section 20 of the Act has provision for ensuring emission standards from automobiles. Based upon it,
the State govt. is empowered to issue instructions to the authority incharge of registration of motor
vehicles (under Motor Vehicles Act, 1939) that is bound to comply with such instructions.
(vii) As per Section 19, in consultation with the State Pollution Control Board, the state government may
declare an area within the state as “air pollution control area” and can prohibit the use of any fuel other
than approved fuel in the area causing air pollution. No person shall, without prior consent of State Board
operate or establish any industrial unit in the “air pollution control area”.
The Water and Air Acts have also made special provisions for appeals. Under Section 28 of Water Act and
Section 31 of Air Act, a provision for appeals has been made. An Appellate Authority consisting of a single
person or three persons appointed by the Head of the State, the Governor, is constituted to hear such
appeals as filed by some aggrieved party (industry) due to some order made by the State Board within 30
days of passing the orders.
The Appellate Authority after giving the appellant and the State Board an opportunity of being heard,
disposes off the appeal as expeditiously as possible.
3. Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

● This Act was passed to prevent deforestation, which

results in ecological imbalance and environmental
deterioration. It prevents even the State Governments
and any other authority deserve a forest which is already
reserved. It prohibits forestland to be used for non-forest
purposes, except with the prior approval of the Central
Government.
● The Salient features of Forest Act:
● The state government can use the forests only for
forestry purposes. For non-forest purposes like mining or
for monoculture of the economically important trees the
state government has to take prior approval of central
government.
● Provisions for conservation of all types of forests and for
this purpose there is an advisory committee which
recommends funding for it to the central government.
● Immediate halt to any illegal forest activity within a forest
● 1992 Amendment in the Forest Act
● In 1992, a few amendments were made in the Act
which made arrangements for permitting some non-
forest exercises in forests, without cutting trees or
restricted cutting with advance endorsement of
central government.
● These activities involve setting of transmission lines,
seismic reviews, investigation, drilling and
hydroelectric tasks.
● The last action includes large-scale destruction of
forests, for which earlier endorsement by the central
Govt. is necessary.
● Under this Act, investigation or review in Wildlife
sanctuaries, national parks etc. is absolutely
prohibited without prior endorsement by central
government, even if no tree felling is included.
● Cultivation of cash-crops e.g. tea, coffee, spices,
rubber and plants, are included as non-forestry
activity and not permitted in reserve forests.
● The central govt. has to endorse even the cultivation
offruit- bearing trees, oil-yielding plants or plants of
medicinal value in forest area. This is on the grounds that
recently
● presented species in the forest area may cause an
imbalance in the forest ecology.
● In case the species to be planted is a local species, then
no pior clearance is required.
● Tusser cultivation (a kind of silk-yielding insect) in forest
areas by tribals is a method for their livelihood is treated
as a forestry activity as long as the host trees are not
some specific trees like Asan or Arjun.
● This is done so as to dishearten monoculture rehearses in
the woodland which are otherwise wealthy in biodiversity.
● Plantation of mulberry for rearing silkworm is viewed as a
non-forest exercise. The explanation is same as described
previously.
● Mining is a non-forestry activity and prior endorsement
of central govt. is required. The Supreme Court for a
case involving T.N. Godavarman Thirumulkpad Vs.
Association of India (1997) guided all on-going mining
exercises to be stopped quickly in any forest area of
India if it had not been endorsed in advance by the
central government.
● Removal of stones, bajri, rock and so on from river-beds
situated inside the forest zone fall under non-forest
activity.
● Any proposition sent to central govt. for non-forest
action must have a cost-benefit analysis and
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) of the proposed
exercise regarding its ecological and socio-economic
effects.
● Consequently, the Forests (Conservation) Act has made
abundant arrangements for preservation and security of
forests and prevention of deforestation.
 4. The Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981
● The Central Government used Article 253 to enact this law and
made it applicable throughout India. This Act defines air
pollutant as ‘any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including
noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may
be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living
creatures or plants or property or environment’.
● The CPCB and the SPCBs created under the Water Act 1974 are
entrusted with the implementation of the provisions of the Act.
The CPCB may
● Counsel the central government on any matter related to the
improvement of air quality and prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution.
● Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution; Provide
technical assistance and guidance to the SPCBs and coordinate
their activities.
● Prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution; and collect, compile and publish technical
and statistical data relating to air pollution and the measures devised for
its effective prevention, control or abatement.
● The CPCB also lay down standards for the quality of air.
● The functions of the SPCBs also include inspection of any control
equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing process and to take steps
for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution. The units
identified as polluting industries should obtain approval before their
establishment or/and continuing their operations.
● The SPCBs, in consultation with the State Governments, wherever
necessary, can exercise the following powers:
● Declare certain areas within the State as air pollution control area;
prohibit the use of certain fuels or appliances in this control area.
● Set standards for emission from automobiles and disallow discharge of
the emission of any air pollutant beyond the permissible limit. Approach
court for restraining persons from causing air pollution and restrict
certain industrial plants
● Authority to enter and inspect the premises of the polluters to take
samples of air
 5. The Environment (Protection) Act
1986
● This act defines environment as ‘water, air and land
and the interrelationship which exists among and
between water, air and land, and human beings, other
living creatures, plants, micro- organism and property’.
It defines hazardous substance as ‘any substance or
preparation which, by reasons of its chemical or
physiochemical properties or handling, is liable to
cause harm to human beings, other living creatures,
plants, micro-organism, property or the environment’.
● This Act empowers the Central Government to:
● Coordinate actions of the State Governments, officers
and other authorities under the Act or any other law
which is relatable to the objects of the Act;
● Planning and execution of a nation-wide programme
for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution;
● Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental
pollutants from
● various sources and setting maximum permissible limits
● Identification of areas in which any industry, operations or
processes or class of
● industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out.
● Prevention of accident-mediated environmental pollution by laying
down safeguards and setting procedures for remedial measures
after such accidents;
● Identification of materials, substances and manufacturing
processes, which can cause environmental pollution;
● Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to
problems of environmental pollution;
● inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery,
manufacturing or other processes, materials or substances as a
source of pollution, and giving orders to authorities to take steps for
the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution.
● establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and
institutions;
● preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention,
● The Central Government may organize an
authority or authorities to make rules covering the
● following matters:
● The permissible standards of air, water or soil
quality for various areas and purposes;
● The permissible limits of various environmental
pollutants (including noise) for different areas;
● The procedures, safety methods, prohibitions and
restrictions for the handling of hazardous
substances in different areas;
● The limitations on the location of polluting
industries and the prohibition and restrictions on
the polluting processes and operations
 The Environmental Protection Act 1986

The Act came into force on Nov. 19, 1986, the birth anniversary of our late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, who was a pioneer

of environmental protection issues in our country. The Act extends to whole of India. Some terms related to environment

have been described as follows in the Act:

(i) Environment includes water, air and land and the inter-relationships that exists among and between them and human

beings, all other living organisms and property.

(ii) Environmental pollution means the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such concentration, as

may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment.

(iii) Hazardous substance means any substance or preparation which by its physico-chemical properties or handling is

responsible to cause harm to human beings, other living organisms, property or environment.
The Act has given powers to the Central Government to take measures to protect and improve
environment while the state governments coordinate the actions. The most important functions of
Central govt. under this Act include setting up of:
(a) The standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes.
(b) The maximum permissible limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants (including
noise) for different areas.
(c) The procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances.
(d) The prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different areas.
(e) The prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and to carry on process and operations in
different areas.
(f) The procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause environmental
pollution and providing for remedial measures for such accidents.
Under the Environmental (Protection) Rules, 1986 the State Pollution Control Boards have to follow the guidelines provided,
some of which are as follows:
(a) They have to advise the industries for treating the waste water and gases with the best available technology to achieve the
prescribed standards.
(b) The industries have to be encouraged for recycling and reusing the wastes.
(c) They have to encourage the industries for recovery of biogas, energy and reusable materials.
(d) While permitting the discharge of effluents and emissions into the environment, the State Boards have to take into account
the assimilative capacity of the receiving water body.
(e) The Central and State Boards have to emphasize on the implementation of clean technologies by the industries in order to
increase fuel efficiency and reduce the generation of environmental pollutants.
Under the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 an amendment was made in 1994 for Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) of various development projects. There are 29 types of projects listed under Schedule I of the rule which require
clearance from the Central Government before establishing.
Others require clearance from the State Pollution Control Board, when the proposed project or expansion activity is going to
cause pollution load exceeding the existing levels.
■ The project proponent has to provide EIA report,
■ risk analysis report,
■ NOC from State Pollution Control Board,
■ commitment regarding availability of water and electricity,
■ summary of project report/feasibility report,
■ filled in a questionnaire for environmental appraisal of the project and comprehensive rehabilitation
plan, if more than 1000 people are likely to be displaced due to the project.
■ Under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 the Central Government also made the Hazardous
Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989. Under these rules, it is the responsibility of the
occupier to take all practical steps to ensure that such wastes are properly handled and disposed off
without any adverse effects.
■ There are 18 hazardous waste categories recognized under this rule and there are guidelines for their
proper handling, storage, treatment, transport and disposal which should be strictly followed by the
owner.
6. Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest
Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006

● The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers

(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, has been enacted to
apprehend the rights of residing Scheduled Tribes and other
traditional forest dwellers, who have been residing in such forests
for generations.
● This Act recognizes the rights of forest dwellers to keep the forest
land for habitation or for self-cultivation for livelihood, it also
guarantees their hold over forest area resources which includes
collection, use and disposal of community forest produce, it also
provides the right to protect, regenerate or preserve or manage any
community forest area for sustainable use.
● The Act also provides for utilization of forest land for public utility
facilities managed with the aid of the Government, along with
schools, dispensaries, fair price shops, electricity and
telecommunication lines, water tanks, etc. With the advice of Gram
Sabha’s. Special Central Assistance provides monetary support to
Tribal Sub Plan for infrastructure paintings viz. Roads, healthcare,
primary education, sanitation, community halls, etc. for
● Under Section 3(1)(h) of the Scheduled Tribes and
Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of
Forest Rights) Act, 2006, the rights of agreement
and conversion of all forest villages, vintage
habitations, un-surveyed villages and different
villages in forests, whether recorded, notified, or
not, into revenue villages have been identified as
one of the forest rights of forest residing
Scheduled Tribes and different traditional forest
dwellers on all forest lands.
Carbon footprint
● Carbon Footprint is the amount of greenhouse gases, mainly carbon
dioxide, released into the atmosphere by any anthropogenic activity. It
can be a broad measurement of the environmental impact of the
actions of an individual, family, organization, industry or even an entire
nation.
● For example, To calculate an individual’s carbon footprint, we need to
include a rough estimate of our overall carbon dioxide production from
several daily activities, including the use of electrical appliances, the
distance we drive, our food consumption and how much we recycle.
● Our carbon footprint can be reduced by using environment-friendly
vehicles (battery operated), using public transportation, using energy-
efficient appliances, insulating our homes to reduce electricity
consumption on room heaters and air conditioning and consuming
local and organic food. Individuals and companies can also offset
some of their carbon dioxide emissions by purchasing carbon credits,
the money from which can go into environment-friendly initiatives such
as planting trees or investing in renewable and clean energy.
● In contrast, a carbon footprint is usually expressed as a measure of
weight, as in tons of CO2 or CO2 equivalent per year.
Carbon sequestration
● Carbon sequestration is the capturing, removal
and storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the
earth’s atmosphere. It’s recognised as a key
method for removing carbon from the earth’s
atmosphere.
● Ecological footprint (EF), measure of the demands
made by a person or group of people on global
natural resources. It has become one of the most
widely used measures of humanity’s effect upon
the environment and has been used to highlight
both the apparent unsustainability of current
practices and the inequalities in resource
consumption between and within countries.