Physics A - Thermal Physics

Text to read: University Physics”, Young & Freedman

• Ch. 17: Temperature and heat
• Ch. 18: Thermal properties of matter
• Ch. 19: The first law of thermodynamics
• Ch. 20: The second law of thermodynamics
Topics to cover
1 Thermal properties of matter
2 Heat and thermal energy
3 Kinetic theory of gases
4 The first law of thermodynamics
5 Heat Engines and the second law of thermodynamics.

Thermodynamics
Thermal Properties of Matter
Key Concepts
Thermal properties of matter involve the behavior of materials under the influence of tem-
perature changes. Key properties include heat capacity, specific heat, thermal expansion,
and thermal conductivity.

1. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

• Heat Capacity (C): The amount of heat required to change the temperature of
a body by 1 C.
Q
C= ,
T
where Q is the heat added or removed, and T is the change in temperature.
• Specific Heat Capacity (c): The amount of heat required to change the tem-
perature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 C.
C Q
c= = ,
m m T
Q = mc T,
where m is the mass of the substance.

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Example Problem
A 2 kg block of aluminum is heated from 20 C to 100 C. Calculate the heat absorbed by
the block. (Specific heat capacity of aluminum = 900 J/kg · C).
Solution:
Q = mc T
Q = 2 ⇥ 900 ⇥ (100 20)
Q = 144, 000 J.

2. Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion describes the increase in size of a material when its temperature in-
creases. This phenomenon occurs because, as the temperature rises, the particles in a
substance move more rapidly and tend to occupy more space due to reduced intermolec-
ular forces.
• Linear expansion: Linear expansion of a substance is found to be proportional
to the temperature di↵erence, T , and initial length, L0 , of the object i.e;
L / L0 T
L = ↵L0 T
where ↵ is the coefficient of linear expansion.

Figure 1: An illustration of linear expansion.

• Area Expansion: Every linear dimension of an expanding area increases by the

same percentage as its temperature changes, including holes, assuming that the
expanding material is uniform. See the figure illustrating area expansion.
A = A0 T,
where ⇡ 2↵ for solids.
• Volume Expansion: Volume Expansion refers to the increase in the volume of a
substance when its temperature increases.
V = V0 T,
where ⇡ 3↵ for solids.

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 Figure 2: An illustration of Area expansion.

Example: Problem1
A metal rod of length 2 m expands by 2 mm when heated from 25 C to 75 C. Calculate
the coefficient of linear expansion ↵.
Solution:

L = ↵L0 T
L
↵=
L0 T
0.002
↵=
2 ⇥ 50
↵ = 2 ⇥ 10 5 C 1 .

Example: Problem2
A steel container of initial volume V0 = 1000 cm3 is heated by T = 50 C. The coefficient
of volume expansion is = 36 ⇥ 10 6 K 1 . The change in volume can be calculated using
the formula:

V = V0 T
Substituting the given values:

V = (36 ⇥ 10 6 ) ⇥ (1000) ⇥ (50)

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 V = 1.8 cm3
The new volume is therefore:

V = V0 + V = 1000 + 1.8 = 1001.8 cm3

Heat and Thermal Energy

Key Concepts
• Heat is a form of energy transfer between systems due to a temperature di↵erence.

• Thermal energy is the total internal kinetic energy of a system.

1. Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is the process by which thermal energy moves from one object or region to
another due to a temperature di↵erence. It occurs through three main mechanisms:

• conduction

• convection

• radiation

Figure 3: Illustrations of conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction: Heat transfer through a material due to temperature gradients. It occurs

due to the collision between neighbouring particles or molecules and the movement of free
electrons from the hot end to the cold one.
The rate of heat transfer along a metal rod depends on:

• the temperature di↵erence T

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 • the cross-sectional area A

• the inverse of the length, l.

The rate of heat transfer, H, can be expressed as:

dQ kA T
H= = .
dt l

Convection: The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (liquid or gas) particles.
It happens when warmer, less dense fluid rises and cooler, denser fluid sinks, creating a
flow that transfers heat. An example is boiling water.

Radiation: The transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, without requiring a

medium. For instance, the heat we feel from the Sun is transferred by radiation.

Q = ✏AT 4 ,

where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, ✏ is the emissivity, A is the area, and T is the
absolute temperature.

Example: Problem1
A metal plate of area 1 m² and thickness 0.01 m conducts heat at a rate of 100 W when
the temperature di↵erence across its sides is 50 C. Calculate the thermal conductivity of
the material.
Solution:
kA T
Q= t
d
Qd
k=
A T
100 ⇥ 0.01
k=
1 ⇥ 50
k = 0.02 W/m C.

Example: Problem2
A steel rod of length L = 2 m and cross-sectional area A = 0.01 m2 has one end main-
tained at a temperature of T1 = 100 C and the other end at T2 = 20 C. The thermal
conductivity of steel is k = 50 W/mK.

1. Calculate the rate of heat transfer through the rod.

2. If the rod is replaced by a material with half the thermal conductivity, how does
the rate of heat transfer change?

Relevant Formula
kA(T1 T2 )
Q=
L

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2. Phase change and heat capacity
There are three states/phases of matter namely

• gas: very weak intermolecular forces characterised by rapid random motion

• liquid: intermolecular forces bind closest neighbours

• solid: strong intermolecular forces

Phase Changes: A transition from one phase to another is called phase change.

• Changes in the phase of matter involve absorption or emission of heat. Thus, the
transfer of heat into a system can change the temperature of the system, or the
phase, or both.

• For a temperature change, i.e no change in phase, the amount of heat Q that is
needed to increase the temperature of a mass m from T1 to T2 is proportional to
the temperature change T = T2 –T1 :

Q = mc T

Where c is the specific heat of the material. Its unit is Jkg 1 k 1 .

• For a change in the phase of matter, heat is absorbed or released without change
in temperature as illustrated below.

Figure 4: Phase transition.

The heat absorbed/released during melting/freezing or vaporisation/condensation is known

as latent heat. In the latent heat of vaporization, for example, energy is required to give
molecules sufficient kinetic energy to break the intermolecular bonds that keep molecules
relatively fixed in the solid state, so that the molecules can move around and enter a
gaseous state.
Latent heat is given by the formula;

Q = mL

where L is the specific latent heat.

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Example Problem
How much heat is needed to completely melt 500 g of ice at 0 C? (Latent heat of fusion
of ice = 3.34 ⇥ 105 J/kg).
Solution:

Q = mL
Q = 0.5 ⇥ 3.34 ⇥ 105
Q = 167, 000 J.

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Kinetic Theory of Matter
Introduction
The Kinetic Theory of Matter explains the behavior of matter in terms of the motion
of its particles—atoms, molecules, or ions. It postulates that:
• Matter is made up of tiny particles in constant motion.

• The properties of solids, liquids, and gases arise from the motion and interactions
of these particles.

Key Postulates
1. Matter consists of small particles (atoms, molecules, or ions).

2. Particles are in constant motion:

• In solids: particles vibrate in fixed positions.

• In liquids: particles slide past one another.
• In gases: particles move freely in all directions.

3. Intermolecular forces exist between particles, varying with the state of matter.

4. Temperature a↵ects motion: the average kinetic energy of particles is directly pro-
portional to absolute temperature.

5. Collisions between particles are elastic.

States of Matter
Solids
• Particles are closely packed in a fixed structure.

• Strong intermolecular forces keep particles in place.

• Motion is restricted to vibrations.

Liquids
• Particles are close but can move past one another.

• Moderate intermolecular forces allow flow.

• Particles have more kinetic energy than in solids.

Gases
• Particles are far apart and move randomly.

• Intermolecular forces are negligible.

• Particles have the highest kinetic energy.

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Derivation: Pressure of a Gas Using Kinetic Theory
Step 1: Force on Container Walls
Consider a single gas molecule of mass m moving with velocity vx in the x-direction.

Figure 5: A particle moving with velocity vx in the x-direction.

• The change in momentum during a collision with a wall is:

p = 2mvx

• The time between collisions with the same wall is:

2L
t=
vx

• The force exerted by the molecule is:

p mvx2
F = =
t L

Step 2: Total Force and Pressure

• For N molecules, the total force is:

N mhvx2 i
Ftotal =
L
where hvx2 i is the average of vx2 for all molecules.

• Pressure is force per unit area. For a container of volume V = L3 , the area of one
face is L2 :
Ftotal N mhvx2 i
P = =
A V
• Since molecules move equally in all directions, hvx2 i = 13 hv 2 i, so:

1 N mhv 2 i
P =
3 V
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Connection Between Kinetic Energy and Temperature
Step 1: Average Kinetic Energy
The average kinetic energy of one molecule is:
1
Ekin = mhv 2 i
2
Substituting hv 2 i into the pressure equation:
✓ ◆
2 1 2
PV = N mhv i
3 2

Thus:
2
P V = N Ekin
3

Step 2: Relating to Temperature

From the ideal gas law:
P V = N kT
Equating:
2
N Ekin = N kT
3
Solving for Ekin :
3
Ekin = kT
2
This shows that the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule is proportional to the
temperature.

Worked Example
Problem: A container of volume 2 m3 contains 4 ⇥ 1025 gas molecules at a temperature
of 300 K. Calculate the pressure inside the container.
Solution:

• Using the ideal gas law:

N kT
P =
V
• Substituting:
(4 ⇥ 1025 )(1.38 ⇥ 10 23
)(300)
P =
2
• Calculating:
1.656 ⇥ 104
P = = 8.28 ⇥ 103 Pa
2
Answer: The pressure inside the container is 8280 Pa.

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