Type of Activity:

⎕Concept Notes ⎕Laboratory ⎕Individual ⎕Quiz ⎕Formative ⎕Summative

⎕Exercise/Drill ⎕Art/Drawing ⎕Pair/Group ⎕Others, specify_____________________________

Topic: Skeletal System

Learning 1. Discuss the bones in the axial and appendicular skeleton;

2. Differentiate the axial and appendicular skeleton.
Targets:

References: Cohen, B. J., & Taylor, J. J. (2005). Memmler's Human Body in

Health and Disease (10th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.

Mader, S. S. (2004). Understanding Human Anatomy & Physiology

(5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Marieb, E. N. (2014). Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

(10th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Marieb, E. N., & Hoehn, K. (2013). Human Anatomy and Physiology

(9th ed.). United States of America: Pearson Education,
Incorporated.

Scanlon, V. C., & Sanders, T. (2007). Essentials of Anatomy and

Physiology (5th ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company.

Tate, P. (2009). Seeley's Principles of Anatomy and Physiology.

Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.

Thibodeau, G. A., & Patton, K. T. (2004). Body Structures and

Functions (12th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Mosby.

VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2010). Fundamentals of

Human Anatomy & Physiology (7th ed.). New Delhi, India:
Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited

1. TO ENGAGE

Why can you stand erect?

2. TO EXPLORE

Standing, walking, jumping, driving and kicking a ball are all movements
associated with the skeletal system. It is the structural framework that provides the body
its shape and protection against circumstances that may negatively impact the internal
organs and soft tissues. The word skeleton comes from a Greek word which means

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dried implying that the skeleton is the dried hard parts left after the softer parts are
removed. Although bones are hard yet they are still made of tissues that can adapt,
grow and repair after damage (Tate, 2009). This module will give you a background on
the human skeletal system, its subdivisions and their functions.

3. TO EXPLAIN

The skeletal system functions in providing a rigid frame and support for the whole
body. Its primary organs are the bones. Bones have crucial function in maintaining the
survival of the organism. They support the body and protect the soft organs from
damage such as the skull protecting the brain. In addition, movement is possible
because of bones. They also store fats in the internal bone marrows. Minerals such as
calcium and phosphorus are also stored inside the bones. Within some bones
hematopoiesis or blood cell formation occurs (Marieb, 2014). Bone cells include
osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts. Osteoprogenitor cells
are unspecialized cells. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells. Osteocytes are mature
bone cells which are derived from osteoblasts. Next, osteoclasts function in the
breakdown, growth and repair of bones (Mader, 2004). Figure 34 shows the parts of the
skeletal system.

4. TO ELABORATE (to extend, connect, rationalize, and apply)

Bones are organs with two types. They are the compact bone and spongy bone.
Compact or dense bone appears solid. It is made of osteons or haversian systems
where blood vessels are found. Osteocytes are in contact with osteons and with one
another through canaliculi. The other type is spongy or cancellous bone which has
visible cavities or holes, hence, the name. Like compact bone, it has matrix, blood
vessels and osteocytes but not arranged into haversian systems. Its cavities contain red
bone marrow which is responsible in the production of platelets, red blood cells and
white blood cells (Scanlon & Sanders, 2007).

Bones are classified into long bones, short bones, flat bones and irregular bones.
Long bones are present in the hands, arms, legs and feet excluding the wrists and
ankles. Its shaft or diaphysis has a marrow canal which contains yellow bone marrow.
Short bones are located in wrists and ankles. Flat bones are found in cranial bones,
ribs, hip bones and shoulder blades while irregular bones are in the vertebrae and facial
bones (Marieb & Hoehn, 2013).

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Figure 34. Bones of the skeletal system
Source: [Link] [Link]/what-are-the-functions-of-the-skeletal-system/

I. Axial Skeleton

Axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body which includes the bones of the
skull and trunk. It has 80 bones. Table 9 summarizes the bones of the axial skeleton.
The skull is consisting of the cranium, facial bones, hyoid bone and ossicles. The
cranium protects the brain. On the other hand, facial bones support the ears, nose, eyes
and mouth. There are 14 facial bones. If the palatine bones failed to fuse medially a
cleft palate is formed. Cheekbones are called zygomatic bones. Lacrimal bones serve
as passageways of tears while mandible (jawbone) is the only facial bone that is
attached to the skull through a free, movable joint. Hyoid bone is a U-shaped structure
which is located at the anterior neck. It serves as a movable base for the tongue and as
an attachment reference for neck muscles. Ossicles are tiny bones in the middle ear. In
infants, there are areas with incomplete bone formation called fontanels (Marieb, 2014).

Table 9. Axial skeleton, their parts and bones

REGIONS PARTS BONES
A. Skull frontal bone; parietal bone; temporal
cranium bone; occipital bone; sphenoid bone;
ethmoid bone
facial bones mandible; maxillae; zygomatic; nasal

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 bones; lacrimal; vomer; inferior nasal
conchae
hyoid bone
ossicles malleus; incus; stapes
cervical vertebrae (C1 to C7)
thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12)
vertebral column lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5)
B. Trunk sacral vertebrae
coccygeal vertebrae
sternum
thorax
ribs (7 pairs true ribs, 5 pairs false ribs)
Note. Adapted from Memmler's Human Body in Health and Disease (Cohen & Taylor,
2005).

The trunk includes the thorax (bones of the chest) and vertebral (spinal) column.
Table 9 shows the bones that are part of it. The thorax forms a cone-shaped cage which
consists of 12 pairs of ribs with the sternum (breastbone). It protects the lungs, heart
and other organs in the thorax. Figure 35 shows the structure of the thorax. Sternum
consists of manubrium, sternal angle, body and xiphoid process. Xiphoid process is the
landmark for chest compression in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). There are 24
ribs (12 pairs) in human with seven pairs of true ribs because they are directly attached
to the sternum through extensions (costal cartilages) while five pairs of false ribs (8th,
9th and 10th pairs) because they are not directly attached but are fused with the 7th
pair. The remaining 11th and 12th pairs are floating ribs (Thibodeau & Patton, 2004).
Figure 36 shows the vertebral column.

Figure 35. Parts of the thorax

Source: [Link] [Link]/bony-thorax- chest-and-
abdomen/
Vertebral column (backbone) is the central axis of
the skeleton from the base of the skull to the pelvis. It is
significant because it supports the weight and movement of
the head and trunk, site for muscle attachment, allows spinal
nerves to exit the spinal cord, and protects the spinal cord.
The backbone consists of interlocking bones called vertebra
(sing.) In adults, there are 26 bones categorized into five
regions: 7 cervical vertebrae (C1-C7), 12 thoracic
vertebrae (T1-T12), 5 lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5), 1 sacral vertebrae (S) and 1 coccygeal
bone or tailbone (CO). Each vertebra is separated by intervertebral disk which is a
fibrocartilage (Mader, 2004).

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II. Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton is composed of 120 bones in the upper and lower
divisions. The upper division includes the shoulder, arm, forearm, wrist, hand and
fingers while the lower division consists of hip, thigh, leg, ankle, foot and toes (Marieb,
2014). Table 10 summarizes the bones of the appendicular skeleton while Figure 34
shows the location of the bones.

Table 10. Appendicular skeleton, their parts and bones

REGIONS PARTS BONES
clavicle
shoulder girdle
scapula
humerus
ulna
A. Upper division
radius
upper extremity
carpals
metacarpals
phalanges
pelvis os coxae (hipbone)
femur
patella
tibia
B. Lower division
lower extremity fibula
tarsal
metatarsals
phalanges
Note. Adapted from Memmler's Human Body in Health and Disease (Cohen & Taylor,
2005).

The upper division is divided into shoulder girdle and upper extremity. The
shoulder girdle consists of scapula and clavicle. The scapula (shoulder blade) is flat and
triangular. The clavicle (collarbone) is a slender bone with two curves. Its proximal end
is attached to the sternum. In fetus, it is the first bone to begin ossification (bone
formation) and is vulnerable to fracture during childbirth. The upper extremity or limb is
composed of arm, forearm, wrist and hand. The arm is the region between the elbow
and shoulder. It is attached to the scapula through its rounded head. The forearm is
comprised of ulna (little finger side) and radius (thumb side). The wrist is the region
between the forearm and hand and is composed of eight carpal bones. Lastly, the hand
includes five metacarpal bones which are aligned with the five digits (thumb and
fingers). Each finger consists of phalanges (3 small bones) (VanPutte, Regan & Russo,
2010).

The lower division is divided into pelvis and lower extremity. Pelvis or pelvic
girdle is composed of two coxal bones (hipbones), sacrum and coccyx. It protects a

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segment of the large intestine, internal reproductive organs and urinary bladder. It also
serves as the point of attachment of the lower limbs. The female pelvis is different from
the male pelvis because its pelvic opening is wider and more rounded, lighter in weight,
ilia and pubic arch are wider. These are adaptations for pregnancy and childbirth. The
lower extremity or lower limb includes the thigh (femur), leg (tibia and fibula), ankle
(tarsal bones) and foot (metatarsal bones and phalanges). Femur is the strongest and
longest bone. Tibia (shin bone) is the weight-bearing bone while the fibula is not. The
anatomy of the foot is similar to the hands with seven tarsal bones with the calcaneus
(heel) bone as the largest (Mader, 2004).

5. TO EVALUATE

TASK A. Examine the statements to differentiate the axial and appendicular skeleton.
Write AXIAL if the statement is under axial skeleton while APPENDICULAR if the
statement is under appendicular skeleton. Place your answers before the number.

__________ 1. According to Charles Darwin, human ancestors have tails but when
humans learned to walk the vertebrae fused together to become
the coccyx.
__________ 2. Human can be distinguished from apes due to long pollex relative to
phalanges.
__________ 3. Jawbone is the largest and strongest facial bone.
__________ 4. When the median nerve is compressed it causes numbness and pain.
This condition is called carpal tunnel syndrome.
__________ 5. Studies show that more severe brain injuries result from not wearing
helmets.
__________ 6. The structure is similar to the hands but it supports the weight of the
body so it is stronger and less mobile than the hands.
__________ 7. In baby, clavicle fracture occurs when passing through the birth canal.
__________ 8. Craniosynostosis involves premature closing of a suture causing
abnormal skull shape.
__________ 9. Lumbar puncture is an invasive procedure where a needle is inserted
into the spine to collect fluid.
__________ 10. An accident can cause whiplash injury in the cervical vertebra.
__________ 11. Kyphosis or hunchback is a condition where there is a humped
curvature in the person.
__________ 12. Syndactyly is a malformation where two or more phalanges are fused
together.
__________ 13. Tibia is the second largest bone in the human body.
__________ 14. Femur is the heaviest, strongest and longest bone in human.
__________ 15. Atlas is the first bone which supports the weight of the head.
__________ 16. The apex of the heart is located between the fourth and fifth ribs.
__________ 17. Since females are capable of pregnancy their pelvis is generally
broader.

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__________ 18. Doctors sometimes test the patellar reflex by tapping the patellar
tendon which lies below the kneecap.
__________ 19. Jumping from a great height may cause calcaneus bone fracture.
__________ 20. Ear infection can impair the ossicles contributing to hearing loss

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