UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

EFFECTIVE VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

AT THE PUBLIC JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE KOMENDA-EDINA-
EGUAFO-ABREM MUNICIPALITY

BY

JOSEPH APPIAH-BAIDOO

Thesis submitted to the Department of Basic Education of the College of

Education Studies, University of Cape Coast, in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for award of Master of Philosophy Degree in Basic Education

APRIL 2018

i
 DECLARATION
Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own original research and

that no part of it has been presented for another degree in this university or

elsewhere.

Candidate’s Signature:………………………… Date:…………………..

Name: Joseph Appiah-Baidoo

Supervisors’ Declaration

We hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this thesis were

supervised in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of thesis laid

down by the University of Cape Coast.

Principal Supervisor’s Signature………………… Date………………

Name: Prof. Mrs. Christine Adu -Yeboah

Co-supervisor’s Signature……………………. Date……………….

Name: Dr. Mrs. F.K. Etsey

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 ABSTRACT

Vocabulary knowledge is one of the leading indicators of a student’s ability to

comprehend a text. With this in mind, it is necessary that English language

teachers in every content area, search for best practices in vocabulary

instruction that will benefit students in comprehension. The purpose of the

study was to assess effective teaching of vocabulary learning in English

language at the public junior high in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem

Municipality. Sixty-six (66) English language teachers teaching English as a

subject in the public junior high schools were purposively sampled for the

study. Questionnaire items were used to collect data, as well observation

activities were used to observe English language teachers vocabulary

instruction lesson in reading comprehension. Descriptive statistics were used

to analyse the data. The study found that majority of the respondents used

extensive reading, repetition method, interaction and background knowledge

of students to teach vocabulary in English language. This led to a discussion in

the conclusion about the need for vocabulary instruction to be taken seriously

in reading lessons in English language especially at the public junior high

schools. The outcome of the study would help educational policy-makers and

English language teachers in basic schools to identify and resolve such

concerns to increase the success rate of implementing the curriculum.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere thanks and appreciation to all those

who helped to make this study possible, including but certainly not limited to

the following. First of all, I would like to thank my principal and co-

supervisors : Prof. Mrs. Christine Adu -Yeboah and : Dr. Mrs. F.K. Etsey

who have been very supportive to me throughout my stay at the University of

Cape Coast. Their encouraging smiles and comments helped me through

difficult times and their suggestions also helped strengthen my arguments in

writing this dissertation.

My final appreciation goes to Head-Teacher and Staff of

Bantuma/Akyinim M/A Basic, Prof. and Mrs. Ghartey Ampiah, Madam

Mariam Araba Ampah, John Acquah-Mensah, Millicent Sappor, Kofi Abram

Panyin Kwakye, Paul Dentu Otis and Andrews Quayson for their moral

support and encouragements.

iv
 DEDICATION

To my family and friends

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

DECLARATION ii

ABSTRACT iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

DEDICATION v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF TABLES ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 7

Purpose of the Study 9

Research Questions 9

Significance of the Study 9

Delimitation of the Study 10

Limitations of the study 10

Organisation of the Rest of the Study 11

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Constructivist Theory 12

Vocabulary Instruction in English Language 16

Definition of Vocabulary Knowledge 16

Relationship between Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary Instruction 18

Reasons for Vocabulary Instruction in Reading 22

Amount of New Words Students Should Learn in Vocabulary Learning 25

Principles Useful in Vocabulary Instruction 26

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Teachers’ Belief Systems about Vocabulary Instruction 31

Approaches to Vocabulary Instruction 34

Strategies / Activities to Build Vocabulary Instruction 39

Background Knowledge 47

Challenges in Designing Effective Vocabulary Acquisition 53

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

Research Design 57

Population 59

Sample and Sampling Procedures 61

Instruments for Data Collection 65

Observation 67

Pilot-Testing 68

Data Collection Procedure 69

Data Analysis 71

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

English Language Teachers’ Demographic Information 72

Research Question 1 75

Research Question 2 81

Research question 3 87

Research Question 4 93

Chapter Summary 99

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary 102

Summary of key Findings 103

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Conclusions 104

Recommendations 104

Suggestions for Future Studies 105

REFERENCES 106

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Circuit and Number of Public Junior High Schools in K.E.E.A 60

2 Circuit and Number of English Language Teachers in K.E.E.A 60

3 Trend of Basic Education Certificate Examination Pass Rate in

Komenda-Edina-Eguafo Abrem Municipality 61

4 Number of Schools Selected for the Study in the KEEA 64

5 Number of English Language Teachers selected from each

Circuit 64

6 Gender Distribution of the English Language Teachers 72

7 Age Distribution of the English Language Teachers 73

8 Current Rank Distribution of the English Language Teachers 73

9 Distribution of Educational Background of English Language

Teachers 74

10 Distribution of Teaching Experience of English Language

Teachers 75

11 Belief Systems which Influence Vocabulary Instruction 76

12 Instructional Approaches used in Teaching Vocabulary 81

13 Activities to Build Learners’ Vocabulary Knowledge 88

14 Challenges English Language Teachers Face 94

15 Challenges Students Face 96

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Vocabulary knowledge is an important element in second language

acquisition. By learning new words, students can increase their listening,

speaking, reading and writing skills and can improve comprehension and

production in the second language. Nassaji (2004) asserted that students who

learn English language as their second language have a wider vocabulary

knowledge, and make more effective use of certain types of lexical inferencing

strategies than their counterparts who have less vocabulary knowledge. This

implies that students who do more reading in comprehension in English

language are able to acquire meaning of new words than their counterparts

who do less reading in comprehension. According to Nassaji, students’ depth

of vocabulary knowledge made a significant contribution to inferential success

over and above the contribution made by the learner's degree of strategy use.

Carlos, August & Snow (2005), also posited that English language

learners who experienced slow vocabulary development were less able to

comprehend texts at the grade level than their English-only peers. Such

students were likely to perform poorly on assessments in these areas and were

at risk of being diagnosed as learning disabled. Students can increase their

vocabulary knowledge formally in the classroom and informally through

communication with others and one word class activities.

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 Teaching and learning of English language in the various educational

institutions has been beneficial to national development. Recipients of formal

education are always encouraged to take the learning of English language

seriously, both inside and outside classrooms. In addition, successive

governments have also done well, in providing educational materials to

support teaching and learning of English language. Effective teaching and

learning of English language in our educational establishments has also helped

to train the manpower needs of the country.

Basic education in Ghana is made up of two years kindergarten, six

years primary and three years Junior High School (JHS). The Junior High

School is the entry stage for a comprehensive Senior High School, training in

vocational, technical, agricultural and general education. Students’

performance in their final examination at this level must therefore be seen as

the preparatory stage of education and the determining entry point into further

levels of education in Ghana

However, the language policy for formal education in Ghana has been

unpredictable at the implementation stages. Sometimes, it was specified that

the mother tongue of students should be used for the first three years of

school, as the language of instruction, whereas English language is taught as a

subject in the classrooms.

The current national language policy for schools in Ghana states: “In

the first three years of primary education, the Ghanaian language prevalent in

the local area is to be used as the medium of instruction while English

language is studied as a subject. From Primary four onwards, English

replaces the Ghanaian language as the medium of instruction and the

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Ghanaian language becomes another subject on the time table’’

(Ministry of Education. 1999 cited in Mfum-Mensah, 2005; Andoh-Kumi,

2000).

As Leherr (2009), puts it “children learn to read in their mother

tongue (L1) and also learn to speak English (L2), with a framework based on

GES Language and Literacy Standards and Milestones. The instructional

approach is supported by a comprehensive and high quality set of

instructional materials, developed in all 11 Ghanaian languages of

instruction and including both teacher and learner materials” (p. i).

In Ghana, basic education with observable learning outcomes can be

achieved from teachers’ competencies, skills and zeal for their profession.

English language teachers play a pivotal role to the fulfilment of educational

goals, since the performance of learners lies on the competencies and skills of

teachers. Teaching and learning of English language at the basic level serves

as a background for learners to study other subjects and related course at the

higher educational levels. Generally, good academic performance of learners

in English language is reflected in performance in class exercises and end of

term examinations.

Research findings on second language by Martino and Hoffman

(2002), Espin and Foegen (1996), illustrate that vocabulary knowledge is the

single best predictor of academic achievement across subject matter domains.

Due to the pivotal role vocabulary knowledge plays in the overall school

success and mobility, basic and secondary school teachers alike must devote

more time and attention to selecting and explicitly teaching words that will

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enable learners of the English Language to meet the demands of today’s

standards based curricula.

In contrast, there is a huge disparity between comprehension and

vocabulary knowledge among students in the public junior high schools. Most

learners of English language find it hard to link the new words acquired to

other reading activities in English language. For this reason, certain aspects of

the English language, such as vocabulary instruction, are often relegated.

Indeed, from experience over the years, some teachers who are teaching

English language at the junior high schools often shirk the responsibility of

teaching vocabulary, which is the core of the language.

As Armbruster, Lehr, and Osborn (2003) put it students with lower

vocabulary skills tend to struggle to understand the meaning of a story or

article as a whole because vocabulary is a building block in learning to read.

As students learn to decode words, previous aural experiences form the

foundation to create meanings for print.

This is however not the case in many public schools in the country, especially

at the junior high schools. This has compelled parents, guardians and other

stakeholders of education to raise concerns on the issue of vocabulary

instruction in English language. These concerns border on the students’

inability to use the right amount of words to express themselves orally and in

writing activities. These are also reflected in the inability of the pupils to

transfer their knowledge and skills acquired in vocabulary, especially in the

learning of English language, in responding to questions relating to other

subjects of study.

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 Educational issues relating to teachers’ competencies, pedagogical

knowledge, content knowledge, training, and instructional strategies in some

topics in English language, have been the bone of contention among teachers

and educational planners. Others have also commented on the competence

levels of the teachers in teaching English language at the basic schools. These

issues arise, as a result of teachers inability to link reading activities to

vocabulary learning.

Another interesting aspect of the debate is on curriculum and content

issues, which have not helped to improve learners’ vocabulary competencies.

Educational implementers and evaluators, especially for basic education have

raised these issues, based on the performance of the pupils in their final

examination results. This problem is seen in learners’ writing and speaking

abilities, where they find it difficult to use the right words in their

communicative and interactive processes in their lives.

Teaching and learning of the English language at various levels of

Ghana’s educational system has become necessary due its relevancy to the

socio-economic development of the country. English language is the official

and administrative language, the political, economic and academic language

for the country, in the area of training and educating the manpower needs of

the nation. Dolphyne (1995) strengthened the statement further by stating that,

English language has come to stay as the official language of the country and

is used as the main medium of instruction in schools, and a means to conduct

government business. It is used in parliament, in court, civil service, in the

media and in the army and for preaching by many religious bodies.

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 Adams and Keene (2000) stated that English plays a significant role in

education and therefore students are expected to communicate effectively in

English in institutions where English is the medium of instruction. Learners

face the task of mastering the content area in subjects such as Mathematics,

Social Studies, Science, and Business programmes which are taught in the

target language (English). In such cases, teaching and learning of English can

help the students to deal successfully with their academic demands and to

perform successfully in their disciplines and professional contexts. It is in this

direction that the government of Ghana sees it as a necessity to include the

teaching and learning of the English language, as a subject and a medium of

instruction for all the various levels education in the country, as contained in

the 2007 Education Reform Policy report.

Afful (2007) stated that although English is an official language in

Ghana, its teaching and learning often pose some challenges to both teachers

and students in schools, colleges and even universities. Studies have however

revealed that the challenges posed by the use of English as second language in

Ghana are as a result of how the language is taught and learned at all levels of

education in the country. For example, studies have revealed that that some

teachers of English as a second language do not have the requisite training or

qualification before teaching the subject in some schools, colleges and even

universities in Ghana.

Making a strong case for the teaching and learning of the language,

does not necessarily lead to the success and the fulfilment of the objectives

and purposes of the teaching and learning of English language, within the new

educational reform. In the current English Language Syllabus for Junior High

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Schools (2007), vocabulary instruction is not a topic on its own but rather

infused into the teaching and learning of reading comprehension (Reading

activities as an aspect in English language), where it is taught during reading

lessons. The focus of vocabulary instruction as part of reading lessons is to

help students build their vocabulary power. It is gradually introduced to

students in their first year in their Junior High School through their final stage

in Junior High School.

Statement of the Problem

According to the National Institute for Literacy (2001) and Sedita

(2005) students have ideas in the word knowledge they bring to school. Also,

their socioeconomic backgrounds and the language used in their homes and

communities can significantly influence opportunities to expand their

vocabularies. However, some students have limited vocabulary knowledge as

a result of a language-based learning disability. Good oral vocabulary (words

we use in speaking and listening) is linked directly to later success in reading,

and students who have more vocabulary knowledge in kindergarten become

better readers than those who have limited vocabulary.

Sedita (2005) and Chall and Jacobs (1983) declared there is a gap in

the vocabulary knowledge that some students bring to school, and this gap

widens as students progress through the learning stages in school. They added

that students who lack adequate vocabulary knowledge have difficulty getting

meaning from what they read, so they read less because they find reading

difficult. As a result, they learn fewer words because they are not reading

widely enough to encounter and learn new words. On the other hand, students

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with well-developed vocabularies read more, which improves their reading

skill, and they learn more words.

Stahl (1999) opined that the differences in children’s word knowledge

are due largely to differences in the amount of text to which they are exposed

and that students need to read gradually more difficult materials to improve

vocabulary. Children with reading problems read less and vocabulary

knowledge suffers.

In Ghana, school-going children at the basic schools are having

challenges in reading and understanding the text in English language

textbooks because they are unable to recognize words, meanings of new words

in the text. Also, students are unable to decode the meaning of the text which

frustrate their efforts to do meaningful reading activities. This situation has

made many basic school students to develop negative attitudes towards

comprehension reading, and this situation of reading challenges among

students at the basic schools has affected students speaking and writing

abilities.

Inadequate textbooks, quality of the supplementary reading materials,

teacher factor, home factors and many more are examples of the contributory

factors to the problem. Above factors when combine partially have direct

bearings on vocabulary instruction in English language. It is against this

background that, the study assessed how effectively vocabulary instruction in

English language is offered at the public junior high schools in the Komenda-

Edina- Eguafo-Abrem District (K.E.E.A) in the Central Region.

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to examine how teachers teach meanings

of new words in reading lessons in English language at the public junior high

schools and the approaches adopted by the teachers to build the vocabulary

knowledge of students. The study also focused on the belief systems which

influence English language teachers in vocabulary instruction and the

challenges which English language teachers encounter in designing

vocabulary instruction in English language.

Research Questions

The study was guided by the following research questions;

1. Which belief systems do English language teachers hold in vocabulary

instruction in the Komenda- Edina- Eguafo-Abrem Municipality?

2. What instructional approaches do English language teachers adopt /use

in teaching vocabulary in the Komenda- Edina- Eguafo-Abrem

Municipality?

3. Which strategies do English language teachers use in building learners’

vocabulary knowledge in the Komenda- Edina- Eguafo-Abrem

Municipality?

4. What challenges do English language teachers encounter in designing

vocabulary instruction in the Komenda- Edina- Eguafo-Abrem

Municipality?

Significance of the Study

Teaching and learning of vocabulary in English language is necessary

to the oral and writing development of the learners, especially at the Basic

School. It was expected that, results from the study would among other things

9
help the English language teachers in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem

Municipality on the appropriate teaching methods in vocabulary instruction.

Besides, policy-makers and implementers such as the Ghana Education

Service, Ministry of Education will find the findings of the study useful and

could integrate programmes and policies that are aimed at improving the

quality of education. It was also expected that the results from the study would

add to the existing literature on vocabulary instruction. Finally, the findings

from the study would help in the development and evaluation of curriculum

areas in the English language for the Basic Schools.

Delimitation of the Study

The study focused on vocabulary instruction in English language at the

public J.H.S in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem (K.E.E.A.) Municipality

of Ghana. The results from the study were delimited to the Komenda-Edina-

Eguafo-Abrem Municipality and focused on the teachers teaching English

language at the public high schools.

Limitations of the Study

The study experienced certain difficulties that may affect its reliability

and generalizability. Some of the respondents were not cooperative and

supportive to the study, especially in soliciting their opinions on the research

questions raised in the study. It was possible that some of the responses from

the respondents might not reflect the actual situation within the district. This

may place restrictions on the conclusion of the study and as a result limit the

application of the conclusions.

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Organisation of the Rest of the Study

The study is divided into five (5) chapters, and each chapter, has been

divided into sub- headings/sub- chapters. Chapter One discussed the

Background to the Study, Statement of the Problem, Purpose of the Study,

Research Questions, Significance of the Study, Delimitation/ Limitation of the

Study and Organisation of the rest of the Study. Chapter Two focused on the

review of the related literature on the study. Chapter Three of the study

described the methodology.

The methodology section of the study included sub-themes like the

Research Design, Population, Sampling and Sampling Techniques, Research

Instrument, Pilot-Testing, Data Collection Procedure and Data Analysis. The

fourth chapter of the study centred on the Results and Discussion of the data

collected. It also discussed the results of the data, which were collected, using

statistical tools like Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 16)

to bring out results from the study. Chapter five was the Summary,

Conclusions and Recommendations of the Study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews studies conducted by other researchers considered

relevant to this study. The review of related literature permits comparison of

the findings of this study and similar researches to provide a basis for

confirming or refuting earlier conclusions. This research study seeks to fill in

the gaps on the assessment effective of vocabulary instruction in English

language at the public junior high schools, which other review related paid

less attention to literature to address. It breaks down the issues under

theoretical and empirical literature.

The Constructivist theory is discussed as well as empirical studies on

Vocabulary Instruction in English language, Approaches to Vocabulary

Instruction, and Teachers’ Belief Systems about Vocabulary Instruction,

Strategies/Activities to Build Vocabulary Instruction, Challenges in Designing

Effective Vocabulary Acquisition.

Constructivist Theory

Nyaradzo and Jennifer (2012) indicated that a classroom with different

learning needs and diverse language backgrounds poses a great challenge to

the class teacher. Students learning English language in schools present a

specific challenge to teachers as they represent such a varied range of

academic ability and English language abilities. Constructivism has emerged

as one of the greatest influences on the practice of education in the last twenty-

five years. Constructivism is widely considered as an approach to probe for

12
children’s level of understanding and the ways in which that understanding

can be taken to higher level thinking.

It is a way of learning and thinking. It describes how students make

meanings of the material and how they can be taught most effectively. It also

considered as an educational theory that holds that teachers should take into

account what students know. Simply explained it is a collection of educational

practices which are student-focused, meaning-based, process-oriented,

interactive and responsive to students’ personal interests and needs. Teachers

then build on this knowledge and allow students to put their knowledge into

practice as suggested by (Nyaradzo & Jennifer 2012).

However, the meanings of constructivism vary according to one's

perspective and position. Within educational contexts there are philosophical

meanings of constructivism, as well as personal constructivism as explained

by Piaget (1967), social constructivism described by Vygtosky (1978), radical

constructivism opined by von Glasersfeld (1995), constructivist

epistemologies, and educational constructivism by Mathews (1998).

Nevertheless, social constructivism and educational constructivism (including

theories of learning and pedagogy) have gained acceptance and have had

positive impacts on instruction and curriculum design because they are

considered to be the most conducive to integration into current educational

approaches, especially in the area of language acquisition and learning in

English language.

Li (2005) held that learning is an active process in which learners

construct their own knowledge and understanding. That is, the students should

be the centre of teaching, although we should not neglect the importance of the

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 teacher’s guidance. Constructivism defines learning as a process of active

knowledge construction and not as passive knowledge absorption as asserted

by Freiberg (1999), Reigeluth (1999) and von Glasersfeld (1995). Students

integrate new information into pre-existing mental structures, and adjust

personal interpretation through the acquisition of new information and

experience (Jonassen, Davidson, Collins, Campbell & Haag, 1995).

According to Smith and Elley (1995) constructivism focus is on the

learning processes as opposed to learning products. The process by which a

student determines a particular answer is more important than retrieval of

objective solutions. Student error is viewed as a mechanism of gaining insight

into how students organize their experiential world.

Instructional activities focus on satisfying actual student needs and

solving real problems. The teacher is conceptualized as a facilitator of student

understanding as opposed to a transmitter of knowledge. The role of the

teacher is not to dispense knowledge but to provide students with

opportunities and incentives to make meaning, according to von Glasersfeld

(1996).

Hoover (1996) suggested four ways through which students

demonstrate their constructive skills in learning situations. First, learners

construct new understandings using what they already know. They come to

learning situations with knowledge gained from previous experiences. That

prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge they will

construct from the new learning experiences.

Secondly, if learning is centred on prior knowledge, then teachers must

pay attention to that knowledge and provide learning environments that exploit

14
inconsistencies between learners’ current understandings and the new

experiences before them. This puts a challenge for teachers as they cannot

assume that all children understand something in the same way. To add up to

the explanations, children may need different experiences to advance to

different levels of understanding

Third, if students must apply their current understandings in new

situations to help them to build new knowledge, then teachers must engage

students in active learning activities, which will bring students’ current

understandings to the forefront. Teachers can ensure that learning experiences

are integrated to the problems which are important to students, not those that are

primarily important to teachers and the educational system.

Fourth, if new knowledge is actively built, then time is needed to build

it. Sufficient time provides opportunities for students to do reflection about new

experiences, how those experiences line up against current understandings, and

how a different understanding might provide students with improved ideas.

Accordingly, individuals create or construct their own new

understandings or knowledge through the interaction of what they already

believe in and the ideas, events, and activities with which they come into

contact. The teacher is a guide, facilitator, and co-explorer who encourages

learners to question, challenge and formulate their own ideas, opinions and

conclusions.

The theory of constructivism is a good model to contemplate the links

between personal vocabulary skills and reading comprehension ability.

Constructivist theory is grounded in the ideas that all learners are active

participants in construction of personal understanding and the more the

15
learning takes place in the context of real world tasks the more meaningful the

understanding will be (Woolfolk, 2010).

Vocabulary Instruction in English Language

This aspect of the literature coordinates ideas and findings which have

direct relationship between vocabulary and reading activities in the English

language instruction at the basic schools. The sub-topics which have been

discussed and linked to the broad theme include: Definition of Vocabulary

Knowledge, Relationship between Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary

Instruction, Reasons for Vocabulary Instruction in Reading Activities Amount

of Words Students Should Learn in Vocabulary Learning, Principles Useful in

Vocabulary Instruction, Approaches to Vocabulary Instruction.

Definition of Vocabulary Knowledge

Nagy and Scott (2000) and Stahl (1999) suggested that vocabulary

knowledge is equally multidimensional and complex in nature; knowing a

word well requires a combination of different types of knowledge: its

definition, its relationship to other words, its connotations in different contexts

(i.e., polysemy), and its transformation into other morphological forms.

Knowledge of a word—particularly an abstract, conceptually sophisticated

word—is thought to develop incrementally over time, with students’ gaining

additional information about a word with each meaningful, contextualized

encounter with it.

Kamil and Hiebert (2005) defined vocabulary as the knowledge of

words and words meaning. More specifically, we use vocabulary to refer to

the kind of words that students must know and to use the new words.

16
Vocabulary has been defined as “the storehouse of word meanings that we

draw on to comprehend what is said to us, express our thoughts, or interpret

what we read” (Moats, 2005, p. 7). In addition, Montgomery (2007) stated that

the depth and breadth of individuals’ vocabulary is highly correlated with their

overall language development and is a factor in their ability to use language in

varied contexts and for multiple purposes.

Zimmerman (2007) explained the meaning of vocabulary as the set of

words that are the basic building blocks used in the generation and

understanding of sentence. For a learner to become competent in the formation

and easy understanding of sentences, then that person needs the basic skills in

understanding the meaning of new words and how the new words are used in

sentences. This skills of understanding the meaning of new words and its

usage in sentence formation can be properly achieved through vocabulary

instruction in English language. There can be no complete understanding

without the existence of words, serving as the basic building blocks.

Vocabulary is considered essential for language acquisition and

development and is recognized as a necessary factor for success in school and

achievement in society. There is a substantial body of evidence demonstrating

a link between vocabulary and students’ ability to read and comprehend

passages as opined by the National Reading Panel (2000), Klare (1984), Beck,

McCaslin, & McKeown (1980), Draper & Moellar (1971).

Graves (2000) defined vocabulary as the entire stock of words

belonging to a branch of knowledge or known by an individual. He further

states that the lexicon of a language is its vocabulary, which includes words

and expressions. That is, the learners’ ability to have the stock of entire words

17
is not guaranteed in any literacy activities. Clearly, vocabulary knowledge is

essential for successful language learning and influences the learner’s oral

performance, as well as all the language competencies (Milton, 2008).

Relationship between Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary

Instruction

Janxen (2007) opined that reading is “critical” to the academic

achievement of second language learners (p.707). This implies that, well-

structured reading activities have a direct link to the vocabulary development

of the students. Students with good reading skills are able to have more words

than students with poor reading skills. Davis (1968) opined that, vocabulary

learning is an inherently important part of language acquisition. The

relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension is

well established in the reading literature. This implies that, vocabulary

knowledge helps in the reading and communicative skills of the learners.

Teachers of languages, especially English language teachers need to develop

the vocabulary activities, which help students to develop their competencies in

vocabulary knowledge.

Davis (1944, 1968) and Thorndyke (1973) opined that vocabulary is an

important part of a comprehensive reading programme because they believe

that students who understand words in a selection will comprehend what they

read. They explain further that, there is strong link between vocabulary

knowledge and reading comprehension; that is, most students who do well on

vocabulary tests also do well on reading comprehension tests. This suggests

that, vocabulary knowledge must be linked to the comprehensive reading

programme, so as to help children to understand the meaning of the text they

18
read. Vocabulary instruction must not always be limited to reading of

comprehension, but must linked to the other literacy activities like listening,

speaking and writing which help to broaden and deepen students word

knowledge.

According to Pang, Muaka Bernhardt and Kamil (2003), to have a

successful reading process, readers need to make use of their background

knowledge, grammatical knowledge, vocabulary, experience with text and

other strategies to help them understand a written text. Extending the

discussion further, Hu Hsueh-Chao & Nation (2000 P. 403), declared that,

“The relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension

is complex and dynamic. One way of looking at it is to divide it up into two

major directions of effect-the effect of vocabulary knowledge on reading

comprehension and the effect of reading comprehension on vocabulary

knowledge or growth”.

The National Reading Panel (2000) hypothesized that vocabulary

instruction is one of the five core components of reading instruction that are

useful to teaching students how to read. These core components include

phonemic awareness, phonics and word study, fluency, vocabulary and

comprehension. Vocabulary is also a heartbeat to English language. Students

often recognize its importance to their language learning since they feel that it

is necessary to understand and communicate with others in English language.

They learn them to build their knowledge of words and phrases, and help them

in enhancing their English language knowledge and use.

According to Hirsch (2003), one of the oldest findings in educational

research confirms the strong correlation between vocabulary knowledge and

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reading comprehension. Word knowledge is crucial to reading comprehension

and determines how well students will understand the texts they read inside

and outside the school environment. Comprehension is beyond recognizing

words and remembering their meanings.

If a student does not know the meanings of a sufficient proportion of

the words in the text, comprehension becomes impossible. Reading

comprehension is a complex skill that demands higher level processing such

as drawing on prior knowledge, making inferences and resolving structural

and semantic ambiguities. Reading activities include the integration of many

specific linguistic and cognitive skills (e.g., word reading, syntactic

awareness) with background and cultural knowledge as opined by

Kintsch(1994), McNamara, Kintsch, Songer, and Kintsch (1996) Alexander

and Jetton(2000).Each of these components (making inference, semantics,

cognitive skills and background knowledge) of effective comprehension

necessarily brings in vocabulary knowledge; once words are decoded

accurately, the reader must grasp the words’ meanings to understand clauses,

propositions and paragraphs.

A study on reading comprehension confirmed that background

knowledge and vocabulary were some of the strongest predictors of

comprehension activities and indirectly influenced whether a student would

apply problem-solving strategies when meaning breaks down as suggested by

Cromley and Azevedo (2007).There is reason to believe that vocabulary

knowledge is a particularly important factor in understanding the reading

problems experienced by second-language learners. In spite of this, the

connections existing between vocabulary knowledge and comprehension are

20
exceptionally complex, confounded, as it is, by the complexity of relationships

among vocabulary knowledge, conceptual and cultural knowledge, and

instructional opportunities.

Accordingly, the primary goal of reading instruction is to develop

students’ skills and knowledge so that they can comprehend and critically

analyse increasingly complex texts independently. Research findings have

long established and confirmed strong connection between vocabulary

knowledge and reading comprehension. On the contrary, poor readers often

lack adequate vocabulary to get meaning from what they read. Thus, reading is

difficult and tedious for them, and their skill is inhibited because their

vocabulary is limited.

Sweet and Snow (2004) discussed that vocabulary instruction is

considered one of the key mechanisms and important effects of metacognitive

processes within the reading comprehension process which help students to

acquire know more words and have more abstract language at their disposal.

As a result students with developed understanding of language and strategies

are able to manipulate language which they learn words more successfully.

Students are able to apply their cognitive skills and processes in finding out

the meanings of new words in comprehension.

Metacognitive processes in students are usually done through their

background knowledge on the new words. Sternberg (1987) advanced the

debate further that, skilled readers acquire much of their vocabulary through

encounters with unfamiliar words while reading; children with impoverished

vocabularies cannot necessarily rely on learning words through wide reading.

21
 Stanovich (1986) affirmed that struggling readers read less than their

typically achieving peers, they encounter fewer words, especially low-

frequency words, than do skilled readers. These learners also suffer from less

developed metacognitive strategies for word learning; they are less equipped

to use surrounding words and grammatical clues to glean the meaning of

unfamiliar words from context, and often cannot rely on surrounding known

words because the ratio of known to unknown words is too high as indicated

by Carver (1994), Stoller & Grabe (1995).

Reasons for Vocabulary Instruction in Reading

Every vocabulary instruction points out that (1) students learn the

meanings of most words indirectly, through every day experiences, and (2)

some vocabulary must be taught directly (Joan, 2008). Students acquire the

meaning of new words through their experiences like hearing the new words

on radio, television or seeing the new word from a story book or magazine.

Through this means, students are able to learn new words in their daily life

experiences.

One of the reasons English language teachers are concerned about

teaching vocabulary is to promote the comprehension which students will be

assigned to read. If students do not know the meaning of many of the words

that they will meet in a text, their comprehension of that selection is likely to

be diminished. When the purpose of vocabulary instruction is to facilitate the

comprehension of a selection, it is obvious that this instruction must take place

as an introduction before the reading of the selection.

Accordingly, new words that are critical to an understanding of the

major topic or theme should be introduced and discussed prior to reading,

22
since the examination of these pre-condition terms and concepts will establish

a strong foundation for subsequent learning.

Another reason for vocabulary instruction is to increase the number of

words that students know and can use in a variety of educational, social, and

eventually work-related areas. To expand the number of words students learn,

it is often effective to teach these words in morphological or semantic clusters.

Semantic clusters may be explained as the words that are related in meaning or

relate to the same field of study. Teaching words in semantic clusters is

particularly helpful since vocabulary expansion involves not just the

acquisition of the meaning of individual words but also learning the

relationships among words and how these words relate to each other

According to Sedita (2005) vocabulary knowledge is central to

learning activities because it includes all the words students must know, in

order to access their background knowledge, express their ideas and

communicate effectively, and learn about new concepts. Such students’ word

knowledge is linked strongly to academic success because students who have

large vocabularies can understand new ideas and concepts more quickly than

students with limited vocabularies.

In support of the importance, students with good reading skills and

abilities will read more and acquire more new words, and even become better

readers. Learners’ needs and the usefulness of the vocabulary items

generally determine which items are learned. Thus, students with larger

vocabularies gain much of their superior vocabulary knowledge through

extensive reading.

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 In reading activities, students also acquire all kinds of other knowledge

that would give them an advantage: a variety of topical knowledge, knowledge

of text structures and genres, and fluency in word recognition, to name a few.

In the face of obvious importance to academic success, vocabulary

development and its instruction has received little instructional attention in

recent years. Recent research studies, however, indicate that vocabulary

instruction may be problematic because many teachers are not “confident

about best practice in vocabulary instruction and at times do not know where

to begin to form an instructional emphasis on word learning” as declared by

Berne and Blachowicz (2008, p. 315). Finding ways to expand students’

vocabulary growth throughout the school years must become a major

educational priority in the subject areas like English language.

Moving forward, current and future research studies must emphasise

on effective instructional practices so as to help in development of vocabulary

learning among Second Language Learners, since vocabulary learning

connects to comprehending and analysing texts in their students schooling

activities, and conceptually help students read complex words in textbooks

independently. As long as such research activity is going to inform

instructional advancement at scale, it must be conducted in natural and well-

founded procedures. Harmon, Wood, Hedrick, and Gress (2008) strengthened

the arguments further that vocabulary learning is a continual process of

encountering new words in meaningful and comprehensible contexts.

Chall, Jacobs, and Baldwin (1990) suggested that it is necessary for

children to develop knowledge of the meanings of the words from a young

age, since vocabulary development has an impact on their reading

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comprehension and academic success as they get older. When children do not

understand the meanings of important words in a text, they are unlikely to

understand the text.

Even though researchers agree that learning vocabulary is important in

the language learning process and that vocabulary growth is closely linked to

school progress as declared by Walker, Greenwood, Hart, and Carta (1994),

there has been an on-going debate since the beginning of the 20th century, as to

exactly how children learn new words, what are the normal rates of

vocabulary growth, and what is the average vocabulary size of students in the

primary grades.

Amount of New Words Students Should Learn in Vocabulary Learning

Recent estimates of vocabulary growth and size have become more

consistent, with suggested vocabulary gains in early grades estimated at 3,000

words per year according to Graves (1986) and vocabulary size of five to six

year-old students as being between 2,500 and 5,000 words as suggested by

Beck and McKeown (1991). Research findings however show that students

differ significantly in both of these areas as early as the primary grades as

opined by Baker, Simmons and Kameenui (1995). For example, second grade

students in the lowest quartile can gain, on average, 1.5 root words as

indicated by Anglin, (1993) a day for a total of 4,000 root word meanings,

whereas second-grade students in the highest quartile can gain, on average, 3

root words a day, for a total of 8,000 root word meanings.

These vocabulary gaps tend to increase significantly throughout school

with the first onset being at about grade 4 or 5, when students are required to

shift their attention from word recognition (the medium) to word meaning (the

25
message). This shift takes place when students can recognize most common

words and can decode others, but have difficulties with reading textbooks with

more abstract specialized and unfamiliar words according to Chall (1987).

Principles Useful in Vocabulary Instruction

Reutzel and Cooter (2008) suggested three principles, which help in

guiding vocabulary instruction. These principles which help in the teaching of

vocabulary focus on the teacher offering definitions and context during

vocabulary instruction. They opine that, learners learn new words in two

different ways. Learners learn the basic definitions of the new words, which

help them to determine the logical relationship of a word compared to other

words, as in a dictionary definition. Synonyms, antonyms, classification

schemes, word roots, affixes are some of the comparisons learners use to find

the meaning of new words.

Context information is the second way learners use to find the meaning

of new words in a sentence. Reutzel and Cooter (2008) define context

information as knowing the basic core definition of a word and how it varies,

or is changed in different texts. For instance, a particular word can have

multiple meanings in a sentence. It is therefore important for the English

language teachers to help learners to understand the meaning of new words, by

using the contextual relations of the word. Without the context information, it

is impossible for learners to understand the meaning of a word with multiple

meanings.

It is therefore necessary for teachers to assist learners to understand

the definitional and contextual relations of words. When English language

teachers include definitional and context information in vocabulary

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instruction, it helps to improve learners’ speaking and writing skills. However,

most English language teachers find it difficult to use the first principle to

teach learners in vocabulary instruction. When this continues for a long period

of time, learners will acquire fewer amounts of new words and meanings.

Hence, learners cannot express their ideas and write well, due to limited

words.

Principle two is about deep processing, which focuses on the word

relating to the information that learners’ already know and spending time on

the task of learning new words. This principle further focuses on three levels

of processing vocabulary instruction. These levels include; association

processing, comprehension processing and generation processing. Association

processing is about students learning simple associations through language

permutations as synonyms and word associations. Comprehension processing

moves the students beyond simple associations by having them do something

with the association. That is, students will fit the word into sentence,

classifying the word with words, or finding antonyms.

Generation processing under principle two discusses comprehended

association and generating of a new or novel product. That is, it involves the

restatement of the definition in the students’ own words, creating a novel

sentence using the word correctly in a clear context, or comparing the

definition to the students’ own personal experiences. Combining these levels

of vocabulary instruction helps students to form words association in

sentences, understand the meaning of the new words in the sentence and also

use the experiences of the students, to generate the meaning of the word.

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 Principle three focuses on how teachers expose students to multiple

new reading vocabularies. This principle demands sufficient time and varied

context activities, in order to improve students’ understanding in learning the

meaning of the new words. The more time to vocabulary instruction, the

greater the chances for learning to take place. When teachers apply this

principle, students develop depth and breadth of word knowledge that goes

beyond simple memorization. It helps students to develop strategies for

acquiring new vocabulary independently.

Beck and McKeown (1991), Haggard (1982, 1986) and Ruddell (1994)

identified principles useful for vocabulary which includes the importance of

active learning. This principle serves as a key to successful instruction, by

getting students to actively involve in the vocabulary learning processes.

Active involvement of students in vocabulary instruction does not only ensure

mental engagement in the learning processes, it also builds the high interest in

vocabulary study. Active participation ensures that students reason with the

words and also integrate the new information into their background

knowledge.

Additionally, reasoning with the words involves three processes, which

help to ensure active students’ participation in vocabulary study. These

processes include; new word to be developed and understood in the meaning

context in which it is found. The word needs to be related to semantically

similar words and word groups through comparison, contrast to refine, connect

and integrate meanings. The meaning of new words can be enhanced and

connected to other semantically related words by creating new and varied

contexts and interpretations. This implies that, providing meaning clues and

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connections between words help students to develop understanding for the

new words.

Another principle for the vocabulary instruction is the personal

motivation and vocabulary development. Teachers’ awareness of students’

motivation can be valuable in stimulating vocabulary learning and

development. Motivating students to learn and develop their vocabulary can

be done in safe environments like the classroom. The classroom should be rich

with print materials, in order to stimulate students’ motivation towards

vocabulary. Central to the learners’ motivation is the social nature of

vocabulary. That is, learning the meaning of new words must relate to the

social interaction within the classroom and outside the classroom. Doing this

does not only stimulate students’ motivation, but help to promote effective

vocabulary instruction.

Furthermore, identifying new vocabulary for teaching and selecting

new words to teach is necessary for reading, writing and speaking instructions.

Teachers must select new words carefully by using this principle for

vocabulary learning, so as to ensure learners’ understanding and involvement

in vocabulary instruction. Selection of new words and meanings must be

central to the reading, writing and speaking instructions. The teachers’

selection of new words must be in the context of the reading, and speaking

activities. When teachers apply these criteria before, during and after reading

activities, it helps to evaluate students’ understanding towards the meaning of

the new words in a text.

The use of basal reader in vocabulary instruction as another principle

involves the activities of teaching new words before reading. Directed reading

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activity is one of the strategies, which teachers use to teach meaning of new

words. This strategy is useful when teachers guide students to identify these

new words and based on the judgement of the guide writer, who will apply

his/ her own standards in choosing words for the lists. For these reasons, the

teacher will make the final decisions on which new words should be taught

and also decides words to be introduced during reading.

Students’ reading abilities improve during the developmental and

learning stages of vocabulary instructions. This happens when the teacher

guides students to find the meaning of new words, in relation to context of the

reading. Another strategy to this vocabulary instruction is the selection and the

use of stories which are familiar to the students. Stories which are familiar to

the students, aid students’ understanding of the new words, guides students on

the usage of the new words in sentences and also promote effective vocabulary

instruction.

Blachowicz and Fisher (2000) identified four principles of vocabulary

instruction. They suggest that the students should personalize word learning.

This principle is connected to active development of vocabulary that demands

actual use of new words in different contexts to conduct personal matters. The

students themselves decide what word to learn and how to learn. The second

principle needs occupying of the students in the learning of vocabulary.

It means on-going commitment for the vocabulary learning throughout

the day in different forms. It is achieved when language is not only exposed

but explained to students. The third principle is based on the view that word

building needs multiple exposure of different intensity. A single exposure and

activity is not enough to develop rich understanding of vocabulary. It takes

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place in many steps over a period of time. Each exposure adds information on

how the word is used in different contexts.

They further suggested that, there is need of 12 exposures (activities)

for getting mastery and proper utilization of new lexical items. The students

must be provided opportunities and activities to think on the learnt lexical item

and to link the new words (vocabulary knowledge) with the previous

knowledge. The massive exposure of vocabulary may confuse the students in

the use of words in spoken and written form.

The last principle emphasizes that the students should be active in

learning the word. They should not be passive recipients in word knowledge.

They should be encouraged to make connections between their learnt and

previous knowledge. It allows students to experiment with words in different

ways.

Teachers’ Belief Systems about Vocabulary Instruction

Harste and Burke (1977) explained teachers’ theoretical beliefs as the

philosophical principles, or belief systems, which guide teachers' expectations

about students’ behaviour, and the decisions they make during reading lessons.

Additionally, teachers make decisions about classroom instruction in light of

theoretical beliefs they hold about teaching and learning. Teachers’ beliefs

influence their goals, procedures, materials, classroom interaction patterns,

their roles, their students, and the schools they work in.

In addition, Borko and Putnam’s (1996) educational research findings

appreciate that teachers’ beliefs and knowledge influence their classroom

practices. They explained teachers’ beliefs as the set of beliefs and knowledge

that teachers have formed as a result of their classroom experiences. Language

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teachers’ beliefs and understandings of teaching as well as learning play an

important role in their classroom practices and in their professional growth.

The teacher's beliefs about learning will lead them to different strategies and

consequently it will have some effect on the learners' amount of learning.

Understanding the experiences of teachers with varied orientations

toward vocabulary instruction can provide teacher educators with information

to guide the development of students’ vocabulary. Similarly, Richards and

Rodgers (2001) confirmed that teachers possess assumptions about language

and language learning, and that these provide the basis for a particular

approach to language instruction.

Duffy (1982), Lampert (1985), Duffy and Ball (1986) supported the

notion that teachers do possess theoretical beliefs in the direction of reading

and such beliefs tend to shape the nature of their instructional practices.

Although these research studies support the conception that teachers teach in

accordance with their theoretical beliefs. Duffy (1982), Lampert (1985), Duffy

and Ball (1986) further argued that teachers’ theoretical beliefs may shape the

nature of classroom interactions as well as have a critical impact on students’

early perceptions of literate practices. Nevertheless, despite substantial support

for the consistency between teachers’ beliefs and practices, other research

studies argue that at times the complexities of classroom life can constrain

teachers' abilities to attend to their beliefs and provide instruction which is

consistent with their theoretical beliefs, although this growing body of

research continues to question whether teachers are able to provide instruction

which is consistent with their theoretical beliefs.

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 According to Ellis (1994) attitudes towards vocabulary instruction

vary, however, developing an extensive, ever-expanding vocabulary is

generally considered to be a fundamental part of second language learning.

One of the key distinctions in vocabulary teaching is whether a direct or an

indirect approach should be adopted. The fact that most vocabulary acquisition

occurs through incidental exposure may leave teachers wondering as to their

role in a student-centred context

Ghaffarzadeh (2012) identified three major ideas on the teachers’

belief systems towards vocabulary instruction in English language. These

teachers’ belief systems include; Memory-based, Meaning-based and

Function-based lexicon teaching beliefs. Memory–based refers to

concentrating on memorizing words, analysing the parts of speech, focusing

on affixes, listening and repeating, writing and practicing, imagining the

written forms of the words and connecting the words with their synonyms and

antonyms. Using any other strategies to remember the words without

considerable attention to meaning is one of the effective means teaching

vocabulary in English language.

Citing as an example, a teacher wants to teach the word "careless",

Memory-based teaching implies that the teacher may use a list of the words

which are in the same family with the selected word, synonyms or

antonyms or even words derivations or affixes (such as carelessly, careful,

-full, less, …) and then ask the learners to repeat and memorize them.

Function-based belief refers to the negotiation of meaning through

the application of words in sentences and texts, or through activities that

help the learner understand the targeted words better and to make

33
relationships between the words and the learners’ own experiences. The

teachers in this group may ask the learners to play some roles of some

stories about driving, writing, washing, or may tell a story about his/her

own experiences that was because of doing something carelessly. Or he/she

may simply push a student, apologize and say I am a careless person.

Such sequences of activities will lead learners to learn the vocabulary through

acting. In other words, it is an approach that uses the learners’ energy for

learning instead of just imagining the words.

Meaning-based teaching refers to making negotiation between

meaning and the words by the help of objects, mental images, etc. It also

means to make connection between the words of the same family in learners'

minds and to use other related techniques to gain its goal.

Approaches to Vocabulary Instruction

The National Reading Panel’s review (2000) identified five basic

approaches to vocabulary instruction which should be used together(1) explicit

instruction (particularly of difficult words and words that are not part of

pupils’ everyday experience) (2) indirect instruction (i.e. exposure to a wide

range of reading materials) (3) multimedia methods (going beyond the text to

include other media such as visual stimulus, the use of the computer or sign

language) (4) capacity methods (focusing on making reading an automatic

activity) and (5)association methods (encouraging learners to draw

connections between what they do know and unfamiliar words).

Nagy (1988) suggested that traditional vocabulary teaching can be

categorized as following two general approaches: definitional and contextual.

Using the definitional method, teachers have students look up words in a

34
dictionary, write down and/or memorize definitions, use the words in

sentences, find synonyms, and then complete worksheets or take quizzes.

There are some undeniable advantages to this approach. From dictionary

definitions, students can gain a specific meaning of a word they come across

in their reading.

Thirdly, students can gain a better understanding of interrelated words

in word families. And, in addition, by combing through dictionaries and all the

information they provide, students can gain a better appreciation of language.

The definition is brief and simple and designed for maximum usefulness. Its

intent is to give students a good idea of what the word means without

extensive detail or secondary connotations. Dictionary meaning of a word

includes the word’s part of speech, its pronunciation, an illustrative sentence

providing a context that clarifies and exemplifies its meaning, and a list of

synonyms and antonyms.

On the contrary, definitional approach can be both useful and

necessary; learning definitions alone can lead to a relatively superficial level

of word knowledge [and] does not reliably improve reading comprehension.

Nagy (1988) posits that “although definitions can play a key role in

vocabulary instruction, by themselves they tell little about how a word is

actually used. He points out that given only a definition of a word, students

may have difficulty using it meaningfully in a sentence. The definitional

approach is effective only when a limited knowledge of new vocabulary is

desired”.

In support of the weakness on the definitional approach to vocabulary

instruction, Allen (1999) identified three reasons why strategies that focus on

35
word definitions are not effective: (1) a word can have multiple definitions and

meanings depending on the geographic location in which a person lives, (2) a

word can have a definition that may not be correct in a particular context, and

(3) definitions of words often lack adequate information for students to use

them correctly. On the other hand, there is no assurance that this approach to

vocabulary instruction can help comprehension of the students and also

increase the active vocabulary knowledge of learners. Sometimes, learning

definitions does not necessarily help in the integration of the knowledge.

There is a need of background information for the integration of the

knowledge.

According to Herman and Dole (1988), dictionaries are a poor tool of

learning the meanings of the new words. They do not develop the skill to

personalize the word and use it in different context and the learner only knows

the meanings without knowing their use. However, this is not to conclude that

using the definitional approach to teaching vocabulary should be avoided.

Rather, learning definitions of words can be very effective in teaching

vocabulary when the students already have an understanding of the underlying

concept of the term as opined by the Texas Education Agency (2002).

Therefore, students need to make meaningful connections of new

words to what they already possess through the application of their

background knowledge of the new words. Results from research works

confirm the fact that learning vocabulary is more complex than simply

memorizing definitions of words; rather, it involves seeing, hearing, and using

words in meaningful contexts. Hence, English language teachers need to

36
develop tried-test strategies that focus on word recognition and word use in

meaningful contexts, which will impact positively on vocabulary growth.

In the contextual approach, teachers ask students to infer the meaning

of a word by scrutinizing semantic and syntactic cues in a sentence or group of

words containing that word, or by examining typographic clues from charts,

graphs, pictures and the like. To make the contextual approach more effective

is to integrate it within a rich context of supportive and indicative information.

Students who are good in reading often use context clues to determine the

meanings of unfamiliar words, if they are existing in the text. Such students

can locate other words and phrases in a passage, which give clues about what

an unknown word means.

Then again, struggling readers who do not do this, should be given

direct instruction in how to effectively look for clues or definitions. The clues

may be any of the following types of information inserted in the text:

definition, restatement, example, comparison or contrast, description,

synonym or antonym. This approach also can be useful, but it should be noted

that context clues alone may provide only a partial meaning of a word and

occasionally may even be misleading (Nagy, 1988; Beck, McKeown &

McCaslin, 1983).

Christen and Murphy (1991), McKeown et al. (1985) and Nagy

(1988), identified three other approaches to vocabulary instruction. These

approaches provide students with fuller, richer word knowledge and increase

their reading comprehension. These distinct approaches to vocabulary include;

integration, repetition and meaningful use.

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 By integration, researchers mean that in order for learning to occur,

new information must be integrated with and be built upon what the student

already knows. In other words, instruction should guide students to use words

and ideas they already know to help them associate meaning with words they

do not know.

One teaching technique that supports this strategy of drawing on students’

prior knowledge is to have them complete a semantic map, a visual tool that

helps to make relationships among words more clear.

Repetition is a second key quality of instruction. Research shows that

repeated encounters with new words are essential if vocabulary instruction is

to have a measurable impact on reading comprehension. Meaningful use stem

from the idea that students will learn more when they are actively involved in

the assignment and when the task is similar to one they would ordinarily

encounter in the course of speaking, writing, and reading. Additionally—and

what is perhaps more important—the research indicates that when students are

called upon to process information more deeply, and to make inferences based

on that information they will be more likely to retain the information.

Texas Reading Initiative (2002) postulated word consciousness as

another approach to vocabulary instruction. This approach to vocabulary

instruction involves awareness of word structure, including an understanding

of word parts and word order. Students have noticed how the meanings of

written language differs from everyday conversation by drawing their

attention to the unique structures of written language such as compound and

complex sentence structures, phrasing within sentences, how punctuation is

used to signal phrasing, and paragraph structure. This approach to vocabulary

38
instruction empowers students to enjoy learning new words and engaging in

word play activities through of processes of distinguishing the meanings of

written language from everyday conservation.

One way to advance word consciousness is to point out examples of

clear descriptions, interesting metaphors, similes and other forms of figurative

language, and plays on words. Teachers should take advantage of

opportunities to develop students’ interest in words, the subtle meanings of

words, how to have fun with words, and how words and concepts are

connected across different contexts.

Strategies / Activities to Build Vocabulary Instruction

Every teacher in every classroom needs to address students’ English

language development needs. This commitment to vocabulary instruction is

pivotal to a school-wide effort confronting the achievement gap in language

and literacy. Therefore, effective teachers of language and literacy

programmes provide activities and practices that stimulate rich uses of

language, designing their instructional programmes within a social context that

promotes literacy learning.

English language teachers understand those students who are learning

to read and write and those who are reading to learn. That is, learning in

content areas will benefit from a sound instructional vocabulary programme.

This is especially true for classrooms where learners have small vocabularies

and are English language learners. Knowledge of words is acquired

incidentally, where vocabulary is developed through immersion in language

activities. Words are also learned through direct instruction, where students

learn words through a structured approach. Thus, vocabulary programmes

39
should be designed to support students’ word learning through a combination

of approaches to teaching, direct instruction, and incidental word learning.

Graves (2006) offered a framework for successful vocabulary

programmes that supports effective teaching and students’ development of

word knowledge. The foundation of this instructional programme includes a

four-part approach to developing robust vocabularies: (1) provide rich and

varied language experiences, (2) teach individual words, (3) teach word-

learning strategies, and (4) foster word consciousness.

Providing rich and varied language experiences involve incidental

word learning, where teachers offer and encourage students to participate in a

variety of rich language experiences that occur throughout the day and across

the curriculum. Teaching individual words. Although many words may be

learned incidentally and vocabularies do become stronger when they are

supported with a language-rich environment, children benefit from systematic

and direct instruction of words. The research is clear with respect to effective

teaching of words (Graves, 2006). Vocabulary instruction should (1) provide

students with information that contains the context as well as the meaning of

the word, (2) engage students and allows sufficient time for word learning, (3)

ensure students have multiple exposures to the words with review and

practice, and (4) create a dialogue around the words.

Graves and Watts-Taffe (2008), suggested that teachers (1) create a

word-rich environment, (2) recognize and promote adept diction, (3) promote

word play, (4) foster word consciousness through writing, (5) involve students

in original investigations, and (6) teach students about words.

40
 Reutzel and Cooter (2008) identified semantic mapping as one of the

strategies to build students’ vocabulary knowledge. This strategy involves the

use of diagrams or graphic depictions of concepts that help children see how

words relate to each other. It helps students to understand the relationships

between the concepts, and other key ideas in the reading text. Semantic

Mapping strategy is referred to by different names, such as word mapping,

concept mapping, and word clusters. The strategy may be adjusted to the

nature of vocabulary instruction, the learning outcomes, and students’ grade

levels. Citing it as an example, learning some words, it may be more

applicable to have students explore the synonyms, antonyms, and origin of the

words; whereas for other words, it may be more helpful to find examples and

non-examples of the word.

This is an excellent activity of building students’ vocabulary

knowledge; semantic mapping helps students’ to see known words in new

contexts. Furthermore, it can be used to activate students’ background

knowledge related to the topic, and also to introduce new concepts before and

during reading activities.

Research findings by Grave (2008), Beck, McKeown and Kucan,

(2002) revealed that semantic mapping helps to develop students’

vocabularies. Teachers need to promote in-depth word knowledge; it is one of

the most powerful approaches to the teaching of vocabulary since it engages

students in thinking about word relationships. The strategy reinforces students’

active exploration of word relationships, thereby leading to a deeper

understanding of word meanings by developing their conceptual knowledge

related to words.

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 Students acquire the meaning of words through semantic mapping

because it helps to analyse the nature of the word concepts, categorise words,

and see relationships among words that are similar as well as those that may

be different. Such activities that are part of the semantic mapping strategy are

cognitive strategies that lead to a deeper understanding of words and the

concepts that they represent. The strategy is most effective when used before,

during, and after reading activities.

This strategy works effectively when teachers involve the students in

well- planned activities. Examples of planned activities which help in

vocabulary instruction are; (i) Selection of the vocabulary items must have a

link to the text or the story to be studied. (ii)Teacher must write the vocabulary

at the centre of the chalkboard, to enable the students’ to recognise the

vocabulary. (iii)Teacher must help the students’ to think of other words that

have something to do with the new vocabulary.(iv)Teacher must guide the

students’ to group the related words into categories and agree on labels for

these categories.

Johnson and Pearson (1984) identified semantic feature analysis as

another strategy for vocabulary instruction; this strategy helps to develop

students’ vocabulary knowledge by establishing shared meaning relationships

between words. They suggest that words which share semantic features define

a central concept .This strategy is useful in vocabulary instruction in before

reading and actual reading activities. Students are able to use their background

knowledge to search for the meaning of the new words in a text. Semantic

feature analysis is a way in which teachers can help students to take a set of

42
words related to a topic or category and compare or contrast the words in

terms of their features, characteristics or attributes.

Extending the discussion further, Pittelman, el al. (1991) asserted that

semantic feature analysis can be done on a grid on which the set of related

words are listed down the left side of the grid and the features or

characteristics that are shared by some of the words are listed across the top of

the grid. (The words can be chosen by the teacher, students, or both together.)

Individually, in groups, or in the whole class, students analyse and figure out

which words have which features, indicating the absence or presence of a

feature for a particular word with a plus or minus sign.

Using this activity grants students opportunities to discuss in class sets

of words in connection to a topic or concept, next to their characteristics. It

provides exposure to some unknown words and characteristics that can be

added and discussed among peers and teachers, though teachers may want to

make sure that students are familiar with all the words and attributes before

their analysis and discussion of the words in relation to the attributes.

Reutzel and Hollingsworth (1991) posited that wide reading is another

strategy which can help to build students vocabulary knowledge. This strategy

works when teachers encourage students to read self-selected books daily. It

helps to improve their reading comprehension. Reading is a mental skill that

pictures the physical development of students in vocabulary instruction. Wide

reading is a natural and powerful way to build the vocabulary knowledge of

students.

When students are introduced to varied reading activities, it helps to

expose them to new words in a text, and how such new words are used in a

43
text. Wide reading is one of the single most powerful factors in vocabulary

growth. Even a moderate amount of daily reading with appropriate text could

lead to most of the vocabulary growth that every student needs. In spite of this,

many of the students who demand the most vocabulary growth are not capable

of sustained independent reading of reasonably challenging text.

In support of the strategy, Stahl, Richek, and Vandevier (1991) opined

that it is particularly necessary for students and struggling readers to be read to

by teachers, parents, or others. For students who have difficulty in reading,

read-alouds assume greater importance for vocabulary development. In the

same way, students learn new words best in classrooms, when teachers read to

them and emphasise important and interesting words in a text. In these

classrooms, students regularly read individually and in groups and they

discuss their understandings during and after reading activities.

Accordingly, the amount of students’ reading is strongly related to

their vocabulary knowledge. Students learn new words by doing the battle

with the text, either through their own reading or by being read to. Increasing

the opportunities for such encounters improves students’ vocabulary

knowledge, which in turn improves their ability to read more complex text.

Students should be encouraged to read different types of text at different

levels, including text that is simple and enjoyable, and some that is

challenging.

Nation and Wang (1999) declared that preliminary research findings

on one series of simplified readers confirm that learners of English language

should read one book per week and read between five and nine books per

reading level in order to gain enough exposures to the vocabulary at that level;

44
this process should then be continued at the next higher level.

Notwithstanding, the chances for highly motivated, skilled learners, reading at

this pace may be too demanding for less motivated, lower proficiency learners,

who, in the authors' experience, find it difficult to complete a forty-page book

in two weeks. Also, as a means of vocabulary growth, this reading pace may

work more effectively for lower level rather than for higher level graded

readers. Using Nation and Wang's (1999) data, Laufer (2003) estimated that

learners would need to read about nine high level graded readers (200,000

running words of text) to learn 108 words.

Robbins and Ehri (1994) and Nicholson and Whyte (1992) indicated

that reading aloud supports students in acquiring the meanings of new words.

Reading aloud to students is another way they learn unfamiliar words.

Teachers should communicate with students about the story before, during,

and after reading it aloud. This interaction should include an explanation of

the meaning and usage of new vocabulary, and it should help students connect

them to what they already learnt or have experienced. Students who have

larger oral vocabularies benefit more from hearing stories read aloud. This

implies that students with less developed oral vocabularies will need more

support in learning new words.

However, the question for the teachers in vocabulary instruction is how

they encourage students to read widely and independently on daily basis? The

answer to the question lies in assisting the students to recognize their

motivation and finding books which they can read. The issue of motivation

can be resolved in many ways. Firstly, students’ motivation to reading needs

to be nurtured as put forward by Komiyama (2009).

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 Motivated students are more engaged as active members of the

classroom community and more prepared to deal with challenging texts.

Students also read in and out of class because they want to, not because they

are told to do so. Luckily, open instruction which aims at reading-skills

development can greatly help English language learners become more skilled,

strategic, motivated, and confident readers. Teachers must work towards

making reading passages interesting and by trying to connect reading activities

to students’ lives, experiences, communities, immediate goals, future plans, or

to texts read earlier.

Another way of motivating students to read is to give them some

degree of choice. Teachers must provide students with opportunities to select

some of their own readings, for either in-class or out-of-class reading.

Students must be given the choice to choose from among several passages in a

recognised textbook or select a text of interest in the library. When students

have some degree of choice, even minimal, it serves as an excellent motivator.

Independent reading is another means of encouraging students to do

reading activities. Independent reading is simply explained as the reading

students decide to do on their own. It involves the activities of reading widely

from a variety of sources, and choosing what one reads by the students.

Experts have given different names to the independent reading, which

includes: recreational reading by Manzo and Manzo (1995), voluntary reading

by Short (1995), reading outside of school by Anderson, Wilson and Fielding

(1988) and leisure reading by Greaney (1980).

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 It points towards the student’s personal choice of the material to be

read as well as the time and place to read it. Students do independent reading

for the purposes of searching for information or for enjoyment.

The amount of free reading done outside of school has consistently

been found to relate to growth in vocabulary, reading comprehension, verbal

fluency, and general information. The statement is in support of research

studies conducted by the experts in the students’ learning as suggested by

Guthrie and Greaney (1991), Taylor, Frye, and Maruyama (1990). According

to Stanovich and Cunningham (1993), students who read independently

become better readers, score higher on achievement tests in all subject areas,

and have greater content knowledge than those who do not.

Accordingly, Nagy, Anderson, and Herman (1987) indicated that

independent reading builds background knowledge of students. It contributes

to knowledge of text content and familiarity with standard text structures.

Independent reading contributes to vocabulary growth. Readers with a rich

vocabulary understand content and increase in value of the language used in

well-written texts. A synthesis of existing reports confirms that students in

grades 3–12 learn about 3,000 new words a year. This implies that even a

small aggregate of independent reading helps to increase students’ reading

comprehension, vocabulary growth, spelling facility, understanding of

grammar, and knowledge of the world.

Background Knowledge

Tovani (2000) defined background knowledge as the information a

reader has in a head. It is a storehouse of knowledge that provides the reader

with an assortment of information. Background knowledge is a repository of

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memories, experiences and facts. Calling existing knowledge and experiences

is crucial if readers are to assimilate new information. When information is

read in isolation and not connected to the existing knowledge, it is forgotten

and deemed unimportant. This means that, students who have knowledge on

the new words to be learnt in the classroom, are able to understand the

meaning of the new words in a text easily.

Students may have come across the new words through reading and

speaking activities, or have heard it on radios and television. But the problem

is how teachers help students to acquire the meaning and the usage of such

new words in their learning activities. It is therefore, necessary for teachers to

consider the background knowledge of students, before they are introduced to

the meaning and usage of new words in a text. Background knowledge in

vocabulary instruction serves as a link between what students already have

acquired and what they will acquire in the new instructional activities.

Additionally, Stahl, Jacobson, Davis and Davis (1989) stated:

“According to schema theory, the reader’s background knowledge serves as

scaffolding to aid in encoding information from text” (p. 29). The concept of

scaffolding has underpinnings in Vygotsky’s (1978) theoretical work on Zone

of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is explained as the distance between

students’ actual developmental level and potential level with direct instruction

or peer collaboration. This theory explains that as students’ experiences with

words grow, it becomes easier to learn new words.

Stanovich’s (1986) theory of the Matthew Effect also applies to

students with limited vocabularies. According to Matthew Effect, students who

read more will get enough words than their counterparts who read less and

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spend less time in reading activities. He put forward that students who do not

read frequently will have less words, leading to a shortfall of vocabulary

building opportunities. Matthew Effect is premised on a parable in Matthew

25:29 which states “For unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall

have abundance: but from him that hath not shall be taken even that which he

hath”. Simply put “the rich get richer and poor get poorer”. In relation to

vocabulary instruction in English language, students who read frequently will

have enough new words while students who read less will have less words.

As a result, students’ oral and written vocabularies suffer. Essentially, students

who have limited word experiences, will have limited vocabularies. This

suggests that students who have vocabularies will use their background

knowledge to infer meanings to new words in a context, while students with

limited vocabularies find it difficult to infer meanings for new words. This

theory of Mathew Effect is demonstrated well in vocabulary and reading

lessons, where students with more vocabularies are able to express themselves

in oral and writing activities.

Furthermore, Fang and Schleppegrell (2010) posited that helping

students build background knowledge and teaching the skills to know how,

when and why it helps their learning, increases the chances of success. This is

especially important as students engage in subject areas that tend to be more

specialized, with texts that are often more complex, with processes more

specifically defined, and with vocabulary that may be more challenging and

further outside the norm of everyday conversation.

This implies that teachers need to know and help to build students’

background knowledge well, particularly in vocabulary instruction. Teachers

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activating students’ background knowledge in vocabulary instruction help

students to make stronger connections and find deeper understanding in

learning and this boosts students’ learning processes.

Ontario Ministry of Education report (2010) opined that, when students

have prior knowledge, a point of connection or even a positive feeling about

the new material, the potentials of students to learn is enhanced. Teachers

play a key role in helping students build and use background knowledge.

When students are actively using their background knowledge, they are more

likely to experience success in academic achievement, as indicated by

Marzano (2004).

It is therefore necessary for teachers to assess the background

knowledge of students before and during vocabulary instruction, not just in

summative activities at the end of the vocabulary instruction. When teachers

activate the learners’ background knowledge in vocabulary instruction, it

facilitates new learning.

Anderson and Pearson (1984) suggested that readers’ existing

knowledge is critical for them to comprehend what they read. It is likely for a

student to know all the words in a passage and still not make any logic of it, if

the reader has no prior knowledge of the topic. To make practical use of

vocabulary, the students also need a maximum level of knowledge about the

topic. This enables the readers to make sense of the word combinations and

choose among multiple possible word meanings.

Klauda and Guthrie (2008) affirmed that vocabulary and background

knowledge affect reading comprehension. Fluency, an important contributor to

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overall reading comprehension, is weightily impacted by word knowledge and

the level of background knowledge a learner possesses about the topic.

Often times teachers fail to perform these activities of activating of

students background knowledge, which affect effective vocabulary instruction.

Students are not adequately prepared to connect their background knowledge

on vocabularies to the new words in reading a text learnt. Effective vocabulary

learning requires understanding the usage of new words in a comprehension

passage; sentences and the entire texts demand the ability of the learners to

relate the vocabulary learning to his/her own knowledge. Nevertheless, there

are activities which can be used to activate students’ background knowledge

through vocabulary instruction in English language.

Rowe and Rayford (1987) suggested that teachers can facilitate

students’ activation of background knowledge through asking and answering

questions before or while they read new material. They examine students’

responses to a series of 3 pre-reading purpose setting questions. Students were

shown 3 purpose questions from the Metropolitan Achievement Test and

asked to make predictions about the passage and end-of-passage questions that

might go with each question. Students were also asked to put themselves in the

test-taker’s position and describe what they would try to find out while reading

the passage.

Analysis of the students’ responses suggested that students were able

to activate background knowledge under these conditions, an indication that

purpose questions may be helpful cues for activating background knowledge.

Furthermore, studies have investigated whether activating background

knowledge through question answering improves reading comprehension. It

51
has been hypothesized that providing answers to questions promote deep

processing and high level knowledge construction, which in turn promote

learning as declared by King (1994) and Pressley et.al (1992).

In addition, King (1994) found that a guided reciprocal peer

questioning and answering approach, where students were trained to study

new material by asking and answering each other’s self-generated questions,

made significantly better lesson comprehension than untrained questioning.

Captivatingly, King’s data showed that questioning focused on linking prior

knowledge with lesson material led to a more maintained high performance

than did questioning fixed on making connections within the lesson material.

Hence, instruction in peer questioning and explaining through connecting text

to prior knowledge may be a particularly effective question answering strategy

for improving comprehension.

Ogle (1986) advanced the K.W.L strategy for helping students’ to

access important background information before reading non-fiction. The

K.W.L strategy as an acronym means accessing What I Know, determining

What I Want To Find Out, recalling What I Did Learn. It combines several

elements of approaches. For the first two steps of K.W.L, students and the

teacher engage in oral discussion. They start by reflecting on their knowledge

about a topic, brainstorming a group list of ideas about the topic, and

identifying groups of information.

Thereafter, the teacher helps highlight gaps and inconsistencies in

students’ knowledge, and students create individual lists of things that they

want to learn about the topic or questions that they want to answer about the

topic. Students read new material and share what they have learnt. Informal

52
evaluations indicate that the K.W.L strategy increases the retention of reading

material and improves students’ ability to make connections among different

categories of information as well as their enthusiasm for reading non-fiction.

Challenges in Designing Effective Vocabulary Acquisition

Fallahchai ( 2011) suggested that vocabulary learning is one of the

major challenges for many learners as it is an essential part of foreign

language learning. Words are important linguistic parts to convey meanings

and even to eliminate misunderstandings in communication. Currently, a new

attitude to vocabulary learning is that it is not memorizing words in the

contexts of serial lists.

One of the reasons why it seems difficult to make sure that students

develop adequate reading vocabularies is the volume of number of words

involved. Average students may add 2,000-3,000 words to their reading

vocabularies as suggested by Anglin (1993), Beck and McKeown (199l) Nagy

and Herman (1987), White, Graves and Slater (1990).This is a large number,

from six to eight new words each day. Some students in the same fifth-grade

classroom may know thousands, perhaps more words than may others among

their classmates.

Even though there are still deliberations over how large students’

vocabularies actually are, and what words are useful for them to learn and use

in their conservation, there is no question on how good readers learn words

and that without help the vocabulary gap between more successful and less

successful readers in your classroom will continue to widen. One useful

consequence that vocabulary instruction can only justify for a limited amount

of students' vocabulary growth, and that a successful approach to increasing

53
students’ vocabularies will require increasing their independent word learning

as well.

There is some element of truth to this hypothesis, but it is also

demonstrably inadequate. The clearest proof of inadequacy is the fact that

many studies attempting to increase reading comprehension by teaching word

meanings have failed to do so, as declared by Pearson and Gallagher (1983).

In many findings on vocabulary instruction by Bransford and Johnson (1972)

and Dooling and Lachman (1971), texts were constructed which contain only

familiar words, but are still incomprehensible without additional information.

Such texts illustrate the role of something beyond vocabulary knowledge in

reading comprehension. At least some of the correlation between vocabulary

knowledge and reading comprehension is due to the relationship each of these

has with a third construct, background knowledge.

Vocabulary knowledge about word meanings is both a subdivision of,

and highly correlated with, general knowledge; a person who knows more

words knows more about the world in general. Knowledge of the subject

matter of a text plays an important role in the comprehension of that text,

above and beyond the effects of knowing the specific words. This account of

the relationship between vocabulary size and reading comprehension has been

labelled the "knowledge hypothesis" by Anderson and Freebody (1981).The

knowledge hypothesis is based on a schema-theoretic view of reading

comprehension, which suggests that knowledge does not consist simply of an

unstructured set of individual facts, but rather of organized, interrelated

structures or schemata. Knowing where a piece of information "fits in" is an

indispensable part of understanding it.

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 Determining what a word contributes to the overall meaning of a text

often depends on the information which is not specifically included in the

definition of the word--information "beyond" or "between" the meanings of

individual words. A good dictionary shows how inadequate the information in

a definition can be for the task of comprehending text.

Another challenge of vocabulary instruction is the obvious neglect in much

research of the differences between various types of words, differences that

may have important consequences for instruction. Given that any instruction

on specific word meanings can only cover a very small sample of the words

that a student must learn, the question of which words are to be instructed--and

which kind of words becomes crucial.

Jenkins and Dixon (1983) suggested that among the few researchers to

mention possible differences among word-learning situations, noted for

example, the difference between learning a new label for a familiar concept,

and a new label for a new concept. Judging from the frequent use of one-word

definitions, much recent research has focused on the former case. This is

certainly the easier condition, so one must wonder to what extent such studies

are generalizable to a wider range of word types. The optimal instructional

methods for the paired-associate type learning adequate for words such as

altercation or obese may not necessarily be the most effective approach to

vocabulary instruction in the content areas, where new words are more likely

to represent complex new concepts embedded in a network of factual

information.

Another distinction seemingly ignored in some research findings is the

distinction between partly known and totally unfamiliar words; Dale,

55
O'Rourke and Bamman (1971) made the suggestion that vocabulary

instruction should focus on those words which students have already begun to

encounter, and for which they already have some partial knowledge. However,

many vocabulary studies, in an attempt to control for prior knowledge, use

words which few subjects are likely to know. The problem is that the most

effective method for teaching totally unknown words may not be the most

effective method for bringing partially known words to a deeper level of

knowledge. Some words are also basically difficult to learn than others.

Gentner (1978) for example, presents a range of evidence showing

that verbs are harder to learn than nouns for children in the initial stages of

language acquisition. Some words covered in vocabulary programmes may be

words which almost all children would eventually learn on their own anyway.

On the other hand, there may be certain words which are especially unlikely to

be learned by children on their own. Everyone is probably aware of certain

words which they encounter fairly frequently, but for which they still have

only limited knowledge of their meanings. Word-by-word instruction might be

especially useful for words in this category. To repeat the point, the fact that

only a relatively small number of words can be instructed makes the choice of

words more important than seems to have been recognized. How one teaches

depends on which words are to be taught.

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 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This chapter described the methods and procedures that have been

followed in conducting the study. It was organized under the following sub-

themes: research design, population for the study, target population for the

study, sample and sampling techniques, and instruments used to collect data,

pilot- testing of the instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis.

Research Design

In the opinion of Terre, Durrheim and Painter (2002), research design

is a strategic framework for action that serves as a bridge between planning

and the execution or the implementation of the research. Therefore, research

designs are the plans which guide the arrangement of conditions and analysis

of data.

The study adopted the descriptive survey design. This is because

descriptive research design gives report on the way and manner situations

exist. According to Polit and Hungler (1995) descriptive research studies have

as the main objective of accurately portraying the characteristics of persons,

situations or groups. This means that descriptive research is used to describe

variables rather than to test a predicted relationship between variables.

Again, Amedahe (2002) maintained that in descriptive research,

accurate description of activities, objects, processes and persons is the

objective. That is, it deals with interpreting the relationship among variables

and describing their relationship. It seeks to find answers to questions through

57
the analysis of relationships between or among variables. In addition, Gay

(1992) declared that, descriptive research involves collecting data in order to

test hypotheses or answer research questions concerning the current status of

the subject of the study.

The descriptive survey has some merits which make it useful and

accurate to the study. According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2000), in-depth and

follow- up questions can be asked and items that are unclear can be explained

using descriptive research design. In addition, Amedahe (2002) maintained

that the descriptive design enables the researcher to get into the mind of the

respondents and know how they feel about the phenomena of interest.

The descriptive survey however is not without difficulties as Kelly,

Clark, Brown and Sitiza (2003) pointed out some demerits associated with its

use. These include the danger that, the significance of the data can be ignored

if the researcher focuses much on the range of coverage to the exclusion of an

adequate account of the implications of those data for relevant issues,

problems, or theories. Fraenkel and Wallen (1993) also argued that, the private

affairs of respondents may be pried into and there is therefore the likelihood of

generating unreliable responses and difficulty in assessing the clarity and

precision of questions that elicit the desired responses. Another limitation to

the descriptive researcher is, it may produce untrustworthy results, because it

delves into private matters that respondents may not be completely truthful

about. In addition to the limitations, the events understudy already exist or

have occurred, and the researcher merely selects the relevant variables for

analysis.

58
 Notwithstanding the limitations, the descriptive research design was

considered as the most appropriate for carrying out the study on the

assessment of the effectiveness of vocabulary instruction in English language

at the Junior High Schools in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem

Municipality.

Population

The participants for the study included all the public Junior High

Schools (J.H.S.) English language teachers in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-

Abrem (K.E.E.A) Municipality. In the view of Ary, Jacobs and Rezavieh

(2002), population is used to refer to the entire group of individuals to whom

the findings of a study is applied; that is, whatever groups the investigator

wishes to make inferences about. The target population for this study was the

public junior high school English language teachers in the municipality.

The total number of public basic schools in the municipality in terms

of those with nursery, primary and junior high schools on the same school

compound, and headed by one head- teacher was ninety- eighty (98). The total

number of circuits in the Municipality is six (6), which include the Agona,

Ayensudo, Elmina, Kissi, Komenda and Ntranoa Circuits. Each circuit in the

Municipality has private and public schools under it.

The total number of public junior high schools in the Municipality is

sixty-five (65) and the total number of teachers who teach at the public junior

high schools in the Municipality, was five hundred and seventy-eight (578).

The total number of teachers who teach English language at public junior high

schools was ninety-four (94). The number of schools and English language

teachers in the circuits is presented in the Table 1and 2 overleaf

59
Table 1- Circuit and Number of Public Junior High Schools in K.E.E.A

Name Of Circuits Number of Schools

Abrem Agona 11

Ayensudo 9

Elmina 12

Kissi 11

Komenda 14

Ntranoa 8

Total 65

Source: Field Data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

Table 2- Circuit and Number of English Language Teachers in K.E.E.A

Name Of Circuits Number of Schools

Abrem Agona 14

Ayensudo 17

Elmina 22

Kissi 16

Komenda 15

Ntranoa 10

Total 94

Source: Field Data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

Besides, in the past five years, the passing rates of students in their

Basic Education Certificate Examination (B.E.C.E) have been impressive.

This was due to measures put in place by the Municipal Education Directorate,

to ensure that students perform well in their final examinations. These

measures included districts mock examination, checking absenteeism on the

60
part of final year students, periodic visits to schools by the officers from the

district education office to counsel students on their attitudes towards learning,

and also monitoring teachers’ teaching activities. See Table 3

Table 3- Trend of Basic Education Certificate Examination Pass Rate in

Komenda-Edina-Eguafo Abrem Municipality
Year Male Female Total (%)

2010 48.6 36.6 43.4

2011 51.2 44.5 49.0

2012 50.7 45.3 48.2

2013 60.0 52.3 56.9

2014 82.2 78.4 80.3

Source: Field Data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

Sample and Sampling Procedures

The participants for the study were selected using the multi-stage

sampling technique. Multi–sampling technique involves the process of

selecting in systematic stages respondents who were suitable for the study.

The researcher purposively selected the entire Komenda- Edina -Eguafo-

Abrem Municipality from the twenty (20) District Assemblies in the Central

Region of Ghana. The reason for the selection of Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-

Abrem Municipality was that, the problem was identified within the

municipality. The problem identified within the municipality was teaching

vocabulary in English Language in the public junior high schools, the research

problem premised on assessing effective vocabulary instruction in English

language.

61
 The proportional approach was employed to obtain the thirty-three

public junior high schools for the study. This was based on the number of

public junior high schools each circuit possesses. That is, the total number of

public junior high schools in the circuit was divided by the total number of

schools in the municipality and multiplied by thirty-three, which gave the

number of the schools selected for the study.

Simple random sampling technique (lottery method) was used to

select the schools for the study. The researcher wrote the names of the schools

in each of the six circuits, and put them in separate containers for each of the

circuits. The researcher mixed and took one slip from the container without

looking into it. The researcher picked and recorded the name of the school on

the slip. The slip picked was folded and put back into the container, before

another slip was picked. The selection processes were repeated until the

required number was reached. The researcher ignored the names of the schools

which had already been selected twice or thrice.

For instance in the Komenda circuit, the total number of public junior

high schools was fourteen, and this was divided by the total number of public

junior high schools in the municipality to obtain sixty-five and then multiplied

by thirty-three. The result obtained was 7.10; this means 7 schools were

sampled from the Komenda circuit. This method was used to determine the

number of public junior high schools selected from each circuit. The number

of schools is presented in the Table 4 overleaf.

62
Table 4- Number of Schools Selected for the Study in the KEEA

Circuits Number of Schools Number of Schools

Selected

Abrem Agona 11 6

Ayensudo 9 4

Elmina 12 6

Kissi 11 6

Komenda 14 7

Ntranoa 8 4

Total 65 33

Source: Field Data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

According to Alreck and Settle (1985), it is necessary to sample more

than 10 per cent of the population to obtain adequate confidence and

representativeness. Therefore, 33 schools were selected because they

represented more than 10 per cent of the total population of schools sampled

for the study. This is because it produces the maximum sample size for the

population of the study.

Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh and Sorensen (2006) buttressed these points by

saying that the main consideration when deciding on the sample size is the

degree of accuracy one wants in the estimation of the population. This

signifies how much error the researcher is willing to tolerate in generalisation

from the sample statistic to the population parameter. Again, Ary, Jacobs,

Razavieh and Sorensen opined that the most important characteristic of a

sample is its representativeness, not its size

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 Purposive sampling technique was used to select English language

teachers who are teaching in the public junior high schools in the Komenda-

Edina -Eguafo- Abrem- Municipality in the Central Region of Ghana. In all,

66 English Language teachers were selected from 33 schools within the six (6)

circuits in the municipality for the study. English language teachers were

purposively sampled because they possess the content knowledge in the

research problem under investigation. This measure was supported by Cohen,

Manion and Morrison (2008), who explained that in purposive sampling,

researchers handpick the cases to be included in the sample on the basis of

their judgement of their typicality or possession of the particular

characteristics being sought.

In this way, they build up a sample that is satisfactory to their specific

needs. The total number of English language teachers sampled for the study

has been shown in the Table 5 below.

Table 5- Number of English Language Teachers selected from each

Circuit
Name of Circuit Number of teachers selected

Abrem Agona 12

Ayensudo 8

Elmina 12

Kissi 12

Komenda 14

Ntranoa 8

Total 66

Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

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 Using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) propositions to keep a 95% degree

of confidence, a total of 94 English Language teachers should yield a sample

size of 80. This is buttressed by Sekaran (1992) who opined that the

propositions provided by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) greatly simplifies the

sample size decision and ensures a good decision model. In order to obtain a

representative sample, 33 public junior high schools, out of the 65,

representing 50% of the total number of public Junior High Schools in the

municipality were selected for the study.

Records from the Municipal Educational Directorate were used as

secondary data. All secondary data used in the research were obtained from

the Municipal Education Directorate with an introductory letter from the

University of Cape Coast (Basic Education Department). The data from the

Municipal Education Directorate consisted of the names of public schools,

total number of schools, the total number of public basic school teachers,

number of circuits, total number of English language teachers teaching at the

public Junior High Schools, and BECE performance in the Komenda-Edina-

Eguafo-Abrem Municipality.

Instruments for Data Collection

Questionnaire and observation were used as instruments for the

collection of data. The administration of the questionnaire was done for the

English language teachers to assess vocabulary instruction in English language

at the junior high school in the municipality. In addition, observational

checklist was designed to observe public junior high school English language

teachers’ instruction in vocabulary in comprehension lesson.

65
 The questionnaire comprised both open-ended and closed-ended

questions. The questionnaires was chosen because of the following reasons: a)

its potentials in reaching out to a large number of respondents within a short

time, b) its ability to give the respondents adequate time to respond to the

items, c) being able to offer a sense of security (confidentiality) to the

respondent and d) its objectivity since there is bias resulting from the personal

characteristics (as in an interview) Owens (2002).

The questionnaire consisted of thirty-six (36) items, which were

grouped into sections (Sections A, B, C, D, and E).These helped to elicit

information from teachers to answer the research questions, which were

formulated for the study. Section A was made up of five (5) items which

gathered demographic information on the respondents. It was made up of three

(3) closed-ended questions and three open-ended questions.

The closed-ended questions gathered information on gender, age,

highest educational level, while two (2) open-ended questions also gathered

information on the length of service and professional rank of the respondents.

The open-ended questionnaire enabled respondents to provide the details of

their teaching experiences in the Municipality. These factors were included in

the study because they are known to influence the angle from which one

perceives, according to Elverfeldt (2005) and Meece, Glienke & Burg (2006).

Section B consisted of ten (10) items. It focused on obtaining

information on the methods/strategies/techniques English language teachers

use in teaching vocabulary. The questionnaire items were also measured with

a four-point Likert scale anchoring: Always, Sometimes, Rarely and Never.

The four- point Likert scale was used because, according to Saunders, Lewis

66
and Thornhill (2007), it compels the respondent to express his or her feelings

towards an implicitly positive statement and prevents him or her from ticking

the middle category when considering an implicitly negative statement. At the

end of each item, the respondent was required to tick any one of the options

provided. The total response on each rating was used to gauge the extent of

agreement on a particular item.

Section C consisted of eleven (11) items which concentrated on

soliciting information on the belief systems that English language teachers

hold on vocabulary instruction in English language. The questionnaire items

were also measured with a four-point Likert scale anchoring: Strongly Agree,

Agree, Strongly Disagree and Disagree.

Section D also had ten (10) items, which centred on the strategies that

English language teachers use to build students’ vocabulary knowledge. The

questionnaire items were measured with a four-point Likert scale anchoring:

Always, Sometimes, Rarely, Never. Section E had two (2) items, which

gathered information on the challenges that English language teachers face in

vocabulary instruction, and the items were open-ended questions.

Observation

According to Dörnyei (2007: 178), observation as a research

instrument provides direct information rather than self-report accounts, and

thus it is one of the three fundamental sources for empirical research (with

questioning and testing correspondingly).The non-participant observation

technique was used to ascertain the authenticity and veracity of the self-

reported data given by the English language teachers from the questionnaires

administered. By this method, the researcher was physically present only as a

67
spectator who does not become directly involved in the activities of the people

who are being studied.

Non-participant type observation was used to observe the strategies

used by the respondents in building students’ vocabulary knowledge during

the instructional period (Reading lessons). In all, there were ten (10)

observational checklist items and responses for these items were measured

with a four-point Likert scale anchoring on Very Effective, Effective, Not

Effective, and Not Used At All. Consequently, the observation checklist

developed for the study focused on the strategies and methodologies English

language teachers employed in building students’ vocabulary knowledge

during reading comprehension lessons.

In support of this, when questionnaire items and observation checklist

were properly constructed, the data collected was processed efficiently and

relatively openly, especially with the help of modern computers and Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 16)

Pilot-Testing

It is generally held that researchers never begin a study unless they are

confident that the chosen methods are suitable, valid, reliable, and effective

and free from problems or errors or at least that they have taken precautions to

avoid any problems and distortions in the preparatory stage of the research,

according to Sarantakos (2005). Pilot-testing helps to discover possible

weaknesses, ambiguities and problems in all aspects of the study, so that they

can be corrected before the actual data collection takes place. Pilot test was

done in fifteen (15) schools in Abura-Asebu-Kwamankese District in the

Central region.

68
 Abura-Asebu-Kwamankese District was selected due to the fact that

the teachers have similar characteristics or attributes as those in the Komenda-

Edina-Eguafo-Abrem Municipality in terms of their professional skills,

knowledge in the subject and educational characteristics. The responses were

coded and subjected to complete item analysis to determine, among other

things the internal consistencies and validity of the instrument. In all, twenty

five (25) teachers were used for the pilot-testing of the research instrument.

According to Parfitt (2005), a pre-test should be conducted with

approximately 20 participants to determine the questionnaire’s usefulness and

suitability. Again, this number was used because it was sufficient to include

major variations in the population that may affect responses.

Cronbach alpha was used to test the reliability of the questionnaire and

reliability co-efficient of 0.80 was obtained. This meant that the instrument

was reliable since Fraenkel and Wallen (2000) posited that for research

purpose, a useful rule of thumb is that reliability should be at .70 and

preferably higher.

Data Collection Procedure

Streubert and Carpenter (2003) asserted that a researcher has a moral

obligation to strictly consider the rights of the participants, who are expected

to provide this information. Ethical considerations are important aspects in this

study. Due to the sensitive nature of the study, possible risks were

continuously examined to increase sensitivity to the respondents and not to

expose them.

Prior to the administration of the research instruments, the researcher

obtained an introductory letter from the Department of Basic Education

69
(Appendix A). This was supported by a letter of authorization from the

Municipal Educational Directorate, (Appendix B) to use the selected schools

for research purposes. The researcher finally visited the selected schools and

made all the necessary arrangements with the English language teachers. The

purposes were to create awareness for the English language teachers, setting

time and date for the administration of the instruments, and to explain the

purpose of the study.

The researcher personally administered the questionnaires and also

observed English language lessons, in reference to the strategies and

methodologies used by the English language teachers in building students’

vocabulary knowledge, after visiting the selected schools and meeting the

respondents for the study.

Each teacher from the selected schools was given adequate time (30)

minutes to complete the questionnaire. This was to enable English language

teachers selected for the study to have ample time to understand the

questionnaire items. The researcher used the observation checklist (Appendix

D) to assess the strategies and methodologies used by teachers in building

students’ vocabulary knowledge in English language during comprehension

lessons. The researcher sat in the classroom to observe English language

lessons. One hour was spent in observing how students’ vocabulary

knowledge is built during reading comprehension lessons. This was due to the

fact that reading lesson on the school time-table was allotted with double

periods. The data was collected between 18th January and 18th February, 2016.

Each reading lesson was observed once. Twenty English Language teachers

were selected for the observational activities.

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Data Analysis

In order to address the research questions formulated, the data obtained

from the English language teachers were edited to remove any irrelevant

responses and coded. The data were analysed using Statistical Package for

Social Sciences (SPSS version 16) software.

The focus for the data analysis is to generally show the interpretations

and discussions of the findings on the analysis of the overall statistics. The

discussions were analysed in relation to the research raised in the study.

Frequency tables, percentages and mean were also used to discuss the

findings.

71
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The purpose of this chapter is to present and discuss the outcome of the

study on vocabulary instruction in English language at the Junior High

Schools in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem Municipality. The findings are

presented according to the specific research questions raised. This chapter

presents the results of the study using descriptive statistical.

Frequency tables, percentages and mean were used to present the data

and analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaire administered to the

English language teachers, taking into account the four research questions

underlying the study.

English Language Teachers’ Demographic Information

The preliminary data involves the background information of the

respondents. It entails the gender, age, current rank in the service, educational

background and the teaching experiences of the respondents. Tables 6-10 give

a summary of the bio data of the respondents.

Table 6- Gender Distribution of the English Language Teachers

Gender Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 23 46.0

Female 27 54.0

Total 50 100

Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

72
 In all 50 English language teachers were sampled for the study,

successfully completed their research questionnaires. Twenty-three of the

respondents were males, which represents 46% and 27 respondents were

female, representing 54% of the sample.

Table 7- Age Distribution of the English Language Teachers

Age Frequency Percentage (%)
20- 25 10 20.0

26 – 30 24 48.0

35 - 40 10 20.0

41 – Above 6 12.0

Total 50 100

Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

Age is an important variable especially in the teaching profession

within the Municipality. Analysing the ages of respondents gives us an idea

about the strength of the work force of the profession. Twenty of the

respondents were between the ages of 20-25, and 35-40 representing 20%

respectively. From the Table 7, it can be seen that majority (48%) of the

respondents were between the ages of 26-30, with 6 (representing 12%) falling

within the age boundary of 41- Above.

Table 8- Current Rank Distribution of the English Language Teachers

Ranks Frequency Percentage (%)

Superintendent I 22 44%

Senior Superintendent II 5 10%

Principal Superintendent 20 40%

Assistant Director II 3 6%

Total 50 100
Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)
73
 From Table 8, 22 representing 44% of the respondents were within the

current rank of Superintendent I, five representing 10% were in the rank of

Senior Superintendent II whilst twenty representing 40% were in the rank of

Principal Superintendent. Only three 6% of the respondents were in the rank

of Assistant Director II. This implies that most of the respondents were

qualified and experience enough to handle the subject under study due to the

skills and knowledge they possess.

Table 9- Distribution of Educational Background of English Language

Teachers
Educational Background Frequency Percentages (%)
SSCE / WASSCE 1 2

Diploma 14 28

Degree 34 68

Masters 1 2

Total 50 100

Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

Formal educational attainment constitutes the main determinant of job

placement in the formal sector in Ghana. It is one’s educational qualification

that determines one’s placement, salary scale and to some extent the

frequency of promotion. Therefore, people who are highly qualified in terms

of formal education have a greater potential to be employed in well-paying

jobs (Carron & Carr-Hill, 1991).

Similarly, in the Ghana Education Service, one’s educational

achievement determines the rank and placement in the teaching profession

which subsequently determines one’s salary. Thirty -five of the respondents

were either holders of Bachelor’s degree or Master’s degree in Education,

74
which constitute 70%. Fourteen of the respondents, representing 28%, were

holders of Diploma in Basic Education whiles one representing 2% was a

holder of Senior Secondary Certificate Examination

Table 10-Distribution of Teaching Experience of English Language Teachers

Number of years in teaching Frequency Percentage (%)

1-5 26 52

6-10 12 24

11-15 7 14

16- above 5 10

Total 50 100

Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

Table 10 shows that the highest number of years spent in the

profession was in the range of 1-5, making a total number of 26, which

represents 52%. Twelve respondents had been in the teaching profession from

6-10 years, which represents 24%. Also, 7 representing 14% of the

respondents stated that, they had been in teaching profession for 11-15years.

Five of the respondents indicated that, they had been in the teaching service

for 16-above years, which constitutes 10%.

Research Question 1:

Which belief systems do English language teachers hold in vocabulary

instruction in the Komenda- Edina- Eguafo-Abrem Municipality?
From Table 11, 16 English language teachers constituting 32% and

with a mean of 2 strongly agree that, repetition is a useful way to teach new

words in vocabulary instruction. Twenty-six of them representing 52% also

agreed that repetition is a useful way to teach new words. However, 8

75
(representing 16%) disagreed that, repetition is a useful way to teach new

words in vocabulary instruction.

Tables 11- Belief Systems which Influence Vocabulary Instruction

Statement Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Mean
Agree F (%) Disagree
F (%) F (%)
F (%)
Repetition is a useful 16(32) 26(52) 8(16) 0(0) 2.0
way to teach new
words.
Students acquire new 13(26%) 31(62%) 4(8.0%) 2(4.0%) 1.94
words through the
use of the dictionary.
Students memorize 15(30%) 28(56%) 5(10%) 2(4.0%) 1.94
new words through
wordlists.
Students acquire 13(26%) 24(48%) 11(22%) 2(4.0%) 2.22
vocabulary through
imitation.
Students acquire the 23(46%) 24(48%) 3(6%) 0(0%) 1.66
meaning of new
words through
keywords methods.
Students learn 15(30%) 27(54%) 5(10%) 3(6.0%) 1.96
vocabulary through
dialogue activities.
Students acquire the 6(12%) 19(38%) 16(32%) 9(18%) 2.70
meanings of the new
words by thinking
about the new word.
Students acquire the 26(52%) 24(48%) 0(0%) 0(0%) 1.48
meaning of new
words through
reading activities.
Students acquire 16(32%) 31(62%) 2(4.0%) 1(2.0%) 1.78
vocabulary through
interactions.
New vocabulary is 35(70%) 14(28%) 1(2%) 0(0%) 1.34
treated before
reading.
New vocabulary is 18(36%) 21(42%) 5(10%) 6(12%) 1.96
treated before, during
and after reading.
Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

Majority of the English language teachers 31(62%) with a mean of

(1.94) agreed that students acquire new words through the use of the

76
dictionary in vocabulary instruction. Thirteen (26%) of them strongly agreed

to the statement that students acquire the new words through the use of the

dictionary in vocabulary instruction.

However, 4 of the teachers (8%) disagreed with the statement that

students acquire new words through the use of the dictionary in vocabulary

instruction, whilst 2 of them with the percentage of 4% strongly disagreed to

with the statement, that students acquire the meaning of the new words

through the use of dictionary in vocabulary instruction in English language.

According to Stahl and Nagy (2006), teaching students how to use dictionaries

is “a complex cognitive strategy that takes years to develop” (p. 183).

Dictionary use during or after reading words in context is more beneficial than

the more traditional practice of supplying definitions or asking students to

look words up before reading (Graves, 2006; Stahl and Nagy, 2006)

Furthermore, 28 (56%) English language teachers with a mean of 1.94

agreed to the statement that, students memorize new words through wordlists.

Fifteen (30%) of the respondents also strongly agreed to the statement, which

indicated students memorize new words through wordlists. Five (10%) of the

English language teachers also disagreed to the statement that, students

memorize new words through wordlists. However, 2 English language

teachers representing 4% strongly disagreed to the statement of students

memorizing new words through wordlists. According to Atay and Ozabulgan

(2007), providing the students with memory strategies to help facilitate

vocabulary development, the teacher must encourage students to use these

strategies in their own vocabulary learning.

77
 In all, 24 of the English language teachers representing 48% with a

mean of 2.22 agreed to the statement that, students acquire vocabulary items

through imitation. Thirteen of them constituting 26% also agreed strongly to

the statement that students acquire the vocabulary through imitation. On the

contrary, 11 of the English language teachers representing 22% also disagreed

to the statement that students acquiring vocabulary items through imitation.

Two of the English language teachers representing 4% strongly disagreed to

the statement on students acquiring vocabulary items through imitation.

Twenty-three of the English language teachers constituting 46% with

a mean of 1.66 strongly agreed to the statement that, students acquire the

meaning of new words through the keywords methods. Majority of the English

language teachers constituting 48% agreed to the statement that, students

acquire the meaning of new words through the keywords methods. Three of

the English language teachers constituting 6% disagreed to the statement that,

students acquire the meaning of new words through keywords methods.

On the other hand, 27 English language teachers standing in for 54%

with a mean of 1.96 agreed that, students learn vocabulary through dialogue

activities. Fifteen English language teachers (representing 30%) strongly

agreed that students learn vocabulary through dialogue activities. On the

contrary, 5 English language teachers representing 10% disagreed to the

statement that students learn vocabulary through dialogue activities.

Three of the teachers standing for 6% strongly disagreed to the

statement that students learn vocabulary through dialogue activities. Creating

dialogue about words can be considered in the context of purposeful talk

which Nichols (2008) defines as “focused, collaborative talk; a social process

78
that requires children to actively engage with ideas, think out loud together,

and work to a co-construction of those ideas” (p. 10).

Furthermore, 19 (38%) with a mean of 2.70 agreed to the statement

that students acquire the meanings of new words by thinking about the new

word. Sixteen of the teachers representing 32% disagreed to statement that

students acquire the meanings of new words by thinking about the new word.

However, 9 English language teachers constituting 18% strongly disagreed to

statement that students acquire the meanings of the new words by thinking

about the new word. Conversely 6 of the teachers representing 12% strongly

agreed to the statement that students acquire the meanings of the new words

by thinking about the new word.

About twenty–six (52%) with a mean of 1.48 strongly agreed to the

statement that students acquire the meaning of new words through reading

activities. On the contrary 24 English language teachers standing for 48%

agreed to the statement that; students acquire the meaning of new words

through reading activities.

Finally, 31 English language teachers constituting 62% with a mean of

1.78 agreed to the statement that, students acquire vocabulary through

interactions. Sixteen of the respondents standing for 32% strongly agreed to

the statement students acquire the vocabulary words through interactions.

However, 2 English language teachers representing 4% disagreed to the

statement that students acquire vocabulary through interaction. One

respondent constituting 2% strongly disagreed to the statement that, students

acquire vocabulary through interaction.

79
 Thirty- five (70%) English language teachers with a mean of 1.34

strongly agreed to the statement that new vocabulary is treated before reading.

Fourteen of the English language teachers representing of 28% agreed to the

statement that new vocabulary is treated before reading. However, 1 English

language teacher representing 2% disagreed to the statement that new

vocabulary is treated before reading. Beck, McKeown and Kucan (2002),

Carlo, August, and Snow (2005) maintained that it takes careful planning to

provide powerful instruction within the confines of scheduling. Teachers

design their vocabulary lessons strategically, creating multiple activities for

each set of words, teaching words before students read texts or during teacher

read-aloud sessions. This implies that, English language teachers must treat

new vocabulary in English language lessons, doing that help students to

understand how such new words are used in the text.

In all, 21 of the English language teachers constituting 24% and with

a mean 1.96 agreed to the statement that, new vocabulary is treated before,

during and after reading. Eighteen of the respondents representing 36%

strongly agreed to the statement that new vocabulary is treated before, during

and after reading. Again, 6 of the English language teachers standing for 12%

strongly disagreed to the statement that new vocabulary is treated before,

during and after reading. Yet again 5 of the English language teachers

representing 10% disagreed to the statement that new vocabulary is treated

before, during and after reading.

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Research Question 2:

What instructional approaches do English language teachers adopt /use in

teaching vocabulary in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem Municipality?
Research question 2 sought to find out the instructional approaches

adopted by teachers in teaching vocabulary. Data from the questionnaire items

and observational checklist were used to find answer(s) to this question.

Table 12- Instructional Approaches used in Teaching Vocabulary

Statement Always Sometimes Rarely Never

F (%) F (%) F (%) F (%)
Extensive reading. 26(52) 19(38) 4(8) 1(2)

The use of dictionary. 9(18) 36(72) 5(10) 0(0)

Using wordplay to give 13(26) 25(50) 10(20) 2(4)
meanings to new words in
sentence.
Using the keywords to form 39(78) 10(20) 1(2) 0(0)
sentences.
Creating dialogue in 13(26) 25(50) 12(24) 0(0)
vocabulary instruction.
The keyword approach in 22(44) 19(38) 9(18) 0(0)
vocabulary instruction.
Using context clues in 23(46) 21(42) 4(8) 2(8)
Table 12 continued
vocabulary instruction
Using students’ personal 14(28) 26(52) 6(12) 4(8)
experiences in vocabulary
instruction.
Give meaning of the word and 42(84) 6(12) 1(2) 1(2)
make students construct
sentences with keywords.
Using repetition method. 21(42) 19(38) 7(14) 3(6)

Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

81
 From the Table 12, 26 of the English language teachers constituting

52% declared that, they always used extensive reading activities in vocabulary

learning in English language. Nineteen representing 38% also used extensive

reading activities sometimes in vocabulary learning. However, 4 with a

percentage value of 8 rarely used extensive reading activities in vocabulary

learning, whereas 1 of them declared that, extensive reading activities are

never used in vocabulary learning.

As Schmitt (2000) held, one of the most important reasons for

supporting extensive reading is that many teachers believe that intensive

reading alone will not produce good, fluent readers. Evidently, a number of

experimental and quasi-experimental studies have demonstrated the

effectiveness of extensive reading and have provided support for the use of

extensive reading in English language.

Additionally Krashen (2004) concluded that learners acquire language

through extensive reading. According to him, learners who read voluntarily

make better progress in reading comprehension and vocabulary development.

He strongly believes that learners who read for pleasure are better readers,

better writers and have more grammatical competence. Due to the above

assertion the results of the current study are supportive of Krashen’s views

(2004) on the positive consequences, vocabulary learning has on extensive

reading.

On the use of dictionary in vocabulary learning, 9 of the English

language teachers with the percentage of 18 always used this approach in

reading lessons. Thirty-six of the English language teachers representing 72%

declared the use of the dictionary always in vocabulary learning. On the

82
contrary, 5 of the English language teachers constituting 10% rarely used the

dictionary in vocabulary learning. The current English Language Syllabus for

Junior High Schools in Ghana, is silent on the instructional methods of

vocabulary learning. The main aim of the English Language Syllabus in

vocabulary instruction in English Language at the Junior High Schools is to

build pupils vocabulary power. However, according to Beck, McKeown and

Kucan (2002), dictionary definitions typically have been a primary vehicle for

teaching words’ meanings. However, even proficient adult readers often have

difficultly deciphering a word’s meanings from conventional dictionary

definitions. By design, dictionary definitions are extremely concise and

precise. The result can be so cryptic that difficult to grasp a word’s meanings

or apply those meanings in context.

Furthermore, 13 of the English language teachers representing 26%

declared the use of wordplay to give meanings to new words in sentences

always in vocabulary instruction. Twenty-five of the teachers constituting 50%

indicated that, they sometimes used wordplay to give meanings to new words

in sentences in vocabulary instruction. Ten of the teachers representing 20%

stated that, they rarely used wordplay to give meanings to new words in

sentences in vocabulary instruction. Conversely, 2 of the respondents

representing 4% declared, they never used wordplay to give meanings to new

words in sentences in vocabulary instruction.

According to Anderson, Wilson, and Fielding (1988) students need to

be surrounded by words and motivated to learn them. When teachers read

supplementary reading materials to students, it exposes students to varieties of

new words they would not encounter on their own. Word play is also one

83
element of the word-rich classroom so critical to the development of word

awareness and word consciousness in students: the same consciousness that

leads to greater incidental word learning

On the use of keywords to form sentences in vocabulary instruction, it

is worth mentioning that, 39 of the teachers which represents 78% declared the

use of this approach always in vocabulary instruction. Ten of the respondents

giving (representing 20%) declared that, they sometimes used keywords to

form sentences in vocabulary instruction. One of the teachers representing 2%

rarely used keywords to form sentences in vocabulary instruction.

It is also worth mentioning that, 13 of the English language teachers

indicating 26% declared that, they always created dialogue in vocabulary

instruction. Twenty-five of the English language teachers representing 50%

sometimes create dialogue in vocabulary instruction. However, 12 of the

English language teachers which represents 24% also declared that, they rarely

created dialogue in vocabulary instruction. Buttressing the point, Diamond and

Gutlohn (2006), Beck, McKeown & Kucan (2002), and Beck and McKeown

(2001) stated that after reading, an in-depth discussion of all the words allows

the teacher and students to revisit word use within the context of the passage

to promote a greater understanding of words and their meanings. To add up,

when discussion and interaction are done during vocabulary instruction, it

makes acquisition of new words natural and participatory.

In addition, 22 of the English language teachers which stands for 44%

stated that, they always used the keyword approach in vocabulary instruction,

19 (representing 38%) sometimes used the keyword approach in vocabulary

instruction. On the other hand, 9 of the English language teachers

84
(representing 18%) rarely used the keyword approach in vocabulary

instruction. Accordingly, Shapiro and Waters (2005) indicated that the

keyword method of vocabulary learning is a mnemonic method to help

students learn foreign vocabulary. The keyword method is effective because it

provides a meaningful visual image upon which to base memory for a new

word’s meaning. Additionally, Chen (2006) made an assertion that keyword

method is an interesting tool for acquiring English vocabulary and most of the

students believed that such skill can help them acquire English words in a

faster and easier way, and thus increase the level of retention.

On using context clues in vocabulary instruction, 23 of the English

language teachers which represents 46% declared that, they always used this

approach in vocabulary instruction. Twenty-one of the teachers standing for

42% declared that, they sometimes used context clues in vocabulary

instruction. However, 4 and 2 of the teachers which represents 8% and 4%

respectively declared that they either rarely used or never used the context

clues in vocabulary instructions. It was evident from the presentation stage

(Appendix D) under observational activity that twenty of the respondents with

a mean of 1.7 used context clues as one of the approaches being used to teach

vocabulary items in reading lessons.

Graves (2008, 2007) stated that one of the most important strategies

that will foster students’ independence in word learning is becoming skilled at

using context clues to unlock the meaning of unknown words. Students are

directed to look for clues within the word and the sentence’s surrounding

sentences. He further stated that students use clues from meaningful word

parts such as the base word, suffixes, or prefixes or from known words that

85
surround the unknown word within the text. Teaching students to use context

clues while they are reading will help them to infer meanings while they are

reading, but the context alone does not lead to a deep understanding of the

word.

Extending the discussion further, 14 of the English language teachers

which represents 28% indicated that, they always used students’ personal

experiences in vocabulary instruction. Twenty-six of them standing for 52%

sometimes used students’ personal experiences in vocabulary instruction. On

the other hand, 6 of the teachers representing 12% rarely used students’

personal experiences in vocabulary instruction. However, 4 of them

constituting 8% never used students’ personal knowledge in vocabulary

instruction.

On the other hand, 42 of the teachers which represents 84% always

gave the meaning of the word and made students construct sentences with the

keywords in vocabulary instruction. Six of them which represents 12%

sometimes used this approach in vocabulary instruction. Two of the teachers

standing for 4% either rarely or never gave meaning of the word and made

students construct sentences with the keywords in vocabulary instruction.

To conclude, 21 of the English language teachers standing in 42%

stated that, they always used repetition method in vocabulary instruction.

Nineteen of them with the percentage value of 38% indicated that, they

sometimes used repetition method in vocabulary instruction. However, 7 and 3

of the teachers also declared that they used either repetition method rarely or

they never used repetition method in vocabulary instruction.

86
Research question 3

Which strategies do English language teachers use in building learners’

vocabulary knowledge in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem
Municipality?
Questionnaire items were used to collect respondents’ responses on the

research question. Observation activities aim at describing relevant research

questions were used to confirm or refute the responses provided by the

respondents on the questionnaire items. Table 13 presents the results.

Information from Table 13 depicts that 46 English language teachers,

representing 92% with a mean of 1.10 indicated they always write new words

(vocabularies) on the chalkboard as an extra activities of building students’

vocabulary knowledge. Three ( representing 6.0%) of the English language

teachers also indicated writing new words on the chalkboard from time to

time (sometimes) as a strategy of building students vocabulary knowledge.

Conversely, one of the English language teachers representing 2% rarely used

this strategy in building students vocabularies.

According to the observational activities (Appendix D) which took

place during the pre-reading lessons, twenty of the teachers with a mean of 1.3

used writing of keywords (vocabulary items) on the chalkboard a strategy in

helping students to build their competencies in vocabulary learning.

Once again, 40 of them constituting 80% with a mean of 1.20 used

new words to form sentences always, as a strategy of building students’

knowledge in vocabulary. On the other 10 of the English language teachers,

forming 20% also demonstrated to the use of this strategy sometimes in their

vocabulary instruction.

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Table 13- Activities to Build Learners’ Vocabulary Knowledge
Statement Always Sometimes Rarely Never Mean
F (%) F (%) F (%) F (%)

Write the new words 46(92) 3(6) 1(2) 0(0) 1.10

(vocabularies) on the
chalkboard.
Use the new words 40(80) 10(20) 0(0) 0(0) 1.20
(vocabularies) to form
sentences.
Repeat the new words 38(76) 9(18) 1(2) 2(4) 1.34
alouds to students.
Use mental images to 6(12) 33(66) 7(14) 4(8) 2.18
find the meanings of
new words.
Use explanations to 28(56) 22(44) 0(0) 0(0) 1.44
find the meanings of
new words.
Use students’ 23(46) 23(46) 3(6) 1(2) 1.64
background knowledge
on the new words, to
find the meanings.
Guide students to find 29(58) 19(38) 2(4) 0(0) 1.46
the meaning of new
words through reading.
Use synonyms or 14(28) 27(54) 8(16) 1(2) 1.92
antonym to find the
meanings of the new
words.
Teach new words 27(54) 18(36) 4(8) 1(2) 1.58
through reading
activities. (Storytelling,
novels etc.)
Use dictionary to find 14(28) 30(60) 6(12) 0(0) 1.84
the definitional
meaning of the new
words.
Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

Again, 6 of the English language teachers constituting 12% with a

mean of 2.18 indicated the use of mental images to find the meanings of the

new words always in building students vocabulary knowledge. This means

88
that, English language teachers always used this strategy in vocabulary

lessons, in order to build students’ knowledge in vocabulary. About 33 of the

teachers representing 66% considered the use of mental images to find

meanings of the new words in vocabulary instruction sometimes. On the other

side, 7 of the English language teachers indicating 14% rarely used this

strategy to build students vocabulary knowledge. Yet again 4 of the English

language teachers, which represents 8% stated that never used this strategy in

their vocabulary instruction. That is, English language teachers do not use

these extra activities to build students vocabulary knowledge.

Additionally, thirty-eight (76%) English language teachers with a

mean of 1.34 preferred repeating the new words (vocabularies) aloud to

students in vocabulary instruction. This strategy employed by the English

language teachers help to build students vocabulary knowledge. Again, nine

(18%) of the English language teachers stated they sometimes used this

strategy in building students vocabulary. Once more 1(2%) and 2(4%) of the

English language teachers either rarely used or did not use this strategy at all

in building students vocabulary knowledge in English language.

What is more, 28(56%) with a mean of 1.44 of the English language

teachers always used explanations as a strategy to find meanings of new words

in building students’ vocabulary knowledge. Twenty-two (44%) of them

sometimes used this strategy in building students’ vocabulary knowledge.

According to the results from the observational activity (Appendix D), twenty

of the teachers with a mean of 1.6 used explanations/ discussions as one of the

strategies to in build students’ vocabulary knowledge under pre-presentation

stage in comprehension lesson. This observational activity confirmed to the

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questionnaire item answered by English language teachers on the activity,

which teachers use to build students vocabulary knowledge.

In all, 23 of the English language teachers standing for 46% with a

mean of 1.64 prefer using students’ background knowledge on the new words

to find the meanings always in vocabulary instruction. They used this strategy

to build students vocabulary knowledge in English language lessons. Again 23

of teachers representing 46% sometimes used this strategy to build students

vocabulary knowledge in English language lessons. Three of the teachers

constituting 6% rarely used this strategy in building students’ vocabulary

knowledge, whereas 1 of the teachers (representing 2%) does not use this

strategy in vocabulary instruction.

It was observed from the pre-presentation stage (Appendix D) in the

reading lessons that twenty of the teachers with a mean of 1.8 confirmed to

the questionnaire item on pupils’ background knowledge that they rely on this

activity to introduce meanings of new words to students

Qian (2002) confirmed that vocabulary knowledge is essential in reading

comprehension because it has a similar function to background knowledge in

reading comprehension. Vocabulary knowledge helps students in decoding,

which is an important part of reading.

Again, 29 of the English language teachers representing 58% with a

mean of 1.46 indicated guiding students always to find the meanings of the

new words through reading helps in vocabulary learning. Majority of teachers

used this strategy to build the students’ knowledge in vocabulary lessons in

English reading lessons. Nineteen English language teachers constituting 38%

sometimes used this strategy to build students vocabulary knowledge, whilst 2

90
of the English language teachers constituting 4% rarely used this extra activity

in vocabulary instruction.

Under the present stage of the reading lessons of the observational

activity (Appendix D), it became evident that twenty of the respondents with a

mean of 2.2 guided students to find the meanings of new words through

reading activities. The reading activities took the forms of individual/

grouping reading, this activity helped to ensure that students effectively took

part in the reading activity in order to find the meanings of the vocabulary in

the text.

According to Laufer (2003) ‘’ reading alone is unlikely to be the

best source of vocabulary acquisition. Word focused activities, whether they

are combined with reading or not, play a crucial role in building the learner’s

lexical knowledge. Teachers have to look more critically at learning through

reading and be more accepting of direct learning”. (pp. 583-584).

On the contrary, Stahl and Nagy (2006, pp. 127, 128), stated that, the

power of reading quantity and its impact on vocabulary knowledge has been

described as the “largest single source of vocabulary growth” and “essential

for increasing students’ vocabulary size”.

Additionally, 14(28%) of the English language teachers with mean of

1.92 always used synonyms or antonyms to find the meanings of the words in

vocabulary instruction. English language teachers indicated that, this strategy

helps to build students’ vocabulary knowledge in English language. Again 27

(54%) of them sometimes used this strategy to build students’ knowledge in

vocabulary instruction. However, 8(16%) teachers rarely used this strategy in

vocabulary instruction, in order to build students’ vocabulary knowledge. Yet

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again 1 (2%) never used this strategy in building students’ knowledge in

vocabulary instruction. According to Echevarria, Vogt, and Short (2004),

Grogner,et al.,( 2000) English language learners, in particular, benefit from

instruction showing relationships between words, especially synonyms,

antonyms, and word family associations. They further urge English language

teachers to give examples of a new word in different parts of speech.

To conclude, 27 of the English language teachers representing 54%

with a mean of (1.58) always teach new words through reading activities

(storytelling, novels etc.) in order to build students’ vocabulary knowledge in

vocabulary instruction. Eighteen of the teachers which represents 36% also

teach new words through reading (storytelling, novels etc.) sometimes in

vocabulary instruction. Four of them with 8% rarely teach new words through

reading activities (storytelling, novels etc.) as a strategy to build students’

vocabulary knowledge. One of the English language teachers with 2% never

used new words through reading (storytelling, novels etc.) as a strategy in

building students’ vocabulary knowledge in reading lessons.

Once more 14 of the English language teachers with 28% and a mean

of 1.84 always used dictionary to find the definitional meaning of the new

words in sentences, this builds students’ vocabulary knowledge in reading

lessons in English language. Thirty of the teachers constituting 60%

sometimes used the dictionary to find the definitional meaning of the new

words in sentences, and this helps to build the vocabulary knowledge of the

students in reading lessons. Six of the teachers (representing 12%) rarely used

the dictionary to find the definitional meaning of new words in sentences.

92
 Additionally, majority of the teachers also used the dictionary in

introducing meanings of new words to students. This became possible when

the strategies used by the English language teachers to find the possible

meanings of the vocabulary items proved otherwise, hence the need for

teachers to use the dictionary to find the definitional of the vocabulary item.

It was also noticed from pre- reading stage of the reading lessons under the

observational activity( Appendix D) twenty of the teachers with a mean of 2.6

used the dictionary as one of the strategies to build students’ vocabulary

knowledge to find the definitional meanings of the vocabulary items.

Research 4

What challenges do English language teachers encounter in designing

vocabulary instruction in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem
Municipality?
This aspect of the research question on the questionnaire items was an

open-ended questionnaire, it was structured into two divisions in order to

solicit the views of the teachers on the challenges they encounter in

vocabulary instructions. The first aspect of the research question on the

questionnaire item focused on the challenges the teachers themselves face in

teaching meaning of new words under reading lessons.

The second aspect of the research question on the questionnaire item focused

on the challenges which teachers have identified from the students in

vocabulary instruction. That is, the challenges teachers have observed from the

students whenever meanings of new words are taught in reading lessons.

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Table 14- Challenges English Language Teachers Face
Statement Frequency Percentage
Inadequate reading materials 13 26.0

Inadequate time 8 16.0

Problem of Word pronunciation on the part pupils 17 34.0

Problem of Understanding the Meaning of the 12 24.0

Keywords (Definitional or Contextual meaning)

Total 50 100

Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

From the information gathered on Table 14, it shows that 17 of the

English language teachers stated that, most of the students find it difficult to

pronounce words correctly before reading activities in vocabulary lessons.

This represents 34%, and this affects vocabulary instruction in English

language.

Buttressing the point, Fraser (2000) stated that many learners of

English language have major difficulties with English pronunciation even after

years of learning the language. She further explains that students’ ability to

speak English language includes a number of sub-skills of which

pronunciation is by far the most important and other sub-skills of speaking

including vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics. She argues that “with good

pronunciation, a speaker is intelligible despite other errors; with poor

pronunciation, understanding a speaker will be very difficult, despite accuracy

in other areas” (Fraser, 2000a, p. 7).

Thirteen of the English language teachers, which represents 26% also

stated that inadequate reading materials affect pre-reading activities in

vocabulary instruction. This is attributed to the challenge of students not

94
having enough reading materials to support pre-reading activities in

vocabulary instruction.

In addition 12 of them which represents 24% indicated the problem of

understanding the meaning of the keywords in pre-reading activities in

vocabulary instruction. This usually arises when students cannot use the new

words to form sentences, hence, creating a challenge for the teacher in

introducing new words in pre-reading activities in vocabulary instruction.

According to Kinsella (2005), selecting words that are essential for

comprehension activities involve the selection and instruction of the words

that are most essential for overall text comprehension. This implies that the

most critical vocabulary should be examined in depth, allowing learners the

opportunity to explore, refine, and revise their knowledge of principal

concepts and ideas, thus enhancing their ability to understand a given text

more profoundly.

As there are far too many important words to teach explicitly,

educators must be strategic when considering which words they will teach for

mastery, which they will teach for exposure, and which they will not teach

explicitly. The selection of the vocabulary by the teacher must satisfy well –

defined conditions, so as to make instruction interesting, interactive,

meaningful, and memorable experiences to students.

On the contrary, eight of the English language teachers representing

16% stated that inadequate time contributes to the challenges they face when

introducing new words in pre-reading activities. Accordingly, Anderson,

Wilson, and Fielding (1986) suggested that the amount of time students spend

reading, especially free choice reading is the best predictor of vocabulary

95
growth and development. Senechal (1997) supported the idea that time spent

on repeated readings of a story produces significant gains in vocabulary

growth and development. Second language learners of the English language,

often times have problems with how new words are learnt and used. For

second language learners of English language to succeed in the usage and

function of the language, especially in the concept of vocabulary, English

language teachers need to devote adequate time for students in vocabulary

lessons.

Table 15- Challenges Students Face

Statement Frequency Percentage (%)

Problem of using new words to form sentences. 33 66.0

Problem of spelling new words correctly. 8 16.0

Problem of recalling new words learnt. 9 18.0

Total 50 100

Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

From the Table 15, it depicts 33 of the English language teachers

constituting 66% stated they have observed in their English language lessons

that students have a problem of using new words to form sentences in

vocabulary instruction after reading activities. This poses greater challenge to

students in post reading activities after the teacher had taken them vocabulary

instruction. On the contrary, 9 of the English language teachers forming 18%

also stated that, students find it difficult of recalling new words learnt in

vocabulary instruction. This means students are unable to recall new words

acquired in vocabulary, hence compounding students’ problems in post

reading activities in English language.

96
 However, 8 of the English language teachers representing 16% also

identified the problem of spelling new words correctly on the part of students.

This further explains that, after the English language teachers had introduced

the students into vocabulary instruction, students are unable to spell new

words acquired in from the lessons correctly Hence, posing a challenge to

students in vocabulary instruction in English language.

Table 16-Pre-Presentation Activities to Build Students Vocabulary Knowledge

under Reading Comprehension Lesson
Statement Frequency Mean
Teacher writes the new words (vocabularies) on the chalkboard. 20 1.3
Teacher teaches vocabulary items using appropriate
methods/materials. 20 1.8
a. Teacher uses pupil’s background knowledge to teach the new
word.
b. Teacher uses demonstrations to teach the new word. 20 2.8
c. Teacher uses simple explanations/ discussion to teach the new 20 1.6
word.
Teacher drills pupils on the new words to ensure correct 20 1.4
pronunciation of the new words.
Teacher uses dictionary to find the definitional meaning of the 20 2.6
vocabulary items.
Teacher gives pupils opportunities to use the new words in 20 2.7
context. (e.g. To form sentences).
Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

From the table 16, it was observed that twenty of the respondents with

a mean of 1.3 write the new words on the chalkboard as part of the pre-

presentation activities to build students. Twenty of the respondents with the

mean of 1.8 used pupil’s background knowledge as one of the methods in

97
teaching meanings of new words under pre-presentation activities in Reading

Comprehension in English language lessons.

Twenty of the teachers representing a mean of 2.8 used demonstrations as a

method of teaching the meanings of new words whiles discussion/

explanations which gave a mean of 1.6 were some of the teaching methods,

respondents respectively used to teach the meanings of new words under pre-

presentation activities in Reading Comprehension lessons.

Furthermore, twenty of the respondents with a mean of 1.4 adopted the

method of words pronunciations to drill pupils on the meanings of new words

in Reading Comprehension lessons in English language. A mean of 2.6

representing twenty English language teachers used the dictionary to find the

definitional meanings of new words, whiles a mean of 2.7 representing twenty

English language teachers guided pupils to use the new words in context in

forming new sentences

Table 17- Presentation Activities to Build Students Vocabulary Knowledge

under Reading Comprehension Lesson
Statement Frequency Mean

Teacher guides pupil to locate/ identify the new words 20 2.7

in the passage.

Teacher guides pupils to find the meaning of the new 20 2.2

words through reading activities.

Teacher guides pupils to use context clues during 20 1.7

reading lesson to find the meaning of the vocabulary
item.
Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

During the presentation activities of the Reading Comprehension

Lesson, it was observed that, twenty of the respondents with a mean of 2.7

98
guide pupil to locate the new words in the passage. Twenty of the respondents

with a mean of 2.2 guided pupils to find the meaning of the new words

through reading activities, whiles twenty of the respondents with a mean of 1.7

used the method of guiding pupils to use context clues to find the meanings of

new words during Reading Comprehension Lesson.

Table 18- Post-Presentation Activities to Build Students Vocabulary

Knowledge under Reading Comprehension Lesson

Statement Frequency Mean

Teacher guides pupils to find words 20 2.5
nearest in meaning to the new words
used/learnt in the reading activities
lesson.

Source: Field data, Appiah-Baidoo (2014)

It was observed from the post-presentation activities under Reading

Comprehension Lesson, respondents used these activities as a means of

assessing pupil’s knowledge on the topic learnt. Twenty of the respondents

with a mean of 2.5 guided pupil to find the words nearest in meaning to the

new words used/ learnt in the reading activities lessons.

Chapter Summary

This chapter was primarily based on the overall analysis and discussion

of the data collected for the study. English language teachers’ responses from

the research question 1 demonstrate that, certain belief systems influence

vocabulary instruction in English language. The findings from the research

question 1 holds to the traditional approaches to vocabulary instruction. These

traditional approaches include: keyword approach, extensive reading

99
activities, metacognitive approach (thinking about the meaning of the words)

and the use of the dictionary.

Research question 2 of the study focused on the instructional

approaches respondents used in vocabulary. The responses from the English

language teachers indicated that certain instructional approaches were used

more than others. Citing as an example extensive reading activities, the use of

dictionary, keywords method, context clues and forming sentences with the

new words were the instructional approaches used frequently by English

language teachers in vocabulary instruction. Examples of instructional

approaches which were used less frequently in vocabulary instruction as part

of reading activities include Wordplay approach, students’ personal

experiences.

Research question 3 directs attention to the strategies used by the

English language teachers in building students vocabulary knowledge in

English language. Reponses from the English language teachers confirm that

strategies like writing of the new words on the chalkboard, using new words to

form sentences, repeating of new words and among others were the major

activities being used by English language teachers to building students’

vocabulary knowledge. Use of mental images, teach new words reading

activities, use of students background knowledge were not used frequently in

vocabulary lessons.

Research question 4 relates to the challenges teachers face when

introducing new words to students before and during reading activities. It was

confirmed by the responses from the English language teachers that, most

students have problems with the pronunciation of the new words. Again

100
students have difficulties in forming sentences with vocabulary items, problem

of understanding the meanings of the new words (contextual and definitional)

were some of the challenges provided by the respondents.

Observational activities were used to complement the instrument, and also

ascertain the veracity of the responses provided by the English language

teachers on the questionnaire items.

101
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary
The focus of the study was to assess effective vocabulary instruction in

English language at the public junior high schools. The respondents were the

teachers teaching English language as a subject at the public junior high

schools. It was conducted in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem Municipality

(K.E.E.A) in the Central Region of Ghana. The researcher adopted the

descriptive survey design. Public junior high school English language teachers

were the target population for the study in the Komenda- Edina -Eguafo -

Abrem Municipality in the Central Region of Ghana.

Questionnaire and observation checklist were the main instruments

used to collect data. The sixty-six respondents made up of public junior high

school English language teachers formed the sample size for the study. Multi –

staged sampling procedures were used to select the public junior high schools

and the public junior high school English language teachers in the

municipality. The simple random sampling technique (lottery method) was

also used to select thirty-three (33) public junior high schools. Whiles, the

purposive sampling technique was used to sixty-six (66) public junior school

English language teachers. Tables and percentage values were used in the

discussion to interpret the findings for the study. The discussions and

interpretations of the findings from the study were reported under the

following sub-themes: Belief Systems on Vocabulary Learning, Instructional

102
Approaches, Strategies to Build Students’ Vocabulary Knowledge, and

Challenges in Designing Vocabulary Instruction.

Summary of key Findings

From the study, the following key findings were made;

1. For each item measuring the different belief systems in vocabulary

instructions, most English Language teachers of Komenda-Edina-

Eguafo-Abrem Municipality agreed to using them in the classroom.

With a mean score of 1.34, teaching new vocabulary before reading is

most widely used system teachers believe in.

2. Most English Language teachers of Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem

Municipality agreed to using different instructional approaches in

teaching vocabulary. The most widely agreed instructional approach

that teachers use in teaching vocabulary is giving meaning of the word

and make students construct sentences with the keywords. Forty-two

teachers representing 84% agreed to using this instructional approach.

3. The most common instructional strategy that teachers use in teaching

vocabulary in the classroom is writing the new words (vocabularies) on

the chalkboard. Whereas 46 teachers representing 92% agreed to using

this strategy with only one teacher thinking otherwise. This item also

recorded the lowest mean score of 1.10. The teachers also agreed that

they use all the other suggested strategies.

4. Seventeen teachers representing 34% stated that, the problem of word

pronunciation was one of the challenges they encountered when

introducing new words to students before reading activities. Thirty-

three of the teachers (representing 66%) stated that, most of their

103
 students find it difficult in using new words to construct sentences.

Other challenges teachers face includes inadequate materials, inability

of pupils to understand new vocabulary and as well recall previously

learnt words.

Conclusions
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are

drawn;

1. Most teachers have more than one belief system that influences

their instruction of new vocabulary.

2. English teachers adopt different and varied instructional

approaches in teaching vocabulary in the classroom.

3. Different strategies are used by teachers in vocabulary instruction.

This has the potential of attending to the unique needs of the

pupils.

4. Though the challenges that teachers face in vocabulary instruction

is multi-dimensional, they are mostly related to the weaknesses of

the pupils.

Recommendations

Based on the findings and conclusions drawn from the study, the following

recommendations are made for the policy and practice.

1. Since English teachers have varied belief systems regarding

vocabulary instruction, curriculum developers as well as institutions

responsible for teacher education and training should incorporate

content that will expose teachers to the various belief systems so that

104
 they can adopt appropriate strategies to reduce the impact of the

weaknesses of the each belief system.

2. The Ghana Education Service should organise refresher courses for

teachers on various approaches to vocabulary instruction so as to apt

their pedagogical competence.

3. Heads of schools should strengthen their supervisory roles to ensure

that teachers adopt the best strategies in vocabulary instruction. This

will ensure effective teaching and learning.

4. The government through the Ministry of Education as well as

corporate society should help in providing enough reading materials

and other relevant logistics to aid effective vocabulary instruction.

Suggestions for Future Studies

Since the study concentrated on public junior high schools in the

Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem Municipality in the Central region, and not all

the schools in the country, the study cannot be generalized. I therefore suggest

that further study will be necessary in other regions of the country and

nationwide to identify whether the issues identified by the researcher persist

elsewhere in order to build a holistic trend to vocabulary instruction in reading

activities in English language. Other issues which were not part of the study

such as home and government roles in building students’ vocabulary

knowledge in reading lessons should also be looked into.

105
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APPENDIX A

126
APPENDIX B

127
 APPENDIX C

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF EDUCATIO STUDIES

FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC EDUCATION

Questionnaire for English Language Teachers of Ghana Education

Service in the Komenda-Edina –Eguafo-Abrem Municipality.

Dear Sir/Madam,

Good day, I am a student of the above department reading Master of

Philosophy in Basic Education (English language as major). As part of my

programme I am writing a thesis on the topic: ‘‘Assessing effective

vocabulary instruction in English Language at the Junior High Schools in the

Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abrem Municipality ’’.You have been selected to

respond to a questionnaire. After the collection of the data from you and

others who were selected, all the data will be combined for analysis and no

one can identify responses from any individual.

I would like to assure you of anonymity of your responses. Under no

condition would any information you provide be given to any other person. I

assure you of absolute confidentiality

128
Section A: Demographic information.

Tick [√] where applicable

1. Gender: Male [ ]

Female [ ]

2. Age: 20-25years [ ]

26-30years [ ]

35-40 years [ ]

41-above [ ]

3. Current rank in the service ……………………………………….

4. Highest educational background ………………………………….

5. Number of years in the teaching profession: 1-5years [ ]

6 - 10years [ ]

11-15years [ ]

16-above [ ]

SECTION B: Belief Systems on Vocabulary Learning

Which beliefs systems do influence you in vocabulary instructions?

Please tick (√) the statement.

No. Statement Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree

Agree Disagree

11 Repetition is the useful way

to teach new words.
12 Students’ acquire new words
through the use of the
dictionary.
13 Students’ memorize new
words through word lists.
14 Students’ acquire
vocabulary words through
imitation
15 Students’ acquire the
meaning of new words
through keywords methods.

129
16 Students’ learn vocabulary
words through dialogue
activities.
17 Students’ acquire the
meanings of new words by
thinking about the new
word.
18 Students’ acquire the
meaning of new words
through reading activities.
19 Students’ acquire
vocabulary words through
interactions.
20 New vocabulary is treated
before reading.
21 New vocabulary is treated
before, during and after
reading.

Section C: Methods/Strategies/Techniques Teachers Use in Teaching

Vocabulary.

What instructional approaches do you adopt/use in teaching vocabulary?

Please tick (√) the statement.

No Statement Always Sometimes Rarely Never

1 Extensive reading activities

in vocabulary learning.

2 The use of dictionary.

3 Using word play to give

meanings to new words in
sentence.
4 Using the key words to form
sentences.
5 Creating dialogue in
vocabulary instruction.
6 The keyword approach in
vocabulary instruction.
7 Using context clues in
vocabulary instruction.
8 Using students’ personal

130
 experiences in vocabulary
instruction.
9 Gives meaning of the word
and make students’ construct
sentences with the keywords.
10 Using repetition method.

Section D: Strategies Teachers Use To Build Students’ Vocabulary

Knowledge.

Which extra activities /strategies do you use to build your learners’ vocabulary

knowledge?

Please tick (√) the statement

No Statement Always Sometimes Rarely Never

22 Write the new words on the

chalkboard.
23 Use the new words to form
sentences.
24 Repeat the new words aloud to
students’.
25 Use mental images to find the
meanings of the new words.
Use explanations to find the
26 meanings of new words.
27 Use students’ background
knowledge on the new words,
to find the meanings.
28 Guide students’ to find the
meanings of new words
through reading.
29 Use synonyms or antonym to
find the meanings of the new
words.
30 Teach new words through
reading activities. (storytelling,
novels etc).
31 Use dictionary to find the
definitional meaning of the
new words.

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Section E: Challenges Teachers’ Face in Vocabulary Instruction.

32. A. What challenge(s)do you face as an English language teacher when

teaching or introducing new words (vocabulary) to your students’ before

reading

activities?..............................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................

B. What challenge(s) do your students’ face after introducing new words

(vocabulary) in reading activities?

..............................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................

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 APPENDIX D

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF EDUCATIO STUDIES

FACULTY OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATION

DEPARTMENT OF BASIC EDUCATION

Observational Checklist Items for English Language Teachers of Ghana

Education Service in the Komenda-Edina –Eguafo-Abrem Municipality.

Dear Sir/Madam,

Good day, I am a student of the above department reading Master of

Philosophy in Basic Education (English language as major). As part of my

programme I am writing a thesis on the topic: ‘Assessing effective vocabulary

instruction in English Language at the Junior High Schools in the Komenda-

Edina-Eguafo-Abrem Municipality’ ’Your lesson is selected for an

observational activity. After the collection of the data from you and others

who were selected, all the data will be combined for analysis and no one can

identify responses from any individual.

I would like to assure you of anonymity of your responses. Under no

condition would any information you provide be given to any other person. I

assure you of absolute confidentiality.

133
Section A: Demographic information.

Tick [√] where applicable

1. Gender: Male [ ]

Female [ ]

2. Age:20-25years [ ]

26-30years [ ]

35-40 years [ ]

41-above [ ]

3. Current rank in the service ……………………………………….

4. Highest educational background ………………………………….

5. Number of years in the teaching profession: 1-5years [ ]

6 - 10years [ ]

11-15years [ ]

16-above [ ]

6. Class/ Form :……

7. Date/ Duration of the Lesson :……

8. Duration of the Lesson:………

9. Topic/ Title of the Text: ……

10. Teacher-Learning Materials used by the teacher : ………

134
 INTRODUCTION / PRE-PRESENTATION

No. Statement Very Effective Not Not

Effective Effective Used
At All
1. Teacher writes the new words
(vocabularies) on the
chalkboard.
2. Teacher teaches vocabulary
items using appropriate
methods/materials.

a. Teacher uses pupil’s

background knowledge to teach
the new word.

b. Teacher uses demonstrations

to teach the new word.
c. Teacher uses simple
explanations/ discussion to
teach the new word.

3. Teacher drills pupils on the

new words to ensure correct
pronunciation of the new
words.
4. Teacher gives pupils
opportunities to use the new
words in context. (e.g. To form
sentences)
Teacher uses dictionary to find
5. the definitional meaning of the
vocabulary items.

NB: Duration of time used by the teacher: ……

135
 PRESENTATION STAGE

No. Statement Very Effective Not Effective Not

Effective Used At
All
6 Teacher guides pupil to
locate/ identify the new
words in the passage.
7 Teacher guides pupils
to find the meaning of
the new words through
reading activities.
8 Teacher guides pupils
to use context clues
during reading lesson to
find the meaning of the
vocabulary item.

NB: Duration of time used by the teacher: ……

POST-PRESENTATION STAGE ON READING ACTIVITIES

Statement Very effective Effective Not effective Not

used at
all
10. Teacher guides
pupils to find words
nearest in meaning to
the new words
used/learnt in the
reading activities
lesson.

NB: Duration of time used by the teacher: ……

Thank You

136