Liberation and Feminist Christologies: Modern Challenges and Contributions
A Research Paper
Submitted to
Dr. Charlie E George
In partial fulfilment of the requirements of the course
New Testament Christology
For the Degree of Master of Theology (NT)
By
P. Brightson Khumba
Regd. No. 2427
30th January, 2025
NEW LIFE COLLEGE, BANGALORE
Contents
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………1
1. Definition of Christology…………………………………………………………………...1
2. Definition of Liberation Christology…………………………………………………......1-5
2.1. Origin of Liberation Christology……………………………………………………1-2
2.2. The Kingdom of God as Liberation…………………………………………………...2
2.3. The Cross and Liberation…………………………………………………………...2-3
2.4. Liberation and Praxis………………………………………………………………….3
2.5. Criticisms of Liberation Christology………………………………………………….3
2.6. Jesus, the Liberator - The View from the Gospels……………………………...…...4-5
3. Definition of Feminist…………………………………………………………………….5-8
3.1. The Emergence of Feminist Christology……………………………………………5-6
3.1.1. Responses to Feminist Critique………………………………………………….6
3.1.2. Christian Feminists Respond…………………………...…...…………………...6
3.2. Can a Male Savior, Jesus, Truly Save Women?..........................................................6-7
3.2.1. Jesus as the New Humanity………………………………………………………7
3.2.2. Jesus’ Relationship with Women…………………………………………………7
3.2.3. Jesus as a Male Savior for Women’s Liberation…………………………………8
3.3. Feminist Reinterpretation of Christ……………………………………………………8
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...…...8-9
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………….9-10
Introduction
Throughout history, Christians have used various titles for Jesus, such as Savior,
King, and Shepherd, each emphasizing different aspects of His nature. However, no single
title can fully capture His complete essence. Two contemporary perspectives on Jesus are
Liberation Christology, which focuses on His mission to free the oppressed, and Feminist
Christology examines how Jesus’ maleness affects the role of women in the church and
challenges traditional gender views.
This paper will examine Liberation and Feminist Christologies, focusing on how each
interprets Jesus’ mission, how the Gospels portray Him as the Liberator, and how Feminist
Christology challenges traditional views of Jesus’ gender and its implications for women’s
equality in the church.
1. Definition of Christology
Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary defines Christology as “the study of who Jesus is and
what He did.”1 According to Dietrich Ritschl, “Christology is the study of what the apostles
taught about Jesus and how these teachings have been understood and applied throughout the
history of the church.”2 In short, Christology is about understanding who Jesus is, what He
did, and how His teachings have influenced the Christian faith over time.
2. Definition of Liberation Christology
Liberation Christology focuses on Jesus Christ as a liberator of the oppressed. It looks
at His life and teachings through the struggles of marginalized people, addressing social,
economic, and political issues.3 This approach sees liberation as both spiritual freedom and
the transformation of society.
2.1. Origin of Liberation Christology
Liberation Christology, an integral part of Liberation Theology, originated with Latin
American theologian Gustavo Gutiérrez. In his 1970 work A Theology of Liberation,
Gutiérrez emphasized God’s preferential option for the poor and oppressed, urging that the
Kingdom of God is a call to action for justice in the present world, not just a future promise.
This theology emerged in response to the political and social conditions in Latin
America, where poverty, inequality, and human rights abuses were widespread.4 Liberation
1
“Christology,” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary,
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Christology (accessed December 19, 2024).
2
The Encyclopedia of Christianity, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1999),
458.
3
Jon Sobrino, Jesus the Liberator: A Historical-Theological Reading of Jesus of Nazareth, trans. Paul
Burns and Francis McDonagh (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1993), 16.
4
Carrie Sinclair Wolcott, “Liberation Theologies and Hermeneutics,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary,
ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016), n.p.
1
Christology reinterprets Scripture to challenge oppressive social systems, presenting Jesus as
a liberator and advocate for the oppressed.
2.2. The Kingdom of God as Liberation
Gustavo Gutiérrez rejected earlier approaches that separated the spiritual and earthly
realms. He stressed the need for both action and theological reflection to address the crisis,
focusing on the oppressed.5 The proclamation of the Kingdom of God lies at the heart of
Liberation Christology. Jesus’ declaration in Luke 4:18-19, citing Isaiah, sets the tone for a
theology of liberation: “The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed me to
proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the prisoners and
recovery of sight for the blind, to set the oppressed free, to proclaim the year of the Lord’s
favor.” This passage presents a complete view of liberation, covering physical, social, and
spiritual aspects of life. The Kingdom of God is seen as a call to action, urging Christians to
challenge inequality and injustice.6 Sobrino emphasizes that the Kingdom of God is
embodied in the poor and oppressed and is about their liberation in this life.7 Both Sobrino
and Gutiérrez interpret Luke 4:18 -19 as a call to focus on the poor and actively work for
justice and liberation in the present, rather than seeing the Kingdom of God as an abstract or
future concept (Lk. 6:20).
2.3. The Cross and Liberation
The crucifixion of Jesus is seen as the ultimate act of liberation. In this perspective,
the cross is not only a symbol of redemptive suffering but also a protest against unjust
suffering. Jesus’ death confronts oppressive powers and gives meaning to the suffering of
those who endure systemic injustice.8 For the poor, the cross signifies both identification with
their pain and the promise of resurrection, a triumph over death and all its manifestations,
including social and economic oppression.9 The crucifixion symbolizes both solidarity10 with
the oppressed and a challenge to injustice, offering hope of liberation.
2.4. Liberation and Praxis
5
Gustavo Gutiérrez, A Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1973), 63.
6
Gustavo Gutiérrez, A Theology of Liberation, 273. Gustavo Gutiérrez believes theology should focus
on practical liberation, viewing the “Kingdom of God” as a call for justice and collective action against
oppression.
7
Jon Sobrino, “Christ as Liberator,” in Christology: A Global Introduction, ed. Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen
(Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 243.
8
Jon Sobrino, Where is God? Earthquake, Terrorism, Barbarity, and Hope, trans. Margaret Wilde
(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004), 19.
9
Sobrino, Jesus the Liberator, 255.
10
For Sobrino, solidarity means feeling the pain of others, sharing in their suffering, and focusing on
helping individuals, communities, and societies.
2
A distinctive feature of Liberation Christology is its emphasis on praxis, or the
practical application of theology in addressing real-world issues. Both Gutiérrez and Sobrino
highlight the necessity of integrating faith and action.11 This praxis involves active
participation in the struggle for justice and equality, guided by the teachings of Jesus.
Liberation theology thus rejects a purely spiritualized understanding of salvation, advocating
instead for a faith that transforms society.12 Liberation Christology connects faith with action
for justice and societal change (Jas. 2:17).
2.5. Criticisms of Liberation Christology
Sobrino criticized the Chalcedonian formula for starting with Jesus’ divinity. He
argued that the Bible begins with Jesus as a man, Jesus of Nazareth, and God is already
known as Yahweh (the God of Israel) before Jesus is introduced.13 Sobrino also believed that
earlier church teachings, while logical, shouldn’t just be repeated. Instead, theology should
offer fresh ideas that relate to people’s current lives and struggles.14
While Liberation Christology has been praised for its relevance to oppressed
communities, it has also faced criticisms. Some theologians argued that its association with
Marxist ideology15 risks reducing the Gospel to a socio-political manifesto. Others caution
that an overemphasis on the historical Jesus might neglect the divine nature of Christ, as
articulated in traditional Christological formulations like the Chalcedonian Creed. 16 However,
proponents of Liberation Christology maintain that its focus on the poor and marginalized
aligns with the core message of the Gospels.
2.6. Jesus, the Liberator - The View from the Gospels
Calling Jesus “the Liberator” is the same as calling Him “Savior,” “Redeemer,” or
“Deliverer.” The Catechism of the Catholic Church uses these terms, with “redemption”
being the most frequent. Jesus’ teaching on the kingdom of God reflects both the “already-
here” and “yet-to-come” aspects, like two sides of a coin. His work brings both spiritual
11
Sobrino, Jesus the Liberator, 34.
12
Gutiérrez, A Theology of Liberation, 49.
13
Jon Sobrino, Christology at the Crossroads (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1978), 4.
14
Sobrino, Christology at the Crossroads, 4.
15
Marxist ideology, developed in the 19th century, focuses on class struggle and advocates for
overthrowing capitalism to create a classless society. In liberation theology, some theologians use Marxist ideas
to interpret Jesus’ teachings on social justice.
16
Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Christology: A Global Introduction (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003),
232-238. The Chalcedonian Creed (451 AD) asserts that Jesus Christ is one person with two distinct natures,
fully divine and fully human, without confusion or separation. Supported by Pope Leo I, it was opposed by
Monophysites, who believed in a single, unified nature of Christ.
3
renewal and social liberation, affecting not only the future but also the present world,
promoting justice and transformation in people’s lives and society.17 Gerald O’Collins
highlights Jesus’ social activism in the Gospels, showing how His actions contributed to the
kingdom of God in both the present and the future:
Social Progress: Rejecting divorce (Mk.10:2-12), loving enemies (Lk. 6:27-28), and
establishing an egalitarian family (Mk.3:34-35).
Political Impact: Extending mercy to tax collectors (Lk. 18:9-14; 19:9-10), opposing
hatred of foreigners (Lk. 10:30-37), and electing the Twelve as reform symbols (Mk. 3:13-
19).
Religious Revolution: Fellowship with outcasts (Mk. 2:13-17; Matt. 11:19) and
welcoming women as disciples (Lk. 8:1-3).18
O” Collins quotes J.P. Meier, noting that Jesus’ beatitudes promised justice and
liberation for the oppressed.19 He emphasizes that Jesus’ mission aimed at creating a new
religious and social order, impacting both individual lives and society.
O’Collins says that since modern ideas about freedom have failed, Christians are
called to live by “Gospel values” and work towards God’s kingdom. Jesus’ work of freedom
continues through the Church, focusing on justice, peace, and helping those in need.
O’Collins stresses that believing in Jesus’ work should lead Christians to act against
suffering, as Jesus teaches in Matthew 25:35.20
E. Scheffler, a South African theologian, sees Jesus in the Gospel of Luke as a
liberator from various forms of suffering: political, economic, social, psychological, physical,
and spiritual. He explains that Jesus Himself experienced these sufferings and was ultimately
exalted after His death (Lk. 9:18-21). Scheffler disagrees with those who argued that Jesus
was apolitical, pointing out that Jesus’ Messiahship had political implications. He stresses
that Jesus’ mission was not to gain earthly political power but to challenge political systems
that caused suffering, as seen in Luke 22:25-27.21 For Scheffler, Jesus’ mission was about
salvation from all forms of suffering, with His redemptive work being central to His identity
in Luke’s Gospel. Both theologians agree that Jesus’ mission was to bring change to both
17
Gerald O’Collins, “A Challenge for Theologians - Three Puzzling Positions,” America 197, no. 7
(September 17, 2007): 23-24.
18
O’Collins, “A Challenge for Theologians - Three Puzzling Positions,” 22-26.
19
O’Collins, “A Challenge for Theologians - Three Puzzling Positions,” 32-33.
20
O’Collins, “A Challenge for Theologians - Three Puzzling Positions,” 34.
21
E. Scheffler, “Luke’s Image of Jesus as ‘Liberator from Suffering’,” Acta Patristica et Byzantina 14
(2003): 205-207.
4
individuals and society, helping people spiritually while also confronting the systems that
cause harm.
3. Definition of Feminist
Feminists are people who support and practice feminism. According to the Global
Dictionary of Theology, feminism seeks to free people from all forms of oppression and
promotes the full humanity of every individual.22 Feminist scholar Susan Frank Parsons
describes feminism as a critical perspective that challenges systems where men are seen as
superior and dominant, while women are viewed as inferior.23
3.1. The Emergence of Feminist Christology
In 1968, Mary Daly’s book The Church and the Second Sex started a feminist critique
of Christianity. Although Daly left the church, others like Rosemary Radford Ruether and
Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza continued the work. Ruether, a theology professor, and
Schüssler Fiorenza, a New Testament scholar, both wanted to change Christian beliefs and
practices to support gender equality.24 In this context, Ruether uses the main topics of
systematic theology, like God, Creation, Christology, the church, sin, and the future, to shape
her ideas. However, she doesn’t just follow traditional views. Instead, she applies a feminist
perspective to challenge and correct these ideas. She believes that, despite the sexist aspects
of past traditions, there are elements within them that hint at alternative, more inclusive ways
of thinking.25 Similarly, Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, a New Testament scholar, used
historical criticism to re-examine the origins of Christianity, focusing on male-centered texts.
She argued that these texts should be understood in their social and historical contexts,
especially when it comes to women’s roles. Schüssler Fiorenza’s work was a pioneering
effort in New Testament studies in the 20th century, providing a feminist reconstruction of
early Christian thought and contributing significantly to feminist theology.26 Both scholars,
through their critiques and reinterpretations, laid the foundation for feminist theology within
the Christian tradition.
3.1.1. Responses to Feminist Critique
When feminist ideas challenge the church, people respond in three main ways: denial,
partial acceptance, or outright rejection. Some deny there is a problem, claiming women are
22
William A. Dyrness and Veli-Matti Karkkainen, eds., Global Dictionary of Theology (USA:
InterVarsity Press, 2008), 317.
23
Susan Frank Parsons, The Cambridge Companion to Feminist Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2002), 23.
24
Phyllis Tribble, “The Creation of Feminist Theology,” Journal of Feminist Theology 7 (1983): 28.
25
Tribble, “The Creation of Feminist Theology,” 28.
26
Tribble, “The Creation of Feminist Theology,” 28.
5
not oppressed but privileged, as seen in Pope Paul VI’s praise of women’s “special qualities,”
which supports traditional roles like motherhood.27 Others partially accept feminist ideas,
allowing some progress, like ordaining women, but still exclude them from leadership.
Sometimes, people use these ideas to divide women, pitting more educated women against
less educated ones. Finally, many reject feminism altogether, labeling it “anti-Christian”
because it challenges long-standing systems of power.28
3.1.2. Christian Feminists Respond
Christian feminists respond to these challenges in two ways. Some leave the church
entirely, believing it depends on women’s submission and cannot change. They seek spiritual
fulfillment outside institutional religion. Others stay, hoping to transform the church. They
point out sexism in theology and church practices while working to create a more inclusive
and equal community.29 These feminists value the justice and human rights found in
Christianity and aim to renew its message to reflect true equality for all.
3.2. Can a Male Savior, Jesus, Truly Save Women?
Western feminist theologians like Ruether and Elizabeth S. Johnson question whether
a male savior can truly save women. While Christianity doesn’t claim God is literally male, it
associates masculinity with qualities like rationality and power, which were historically
denied to women. As a result, male metaphors for God (e.g., Logos, Son of God) became
dominant, while female metaphors, like Sophia from the Jewish Wisdom tradition, were
overlooked or deemed inappropriate.30 God is neither male nor female. However, the used of
metaphors for God should include both male and female qualities. This cannot be done by
simply combining patriarchal masculine and feminine stereotypes or giving a male God a
“feminine side,” as this still fails to fully acknowledge the humanity of women.31
Particularly Ruether, a Catholic feminist theologian, asked if a male savior can truly
save women in her book Sexism and God Talk.32 She argued that traditional views of Christ
27
D. Bass Fraser, “The Feminine Mystique: 1890-1910,” Union Seminary Quarterly Review 27 (1972):
225-39.
28
Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, “Feminist Theology as a Critical Theology of Liberation,” Theological
Studies 36, no. 4 (1975): 605-26
29
Fiorenza, “Feminist Theology as a Critical Theology of Liberation, 605-26
30
Rosemary Radford Ruether, Introducing Redemption in Christian Feminism (Sheffield: Academic
Press, 1998), 83.
31
Ruether, Introducing Redemption in Christian Feminism, 83.
32
Susan Frank Parsons, The Cambridge Companion to Feminist Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2002), 28.
6
often treated women unfairly. Ruether pointed out that Thomas Aquinas viewed Christ as
male and believed men were the ideal, while women were seen as inferior.33
Ruether said that any view of Christ that supports patriarchy goes against the spirit of
Christ. She proposed Spirit Christology, where Christ’s power is seen in everyone, regardless
of gender. In this view, Jesus’ maleness doesn’t matter, and Christology should go beyond just
the historical Jesus.34 So, Jesus’ ability to save women is not limited by his gender. Instead,
his message and actions show that he values and liberates everyone, challenging the biases
and inequalities that exist in society and the church.
3.2.1. Jesus as the New Humanity
Feminist theology sees Jesus as a figure of freedom but questions the idea of him
being male. In today’s world, the growing focus on women’s issues challenges traditional
views of Jesus. Traditional beliefs often use male symbols and language, which support male
dominance and the idea that women are inferior.
The idea of “Androgynous Christology” sees Jesus as representing a new humanity
that combines both male and female qualities. However, this still assumes that being male is
the norm, which keeps a focus on male-centered views.35
3.2.2. Jesus’ Relationship with Women
Jesus, though a male savior, showed deep concern for women and treated them
equally to men. His actions were revolutionary, as nowhere in the Gospels does it show him
treating women as inferior. Instead, he gave them equal responsibility. Jesus showed great
kindness, compassion, and respect for women. He treated his mother with great care (Jn.
19:26-27) and welcomed the woman who anointed him, even though she had been caught in
adultery (Jn. 8:3f). Despite the accusations from the scribes and Pharisees, Jesus was gentle
with her and did not condemn her, showing his love by rejecting all forms of injustice
towards women.36
3.2.3. Jesus as a Male Savior for Women’s Liberation
Jesus is a model for women’s liberation. In his time, women were often treated as
non-persons, but Jesus challenged this by talking to women (Jn. 4:5-42) and defending them,
33
Rosemary Radford Ruether, Sexism and God-Talk: Towards a Feminist Theology (Boston: Beacon
Press, 1983), 126.
34
Ruether, Sexism and God-Talk, 130.
35
Lalnghakthuami, Understanding Jesus: Indigenous Women’s Perspective (New Delhi: ISPCK, 2014),
119-120.
36
Priscilla Ngullie, Created in His Image: The Concept of Women from a Biblical Perspective
(Dimapur: Bright Printer, 2013), 39-40.
7
like the woman with the hemorrhage (Lk. 8:43-48). He healed, appreciated, and welcomed
women (Mk. 7:29, Mk. 14:3-9).37
Jesus’ attitude towards women, as shown in the New Testament, was transformative.
Feminist theologian Rosemary Radford Ruether emphasized that Jesus’ importance isn’t in
his maleness, but in his radical, liberating actions toward the oppressed, including women.
Jesus’ life was about liberation, rejecting societal barriers like caste, race, and gender. His
ministry was a critique of systems that denied people dignity. True liberation for women
comes not only through social change, but through Jesus Christ, who broke down all
barriers.38
3.3. Feminist Reinterpretation of Christ
Feminist theologians have been rethinking their understanding of Christ, focusing on
how they experience Him as women. They use images and language from their own cultures
to describe Christ, hoping to make His role more meaningful and personal to them.39 This
approach helps them find new hope and strength. However, a challenge they face is that
Christ has often been viewed as both a symbol of life and a justification for oppression. As
Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen explains, “The image of Christ is ambiguous for many contemporary
women because it has served both as the source of life and as the legitimator of oppression.”40
This approach in feminist theology focuses on understanding Christ from women’s
experiences. It challenges the traditional view of Christ as only a male figure, giving women
a chance to connect with Him in a more personal way. By doing so, women can see Christ as
someone who understands their struggles and faith, helping them feel empowered and
supported in their journey.
Conclusion
Liberation Christology and Feminist Christology both emphasized the importance of
justice, equality, and liberation through Jesus’ teachings. Liberation Christology focuses on
Jesus as the liberator of the oppressed, particularly the poor and marginalized, encouraging
Christians to actively work against injustice and promote social change. It sees Jesus’ mission
as a call to fight for a world where all people can live with dignity and freedom. On the other
hand, Feminist Christology challenges traditional, male-dominated views of Jesus, focusing
on how his teachings can be interpreted to support the empowerment and equality of women.
37
Colin J.D. Green, Christology in Cultural Perspective (Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,
2003), 226.
38
Ngullie, Created in His Image, 42-43.
39
Kwok Pui-lan, Introducing Asian Feminist Theology (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), 79.
40
Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Christology: A Global Introduction (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2003), 197.
8
It calls for a rethinking of Christian teachings to create a more inclusive faith that respects
and uplifts women, emphasizing the need for gender equality in both church and society.
Together, these perspectives offer a deeper understanding of how Jesus’ message of
love and justice is relevant to contemporary struggles for equality. They inspire Christians to
re-examine their faith and engage with the world in a way that promotes justice and equality
for all people, regardless of gender, social status, or background.
Bibliography
Books
Gutiérrez, Gustavo. A Theology of Liberation. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1973.
Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti. Christology: A Global Introduction. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic,
2003.
Kwok, Pui-lan. Introducing Asian Feminist Theology. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 2000.
Lalnghakthuami. Understanding Jesus: Indigenous Women-s Perspective. New Delhi:
ISPCK, 2014.
Ngullie, Priscilla. Created in His Image: The Concept of Women from a Biblical Perspective.
Dimapur: Bright Printer, 2013.
Parsons, Susan Frank, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Feminist Theology. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Introducing Redemption in Christian Feminism. Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1998.
Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Sexism and God-Talk: Toward a Feminist Theology. Boston:
Beacon Press, 1983.
Sobrino, Jon. Christology at the Crossroads: A Latin American Approach. Maryknoll, NY:
Orbis Books, 1978.
__________. Jesus the Liberator: A Historical-Theological View of Jesus of Nazareth.
Translated by Paul Burns and Francis McDonagh. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,
1993.
___________. Where Is God? Earthquake, Terrorism, Barbarity, and Hope. Translated by
Margaret Wilde. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004.
Journals
Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schüssler. “Feminist Theology as a Critical Theology of Liberation.”
Theological Studies 36, no. 4 (1975): 605-26.
9
Fraser, D. Bass. “The Feminine Mystique: 1890-1910.” Union Seminary Quarterly Review
27 (1972): 225-39.
O’Collins, Gerald. “A Challenge for Theologians - Three Puzzling Positions.” America 197,
no. 7 (September 17, 2007): 22-33.
Scheffler, E. “Luke-s Image of Jesus as -Liberator from Suffering-.” Acta Patristica et
Byzantina 14 (2003): 205-7.
Tribble, Phyllis. “The Creation of Feminist Theology.” Journal of Feminist Theology 7
(1983): 28.
Dictionaries and Encyclopedia
Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. “Christology.” Accessed December 19, 2024.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Christology
The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999
Wolcott, Carrie Sinclair. “Liberation Theologies and Hermeneutics.” In The Lexham Bible
Dictionary, edited by John D. Barry et al. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016
10
