Introduction to Climate Change Policy Formulation

Climate change stands as one of the most critical challenges confronting humanity today. The rapid increase
in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, primarily driven by human activities, has resulted in rising global
temperatures, sea-level rise, glacier melting, and a host of other environmental crises. Addressing these
issues has necessitated a global response, leading to the evolution of climate change policies over the
decades.
Efforts to tackle climate change began gaining momentum in 1988 with the establishment of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). In 1992, the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, marking a pivotal step
in global climate governance. The UNFCCC came into force in 1994, setting the stage for future
agreements.
Significant milestones followed, such as the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and its coming into
force in 2005. Mechanisms like international emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM),
and Joint Implementation (JI) became operational in 2001 to support emission reduction efforts. The
Copenhagen Accord of 2009 and the Cancun Agreement of 2010, which established the Green Climate
Fund, further advanced global commitments. Most notably, the 2015 Paris Agreement solidified the
framework for global cooperation on climate action, emphasizing the need for collective efforts to limit
temperature rise and build climate resilience.

UNFCCC
A pivotal moment in the evolution of global climate change policy occurred in 1990 when the United
Nations General Assembly established an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee to draft the text for the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). By the time of the Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro in 1992, there was widespread recognition of the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. This recognition underscored the necessity of adopting the UNFCCC to provide an
institutional framework for international climate policy.
The UNFCCC officially came into force in March 1994 and introduced a distinctive "Convention-Protocol"
approach. This approach consists of two steps:
1. Adoption of a Framework Convention: This step establishes the objectives, institutional
mechanisms, and processes for coordinated climate action.
2. Agreed Commitments through Protocols: This step involves implementing specific commitments
to achieve the objectives outlined in the UNFCCC.
To ensure sustained efforts and engagement among signatory nations, the UNFCCC established the
Conference of Parties (COP), an annual forum that facilitates international discussions and collaboration
aimed at stabilizing GHG concentrations in the atmosphere. The COP serves as a cornerstone for advancing
global climate negotiations and ensuring continuity in addressing climate challenges.
The UNFCCC various mechanisms and structures for addressing climate change globally. Article 3 of the
framework mentions the principles which emphasize on equity, the leadership role of developed countries,
the special needs of vulnerable developing nations, precautionary measures to address climate change
despite scientific uncertainties, promotion of sustainable development, and international cooperation for
sustainable economic growth. Actions should be cost-effective, inclusive of all economic sectors, and
integrated into national development plans without creating trade restrictions.
Categories of Parties (Countries) associated with UNFCCC
As of 2020, the UNFCCC has 197 signatory parties. The categories of countries that are signatories to
UNFCCC are given in the table below:

Category of Meaning
Parties

Annex I 43 parties (countries) come under this category. The countries that come
under this category are developed countries.

Annex II 24 countries of Annex I also come under Annex II countries. The countries
in this category are expected to provide technical and financial assistance
to countries coming under the category of developing countries.

Annex B The countries in this category are Annex I countries, who have first or
second-round Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions targets.

Least-developed 47 Parties (countries) come under the category of LDCs. These countries
countries (LDCs) are given special status under the treaty taking into consideration their
limitations adapting to the effects of climate change.

Non Annex I Parties (countries) that are not listed in Annex I that come under the
category of low-income developing countries.

Article 4 outlines the commitments of all parties to the climate change convention, emphasizing national
responsibility while considering specific circumstances and development priorities. It includes measures like
creating national inventories of greenhouse gas emissions, implementing mitigation and adaptation
programs, promoting technology development, and enhancing sinks for greenhouse gases. It also stresses the
importance of scientific cooperation, public awareness, and periodic communication to the Conference of
the Parties. Developed countries, specifically those in Annex I and II, are tasked with providing financial
resources, assisting vulnerable countries, and promoting technology transfer to aid developing countries. The
article highlights flexibility for countries in transition and emphasizes the need for adaptation in countries
with specific vulnerabilities.
Article 5 emphasizes the importance of research and observation, urging enhanced international
collaboration and support, particularly for developing countries.
Article 6 focuses on promoting education, public awareness, and training, with a special emphasis on
developing nations.
Article 7 establishes the Conference of the Parties (COP), which oversees the implementation of the
convention and ensures coordination between parties.
 The Secretariat, as outlined in Article 8, supports COP sessions, assists parties, and collaborates with other
international bodies. Articles 9 and 10 create subsidiary bodies for scientific advice and the review of the
implementation of the Convention. Article 11 discusses a financial mechanism to fund climate actions,
ensuring equity and transparency, while Article 12 requires parties to communicate their greenhouse gas
emissions and related actions. Dispute resolution, amendments, and the adoption of protocols are covered in
Articles 13, 14, and 15. Articles 16 to 25 cover voting rights, the ratification process, and procedures for
amendments and withdrawal from the Convention. The framework ensures a collaborative, flexible, and
transparent approach to combating climate change globally.
UNFCCC and India
India ratified the UNFCCC in 1993, with the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
(MoEFCC) serving as the nodal agency. As a developing country, India is not obligated to meet greenhouse
gas (GHG) mitigation targets due to its lower emissions and limited technical and financial capacity. India
strongly advocates for the principles of Equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and
Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC), arguing that developed countries, having industrialized earlier, bear
greater responsibility for emissions. Studies show that by 2100, the US, China, and the European Union will
contribute to 50% of the temperature increase, while India is responsible for only 5%. Developing nations,
including India, prioritize poverty eradication and development over environmental concerns, thus requiring
flexibility in addressing climate change. India, facing risks like erratic monsoons and natural disasters, has
actively engaged in climate action. The National Environment Policy (2006) promotes sustainable
development, and the National Action Plan on Climate Change (2008) outlines India’s climate
commitments. At COP 21, India pledged to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2
by 2030. India also played a key role in forming the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure and
reaffirmed its stance on CBDR at the UN climate talks in Poland.
KYOTO PROTOCOL
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third session of the UNFCCC. Adopted in December 1997 and
entering into force in 2005, commits industrialized countries and economies in transition to reduce
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions based on individual targets. It follows the UNFCCC, focusing on the
principle of "common but differentiated responsibility," holding developed nations more accountable for
their higher emissions. It is legally binding and only members of UNFCCC can become parties to the Kyoto
Protocol. The Protocol's Annex B sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European
Union, aiming for a 5% reduction in emissions during the 2008-2012 period. Kyoto Protocol applies to 6
greenhouse gases; carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and
sulphur hexafluoride. To meet the targets of the Kyoto Protocol, member countries cannot include
international shipping and international aviation. Countries can use Land Use (LU), land-use change (LUC),
and Forestry to meet their Kyoto targets. 84 countries are signatories of the Kyoto Protocol.192 countries
are parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
Parties to the Kyoto Protocol adopted an amendment to the Kyoto Protocol by decision in accordance with
Articles 20 and 21 of the Kyoto Protocol, at the eighth session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the
meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) held in Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012. The Doha
Amendment, entering into force in 2020 includes:

 New commitments for Annex I Parties to take on responsibilities for the second commitment period
from January 1, 2013, to December 31, 2020.
 A revised list of GHGs to be reported during the second period with a target of reducing GHG
emissions by at least 18% from 1990 levels.
 Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol that addressed issues from the first
commitment period, requiring updates for the new period.
The amendment was circulated on December 21, 2012, by the UN Secretary-General, acting as the
Protocol's Depositary.
  There are 37 countries with binding targets and only 7 countries have ratified it.
 Canada withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012.
 135 states have accepted the Doha Amendment.
 144 states have to accept the Doha Amendment for Kyoto Protocol to enter into force

The U.S., which ratified the original Kyoto Protocol, dropped out of the protocol in 2001. The U.S. believed
that the agreement was unfair because it called only for industrialized nations to limit emissions reductions,
and it felt that doing so would hurt the U.S. economy.

India and the Doha Amendment

1. India has ratified the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol i.e. meet the emission targets
for the time period 2012-2020.
2. India was the 80th country to accept the amendment.

Kyoto Mechanisms

A significant feature of the Kyoto Protocol was the introduction of flexible market mechanisms that allow
countries to trade emissions permits. While countries must primarily meet their targets through domestic
actions, the Protocol provides three market-based mechanisms to facilitate compliance:
 International Emissions Trading
 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
 Joint Implementation (JI)

These mechanisms incentivize GHG reductions where they are most cost-effective, often in developing
nations. They also stimulate green investments in developing countries, involve the private sector in
emissions reduction efforts, and make leapfrogging—skipping outdated, polluting technologies for cleaner
alternatives—more economically viable.

Monitoring Emission Targets

The Kyoto Protocol includes a rigorous system for monitoring, reviewing, and verifying emissions, ensuring
transparency and accountability. Countries must track and report their actual emissions, and detailed records
of trades must be kept. A registry system tracks transactions under the mechanisms, and the UN Climate
Change Secretariat in Bonn, Germany, manages an international transaction log to ensure compliance with
the Protocol's rules. Parties are required to submit annual emission inventories and national reports at regular
intervals. A compliance system ensures that Parties meet their commitments and provides assistance if
difficulties arise in fulfilling those obligations.

Adaptation
Similar to the Convention, the Kyoto Protocol aims to support countries in adapting to the adverse effects of
climate change. It promotes the development and deployment of technologies that enhance resilience to
climate impacts. The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects in developing countries
that are Parties to the Protocol. In the first commitment period, the Fund was primarily financed by a share
of proceeds from CDM activities. In Doha, 2012, it was decided that, for the second commitment period, the
Fund would also receive a 2% share of proceeds from international emissions trading and joint
implementation.

The Kyoto Protocol is largely considered a landmark legislative achievement as one of the more prominent
international treaties in regards to climate change. Though the treaty has been superseded by the Paris
Agreement, the Kyoto Protocol remains an important part of environmental and conservation history.
PARIS AGREEMENT

The Paris Agreement, adopted on December 12, 2015, during the 21st Conference of Parties (COP21) in
Paris, represents a historic and legally binding treaty to combat climate change globally. Ratified by 196
Parties, it came into force on November 4, 2016. Its primary goal is to limit the rise in global average
temperature to “well below 2°C” above pre-industrial levels, while striving to cap it at 1.5°C to prevent
catastrophic climate impacts. This ambitious framework addresses climate change mitigation, adaptation,
and financing, creating a unified effort for global environmental resilience.

Key Objectives and Scientific Context

The Agreement emphasizes the urgency of limiting warming to 1.5°C, given evidence from the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) that exceeding this threshold risks triggering severe
consequences such as frequent droughts, extreme heatwaves, and intensified rainfall. Achieving the 1.5°C
target necessitates:
 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions peaking before 2025.
 A 43% reduction in GHG emissions by 2030, with a further reduction to net-zero by 2050.
The Agreement builds on the foundation of previous climate treaties, including the Kyoto Protocol (1997),
distinguishing itself as the first comprehensive climate treaty requiring participation from all nations,
developed and developing alike.

Mechanisms of Implementation
The Paris Agreement operates on a five-year cycle of progressively ambitious climate actions. Central to its
implementation are:
Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Each country outlines its climate action plans detailing
efforts to reduce GHG emissions and adapt to climate impacts. Countries are expected to submit updated
NDCs with heightened commitments every five years, ensuring consistent progress.

Long-Term Strategies (LT-LEDS): Countries are invited to submit long-term low-emission development
strategies, framing NDCs within broader development priorities. Unlike NDCs, LT-LEDS are voluntary but
provide a critical vision for future transitions to low-carbon economies.

Global Stocktake (GST): Starting in 2024, the GST assesses collective progress toward climate goals. Data
from the Enhanced Transparency Framework (ETF) feeds into these assessments, ensuring accountability
through regular reporting on mitigation, adaptation, and support actions.

Support Systems and Equity

Recognizing the disparities in national capabilities, the Agreement emphasizes support for developing
countries:
Finance: Developed nations are committed to providing financial assistance to vulnerable countries. The
$100 billion annual climate finance target, effective from 2020, is a baseline expected to scale up over time.
This funding supports mitigation and adaptation efforts.

Technology: The Agreement fosters the development and transfer of technologies to enhance resilience and
reduce emissions. A Technology Mechanism, guided by a technology framework, accelerates innovations
and their deployment.

Capacity-Building: Many developing nations lack sufficient infrastructure to tackle climate challenges. The
Agreement mandates developed countries to strengthen the capacity of these nations through dedicated
support programs.

Achievements and Challenges

Since its implementation, the Paris Agreement has catalyzed numerous low-carbon initiatives and the
emergence of zero-carbon technologies across sectors, particularly energy and transport. Carbon neutrality
goals are now set by several nations, regions, and corporations, demonstrating growing commitment.
However, significant challenges remain:
 Current national pledges are inadequate to meet the 2°C or 1.5°C targets.
 Ambiguities around financing commitments and reliance on voluntary caps undermine the
robustness of the framework.
 Despite progress, achieving widespread economic and societal transformation requires greater
political will and international cooperation.

Innovations in the Paris Agreement

The Agreement’s bottom-up approach departs from the top-down structure of previous treaties. By
empowering nations to set and revise their own emission targets, it respects sovereignty while encouraging
collective accountability. It also promotes a balance between mitigation and adaptation strategies, ensuring
that vulnerable nations are not left behind.

Comparison with the Kyoto Protocol

Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which mandated emission reductions only for developed nations, the Paris
Agreement envisions universal participation. While Kyoto relied on strict binding commitments, Paris
integrates flexible, dynamic mechanisms like NDCs and GST, fostering inclusivity and innovation.

The Way Forward

To enhance its effectiveness, the Paris Agreement must:
 Bridge gaps in financing, ensuring the $100 billion target is met and expanded.
 Strengthen the transparency and enforcement of commitments.
 Encourage global partnerships for the rapid deployment of renewable energy technologies.
By 2030, competitive zero-carbon solutions could cover over 70% of global emissions, showcasing the
transformative potential of sustained climate action under this landmark agreement.

COP

The Conferences of the Parties (COPs) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) have played a pivotal role in shaping global responses to climate change. As the world
prepares for COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan, it is crucial to reflect on the evolution of these negotiations and
their outcomes, particularly in the face of escalating climate impacts.

Early Milestones: Laying the Foundation

The journey began in 1988 with the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), which published its first assessment report in 1990. This report confirmed a 0.3-0.6°C rise in global
temperatures over the past century and called for a binding global treaty. Consequently, the UNFCCC was
created in 1992 to combat greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change.

The first COP was held in Berlin in 1995, resulting in agreements on the need for legally binding emission
targets. This culminated in the 1997 Kyoto Protocol at COP3, marking the first treaty for greenhouse gas
reductions. The principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” (CBDR) emerged, emphasizing
that developed nations, as historical emitters, should lead in emissions reduction.

Expanding Commitments and Challenges

Subsequent COPs sought to refine and expand global commitments. The 2001 COP6 in Bonn
operationalized the Kyoto Protocol, which came into effect in 2005 despite the absence of the United States.
However, COP15 in Copenhagen (2009) marked a turning point, as developed and developing countries
clashed over legally binding commitments, resulting in a non-binding accord.

COP16 in Cancun (2010) established the Green Climate Fund to support developing nations, while COP19
in Warsaw (2013) introduced agreements on climate-related loss and damage, highlighting the growing
divide over financial and adaptation measures.

The Paris Agreement: A Global Turning Point

COP21 in Paris (2015) was a landmark event where nations committed to keeping global temperature rise
well below 2°C, with efforts to limit it to 1.5°C. The agreement introduced Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs), requiring all countries to submit increasingly ambitious climate plans.

However, implementation challenges persisted. The United States briefly withdrew from the Paris
Agreement during the Trump administration but rejoined under President Biden. The agreement also
underscored the inadequacy of financial flows, with developed nations falling short of their $100 billion
annual pledge to support vulnerable countries.

Recent Developments and Future Outlook

COP26 in Glasgow (2021) set rules for carbon markets and emphasized phasing down coal use, while
COP27 in Egypt (2022) established a historic Loss and Damage Fund. However, progress on emissions
reduction remains insufficient, as evidenced by ongoing global temperature records and catastrophic climate
events.
As COP29 unfolds, key focus areas include scaling up climate finance to $1.3 trillion annually, addressing
adaptation needs, and ensuring that loss and damage mechanisms are operationalized. Host country
Azerbaijan aims to leverage its energy sector for decarbonization, demonstrating how local initiatives can
align with global goals.

The COP process has achieved significant milestones but remains hampered by delays in implementation
and financial shortfalls. The urgency of climate action is underscored by escalating disasters, rising sea
levels, and the plight of vulnerable nations. COP29 presents an opportunity for meaningful action through
enhanced global cooperation, equitable finance, and enforceable commitments to secure a sustainable future.
The ticking clock reminds us that decisive action is not optional but imperative.