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TMSJ-35 2-Rev 11 24

The Master's Seminary Journal (TMSJ) is a semiannual publication that focuses on theological discussions and research, particularly regarding the person of Jesus Christ as revealed in Scripture. The Fall 2024 issue includes various articles exploring Christological themes in both the Old and New Testaments, along with book reviews and recommended readings. The journal aims to enhance believers' understanding and knowledge of Jesus Christ, emphasizing the importance of recognizing His identity for eternal life.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

99 views166 pages

TMSJ-35 2-Rev 11 24

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Barnabas Egri-Nyari

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

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THE MASTER’S SEMINARY JOURNAL

issued by
THE MASTER’S SEMINARY

Abner Chou, President

Nathan A. Busenitz, Dean of Faculty

Edited for the President and the Faculty:

Lucas Alemán Carl Hargrove Michael Riccardi

Brian Biedebach Brad Klassen Roberto Sánchez
Nathan A. Busenitz Nathan LeMaster Paul Twiss
Abner Chou John MacArthur Iosif J. Zhakevich
Austin Duncan James R. Mook Mark Zhakevich
Josiah Grauman Bryan J. Murphy Philip Zhakevich
Michael A. Grisanti Kevin D. Zuber

Iosif J. Zhakevich Managing Editor

Karl Walker Associate Editor
John Stone Book Reviews Coordinator
Anastasia Prinzing Layout Designer

The views represented herein are not necessarily endorsed by The Master’s
Seminary, its administration, or its faculty.
The Master’s Seminary Journal (TMSJ) is published semiannually and distributed
electronically. For information about articles, policy, or journal access, contact
[email protected]. TMSJ is indexed in Elenchus Bibliographicus Biblicus of Biblica; Christian
Periodical Index; and Guide to Social Science & Religion in Periodical Literature. Articles
are abstracted in New Testament Abstracts; Old Testament Abstracts; and Religious and
Theological Abstracts. This periodical is indexed in the ATLA Religion Database®, (ATLAS®)
collection. Both are products of the American Theological Library Association.
Copyright is waived if articles are used in a classroom or congregation and if the
number of copies (to be distributed free of charge and marked, “Copyright (year).
Reprinted from The Master’s Seminary Journal.”) does not exceed one hundred. For
any other use, advance permission is required.

ISSN #1066-3959

THE MASTER’S
SEMINARY
PRESS

Los Angeles, California

www.tms.edu
Volume 35 Fall 2024 Number 2

THE MASTER’S SEMINARY JOURNAL

CONTENTS

Editorial: The Christ of Scripture .......................................................................... 151

Iosif J. Zhakevich

All That Is in a Name: Daniel’s Deliberate Christology and

The Concept of the Son of Man ............................................................................ 153
Abner Chou

The Heavenly Third Party in Job:

A Preview of the Work of Christ ........................................................................... 181
Jamie Bissmeyer

The Second Adam and the Necessity for

Eschatological Earthly Dominion.......................................................................... 199
Jason Beals

Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

Yes and No!........................................................................................................... 219
Jared Moore

An Interview with Iosif J. Zhakevich:

The John MacArthur Publishing Group ................................................................ 237
Corey Williams, Iosif J. Zhakevich

Jesus’ Love for His Own: The Remnant in John ................................................... 243
Mark Zhakevich

The Significance of the Divine Name in Peter’s Pentecost Sermon...................... 257

Aaron Valdizan

Conversations with Jesus: Jesus and Saul ............................................................. 273

Austin T. Duncan

Colossians 1:16–17 and the Theological Implications of

Christ as Creator and Sustainer ............................................................................. 285
Jeffrey P. Tomkins

Reviews ................................................................................................................. 299

Jonah & Nahum, Zechariah.

by John MacArthur................................................................................................ 299
Reviewed by Marc Daniel Rivera
Volume 35 Fall 2024 Number 2

How to Read a Book: Advice for Christian Readers

by Andrew David Naselli ...................................................................................... 301
Reviewed by Daniel Clouthier

When Christians Disagree: Lessons from the Fractured

Relationship of John Owen and Richard Baxter
by Tim Cooper ...................................................................................................... 303
Reviewed by Karl Walker

Is There Anything Good About Hell?

Our Discomfort About Hell and Its Ultimate Good
by Paul Dirks ......................................................................................................... 305
Reviewed by John Tucker

ALL THAT IS IN A NAME:

DANIEL’S DELIBERATE CHRISTOLOGY AND
THE CONCEPT OF THE SON OF MAN
Abner Chou
Ph.D., The Master’s Seminary
President and John F. MacArthur Endowed Fellow
The Master’s University and Seminary

*****

Given the substantial influence of the book of Daniel on New Testament Christology
particularly through the phrase the “Son of Man,” scholars have asked numerous
questions about the nature and significance of the title, even inquiring why it is used
in certain contexts and books and not others. While commentators have attempted
numerous responses to these issues, a helpful approach is to go back to the very
source of the concept of the Son of Man, Daniel himself. The contention of this article
is that Daniel not only spoke of the Messiah but did so with the concept of the “Son
of Man” as the unifying center of his Christology. Analyzing Daniel’s Christology in
this manner fleshes out the complete nature of the “Son of Man,” which gives
answers to questions posed by scholarship. Even more, such analysis explains the
very reason why this title is Christ’s favorite, as it expresses the totality of His mission
and destiny.

*****

Introduction

The book of Daniel exerts tremendous influence upon New Testament

Christology. One can certainly observe this at the end of the New Testament as the
book of Revelation explicitly quotes from Daniel 7:13 to describe the grandeur of
Christ (Rev 1:7). Revelation also presents Christ having hair “white like white wool,
like snow” (Rev 1:14), a characteristic Daniel ascribed to the Ancient of Days (Dan
7:9). Because the Lord shares this description with the Ancient of Days, they share

153
154 | All That Is in a Name

the same timeless essence, a demonstration of the Son’s deity and equality with His
Father. 1
Daniel’s influence is not only seen at the end of the New Testament but in the
midst of the canon. Paul is case in point. On the Damascus Road, Paul beheld the
glorified Christ but his companions “did not understand the voice of the One who
was speaking” to him (Acts 22:9), a detail that mirrors Daniel’s own experience (Dan
10:7). Scholars observe that this is but one of quite a few parallels between Daniel’s
visions and Paul’s calling. 2 Scholars also note that such a calling and conversion had
an effect on Paul’s theology. Throughout his writings, the apostle used terminology
from Daniel to allude back to his time on the Damascus Road (cf. 2 Cor 4:4–6), 3 refer
to God’s people as the saints (1 Cor 6:2; cf. Dan 7:18), 4 speak of Christ as the image
of God (Rom 8:29; Col 1:15; 2 Cor 4;4; cf. Dan 7:13), and recount Christ’s final
kingship (Phil 3:20–21; 1 Thess 4:17; 2 Thess 1:9–10; Dan 7:1–13). 5 Daniel shaped
the contours of Pauline theology. 6
Of course, the book of Daniel poses great influence upon the beginning of the
New Testament. The Gospels contain numerous allusions to that book. The Synoptics
explicitly quote from Daniel (Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27). In addition,
Schreiner argues that the Lord’s mention of the “rock” in Matthew 16 might allude
to the stone in Daniel that crushed the statue (Dan 2:35). 7 The gospel of Mark also
describes Christ’s glory at the transfiguration (Mark 9:1–13) in terms found in Daniel
7 and 10. 8 Further support for this connection is seen in that those who beheld the
transfigured Christ behaved the same way as those who saw His glory in Daniel 10

1
Bogdan G. Bucur, “The Son of Man and the Ancient of Days: Observations on the Early Christian
Reception of Daniel 7,” Phronema 32, no. 1 (2017): 4.
2
Abner Chou, I Saw the Lord: A Biblical Theology of Vision (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers,
2013), 151–52; Seyoon Kim, The Origin of Paul’s Gospel (Tübingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr, 1981),
260–62.
3
Kim, The Origin of Paul’s Gospel, 260–62; Murray J. Harris, The Second Epistle to the
Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 2005), 336; Paul Barnett, The Second Epistle to the Corinthians (Grand
Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997), 207; Scott J. Hafemann, “The Glory and Veil of Moses
in 2 Corinthians 3:7–14,” in The Right Doctrine from the Wrong Text?: Essays on the Use of the Old
Testament in the New (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994), 295–312; Chou, I Saw the Lord, 154–55.
4
James D. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing,
2006), 44–45; Craig A. Evans, “Daniel in the New Testament: Visions of God’s Kingdom,” in The
Book of Daniel: Composition and Reception, ed. John J. Collins and Peter W. Flint, vol. 2 (Leiden:
Brill, 2001), 525.
5
Kim, The Origin of Paul’s Gospel, 260–68; Thomas Schreiner, The Law and Its Fulfillment: A
Pauline Theology of Law (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1993), 157–59; Barnett, The Second Epistle to the
Corinthians, 214; Ralph P. Martin, 2 Corinthians, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word, 1998), 80.
6
Chou, I Saw the Lord, 186–87.
7
Patrick Schreiner, “Peter, the Rock: Matthew 16 in Light of Daniel 2,” Criswell Theological Review
2 (2016): 99. Controversy surrounds the Lord’s statement about whether the “rock” refers to Peter or his
confession. However, the Lord’s declaration may partially refer back to Daniel, where the Messiah is the
stone that crushes all other nations (Dan 2:35). This is supported by the fact that Peter already alluded to
Daniel in confessing Jesus as the “Son of the living God,” phraseology found in Daniel (cf. Dan 3:25;
7:13). Daniel may serve as an inter-textual anchor point that helps to argue that the “rock” refers more to
Christ and His work (and thereby Peter’s confession) than Peter himself.
8
Stephen J. Hultgren, “‘A Vision for the End of Days’: Deferral of Revelation in Daniel and at the
End of Mark,” Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche 109,
no. 2 (2018): 159.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 155

(v. 7; cf. Mark 9:6). 9 Interestingly enough, the wording in Mark’s account of the
transfiguration (ἔκφοβοι γὰρ ἐγένοντο, 9:6) matches the wording of the conclusion
to his gospel (ἐφοβοῦντο γάρ). This has led some to conclude that the ending of Mark
connects with the transfiguration and by extension the book of Daniel. Such an
observation is justified. Both Mark (16:5) and Daniel (10:6) discussed an individual
dressed in bright clothing. The individual mentioned in both Mark and Daniel
brought news about the resurrection (Dan 12:1–2; Mark 16:6). And the people who
beheld this figure in both Mark (16:8) and Daniel (10:7) were left speechless by his
appearance. 10 Christ revealed His hidden glory at the transfiguration in Mark, the
gospel concludes that the resurrection unveils and reflects this hidden glory, and
Mark maintained that such glory was none other than the supreme majesty found in
Daniel.
Having made these very kinds of observations, Bauckham argues that Daniel
participates in shaping the entire message of Mark:

The narrative of Jesus’s ministry begins with his baptism, marked by the citation
of Ps 2:7, and ends with his death, also marked by an allusion to Ps 2:7. The
Gospel’s narrative concludes with the account of the burial of Jesus and the
discovery of the empty tomb. But the story is not complete: it continues with the
resurrection (14:28; 16:7) and exaltation of Jesus to the throne of God (12:36;
14:62), includes the worldwide preaching of the gospel (13:10; 14:9), and ends
with Jesus’s coming to reign. These events are summed up in God the Father’s
promise to his Son in the words of Ps 110:1 and Dan 7:13 (12:36; 13:26; 14:62).
Thus, the three scriptural texts in which God the Father addresses his Son serve
to frame the narrative of Jesus’s ministry and to frame the whole story. 11

Overall, from the beginning to the end of the New Testament, the book of Daniel
helps to formulate details and even entire books about Christ.
Such influence revolves around the notion that Christ is the Son of Man. Each
of the above examples pertain to Christ as Son of Man. 12 Even more, this is the Lord’s
favorite title for Himself, and it is noteworthy that in the synoptic gospels, Christ
alone attributes this title to Himself. 13 While in the Old Testament, such a phrase can
be used to describe a finite human being, the usage in the gospels seems to refer to
something far more technical. 14 The phrase “Son of Man” is articular (ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ
ἀνθρώπου) and found in explicit reference to Daniel 7:9 (cf. Matt 26:64; Mark
14:62). Such technical use accords with early Jewish literature and is set up for by

9
Hultgren, "A Vision for the End of Days," 155.
10
Ibid.
11
Richard Bauckham, “Markan Christology According to Richard Hays: Some Addenda,” Journal
of Theological Interpretation 11, no. 1 (2017): 36.
12
Rev 1:14 alludes back to the Ancient of Days, which is in the vision of Christ as the Son of Man
(cf. Dan 7:9). Paul’s Damascus road experience also does this (Acts 22:6; Dan 7:9; 10:6). Even the
discussion of Jesus as the rock or stone in Matt 16 connects to Daniel via Peter’s confession of Jesus as
the Son (cf. Dan 7:9). These examples illustrate that the inner-textuality of NT Christology to Daniel comes
via the conception of the Son of Man.
13
José Enrique Aguilar Chiu, “The ‘Son of Man’ in the Gospel of Mark,” The Dunwoodie Review
42 (2020): 59.
14
Chiu, 60.
156 | All That Is in a Name

Daniel 7 itself. In Daniel 7, the figure is not called the son of man, but “one like a son
of man” (‫כְּ ַב֥ר אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬, Dan 7:13). 15 By such language, Daniel distinguished the person in
14F

his vision from any other son of man, setting the foundation for the Lord to be the
Son of Man.
Scholars have wrestled with the concept of “Son of Man.” Ehrman has argued
that this title depicts Jesus as a legendary figure, a historical individual that His
followers embellished later. Ehrman contends that while Jesus simply used the phrase
as an apocalyptic prophet (cf. Ezek 2:1), His disciples later utilized it to argue for His
divinity. 16 Quarles rightly counters that because Jesus claimed to be the Son of Man,
recognized His messiahship, and declared His divinity, the title Son of Man was not
imbued with divine reference later on but intended to be as such from the beginning. 17
Boyarin, a Jewish scholar, also makes the case that “Son of Man” is most certainly a
divine title from its inception. 18 Ehrman’s notion of “legend” is not the impetus
behind the concept of the Son of Man.
Some scholars contend that while a reference to the divine was always meant,
the Lord used this title because such meaning was opaque. These commentators
suggest that since the Old Testament does not explicitly utilize this appellation and it
is not found in Greek literature, Christ’s use of the term might not have been readily
clear to His original audience. While He did use it in instances of His divine power
and authority (cf. Mark 2:10, 28) even early on in His ministry (John 1:51), it only
was made known in its full eschatological quality later on in His ministry (cf. Matt
16:13–16). 19 For these scholars, the significance of Christ’s usage of the title is in its
obscurity, a contributing factor to the notion of Messiasgeheimnis or the secret of
Jesus’s identity.
Scholars not only observe that the title “Son of Man” was used throughout the
entirety of Christ’s ministry but also with great variety. Turner represents the
evangelical consensus well. He comments that the title Son of Man, relating to
Christ’s humanity, first stresses Jesus’ “suffering and humility” (Matt 8:20; 11:19;
12:40). A second emphasis of the title pertains to the Lord’s “present power and
authority” as the One over the Sabbath (12:8) and the One who sows the seed of the
gospel (13:37). The third usage deals with Christ in His coming eschatological glory
as the sovereign and judge over the world (16:27–28; 24:27; 26:64). 20 Though some

15
Chiu, “The ‘Son of Man,'" 69–70; Thomas Francis Glasson, “Son of Man Imagery : Enoch XIV
and Daniel VII,” New Testament Studies 23, no. 1 (Oct 1976): 82–90; Alinda Damsma, “From Son of Man
to Son of Adam --- the Prophet Ezekiel in Targum Jonathan,” Aramaic Studies 15, no. 1 (2017): 23–43;
Kyle Quinn, “The Son of Man in 1 Enoch and Its Implications for the Christology of the Synoptic
Gospels,” Journal of Biblical Theology 6, no. 3 (July 2023): 166.
16
Bart D. Ehrman, Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible (and Why
We Don’t Know about Them), 1st ed. (New York: HarperOne, 2009), 231–32; Bart D. Ehrman, How Jesus
Became God: The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee, 1st ed. (New York, NY: HarperOne,
2014), 86–87.
17
Charles L. Quarles, “Lord or Legend: Jesus as the Messianic Son of Man,” Journal of the
Evangelical Theological Society 62, no. 1 (March 2019): 124.
18
Daniel Boyarin, The Jewish Gospels: The Story of the Jewish Christ (New York: New Press, 2012).
19
Bill J Tackmier, “Jesus’ Use of the Term ‘the Son of Man,’” Wisconsin Lutheran Quarterly 121,
no. 1 (2024): 24; Robert H. Stein, Mark, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008), 97.
20
David L. Turner, Matthew (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 36.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 157

see a more unified concept to the title, 21 it is undeniable that the phrase “Son of Man”
has had a staggering influence on the breadth of the Lord’s ministry and various
situations therein.
In light of scholarly discussion, the prevalence of the title “Son of Man” raises
several questions. First, what exactly is the meaning of the Son of Man? Does it refer
to Christ’s humanity, deity, or both and in what manner (suffering, present power,
eschatological dominion, or all of the above)? Second, is there a unifying principle
in the idea that accounts for the diversity of contexts in which it is found? Third, why
does the Son of Man only appear in the gospels and Revelation and not in any other
part of the New Testament? All of these questions point to the need to go to the
origins of the phrase in Daniel and ask one further question: What did Daniel exactly
conceptualize about the Son of Man in his writing and did he do so deliberately?
This article seeks to demonstrate that Daniel’s influence upon New Testament
Christology is hardly incidental. Instead, Daniel, under the inspiration of the Spirit,
consciously spoke of the Messiah and constructed a unified Christology, one drawing
numerous Christological strands of the Old Testament into the concept of the Son of
Man. Every presentation of Christology in the book of Daniel establishes the concept
of the Son of Man in its identity, veracity, nature, and certainty. Ultimately, Daniel
revealed that the Son of Man refers to the role of the final Adam, the destiny and ruler
over the entire created order. Such a role can only be fulfilled by God’s Son, who
alone is in control of all history as it climaxes in Him. By going back to Daniel, one
can not only answer the questions posed above, but more importantly, discover the
very reason this is the Lord’s favored title: it uniquely declares Christ’s climactic
glory over all.

Daniel’s Deliberate Christology

Fundamental to constructing Daniel’s concept of the Son of Man is to establish

that he actually had one. After all, some contend that in Daniel 7, the “one like a son
of man” refers not to an individual Messiah but to the saints (cf. Dan 7:13–14, 18).22
Thus, it is necessary to prove that Daniel spoke of Christ in his prophecy. Moreover,
to show that Daniel had an intentionally unified Christology, one must also
demonstrate that Daniel designed those messianic passages to come together in the
concept of the Son of Man. To do all of this, this discussion will first survey certain
individual texts (cf. Dan 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10), making the case that they are indeed
Messianic. Then, the discussion will turn to the structure of the book, to show that
Daniel organized his material to coalesce in Daniel 7.

Daniel 2

The first reference to the Messiah in the book occurs in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream
where he beheld “a stone was cut out without hands, and it struck the image on its

21
Paul Twiss, “Who Is This Son of Man?: An Intertextual Consideration of the Phrase” (ThM thesis,
The Master’s Seminary, 2017).
22
John J. Collins, “The Son of Man and the Saints of the Most High in the Book of Daniel,” Journal
of Biblical Literature 93, no. 1 (March 1, 1974): 50–66.
158 | All That Is in a Name

feet of iron and clay and crushed them” (Dan 2:34). Having done so, the stone
“became a great mountain and filled the whole earth” (Dan 2:35). Several
observations argue that this is a messianic prophecy. First, the context is
eschatological. In discussing a series of kingdoms that correspond to Babylon, Medo-
Persia, Greece, and Rome (Dan 2:32–33, 37–39; cf. Dan 7:1–9; 8:20–21), Daniel
described a linear flow of history that culminated in a final diabolical kingdom (cf.
Dan 7:19–26). Daniel then stated that the stone struck the feet of the statue,
emphasizing that the stone would strike that final human kingdom of iron and clay. 23
Daniel did not depict the figure in this prophecy as any historical king, archetypal
individual, or cyclical figure. Rather, this One is climactic, appearing at the end of
world history.
Second, the reference to the “stone” identifies this individual as the Messiah.
The term is inter-textual, referencing other passages where the Messiah is
distinctively described as such. The title “stone” actually is one of the most ancient
descriptions of God and Christ, going back to Genesis. Jacob discussed the Shepherd
of Israel and the Stone and identified such an individual with the Mighty One of
Jacob, God Himself (Gen 49:24). 24 Later revelation confirms that this is indeed
messianic. David prophesied about the “stone which was rejected” (cf. Ps 118:22).
In context, such an individual is not just any king but the One who brings salvation
to Israel (Ps 118:10–21) and is welcomed after His rejection, as prophesied by other
Psalms. 25 The psalm spoke of the One who would fulfill the Davidic promise and
Israel’s destiny. Isaiah continued such a discussion, speaking of the Stone (Isa 8:13–
14) and a “costly cornerstone” (‫יִקְ ַרת֙ פִּ נַּ ֤ת‬, Isa 28:16), using similar distinctive
terminology to Ps 118:22 (‫)פִּ ָנּֽה‬. In so doing, the prophet ascribed that the Stone was
Yahweh (Isa 8:13–14), just as previous revelation had done. Isaiah also declared that
Yahweh would present this Stone as the security for Israel and the Davidic dynasty
(Isa 28:16). The title “Stone” is consistently divine and messianic in progressive
revelation, and Daniel was not disconnected from such inter-textuality. Even in
Daniel 2, Daniel made a number of allusions to Old Testament texts. He discussed
the wicked becoming “like chaff” as in Psalm 1, a “great mountain” found in Isaiah

23
See Kenneth L. Barker, “Premillennialism in the Book of Daniel,” The Master’s Seminary Journal
4, no. 1 (1993): 26–29. See also James M. Hamilton, With the Clouds of Heaven: The Book of Daniel in
Biblical Theology, ed. D. A. Carson, 1st ed., New Studies in Biblical Theology (Downers Grove:
InterVarsity Press, 2014), 85–104.
24
K. A. Matthews, Genesis 11:27–50:26, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman and
Holman, 2005), 906; Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis Chapters 18–50, New International
Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 1995), 684. Interestingly enough,
Sarna, a Jewish commentary, contends that the term “stone” is nowhere else used of God, but that is because
he does not view the Messiah as God (otherwise this supposed anomaly is no anomaly at all). See Nahum
Sarna, Genesis, JPS Torah Commentary (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989), 343.
25
Ps 118 itself has quite a few inter-textual connections with other Davidic psalms. For example, the
psalmist declared that Yahweh did not give him over to death (‫)ול ֗ ַָמּוֶת ֣ל ֹא נְ תָ ָנֽנִ י‬,
ְ֝ which is quite similar to Pss
16:10 which uses the terms “give” (‫ )נתן‬with synonym for death ( ‫א־ת ֵ ֥תּן ֝ ֲח ִס ְיד ֗� לִ ְראֹ֥ ות‬ִ ֹ ‫ל ֹא־תַ ﬠ ֲֹ֣זב נַפְ ִ ֣שׁי לִ ְשׁאֹ֑ ול ֽל‬
‫)שׁחַ ת‬.
ֽ ָ Psalm 16 discusses the “holy one” (‫)חָ ִסיד‬, a title used in parallel with Messiah in 1 Sam 2:9–10 (see
kethiv reading of ֙‫ ח ֲִסידָ ו‬in v. 9).With the mention of entering the gates (‫י־צ֑דֶ ק ָ ֽאב ֹא־בָ֝ ם‬
ֶ ‫חוּ־לי שַׁ ﬠ ֲֵר‬
֥ ִ ‫)פִּ ְת‬, there is a
connection with Ps 24 (‫)שׁﬠ ִ ָ֨רים׀ ָ ֽראשֵׁ י ֶ֗כם ְשׂ ֤אוּ‬
ְ which welcomes the King of glory (‫)מלֶ� הַ ָ֫כּבֹ֥ וד‬. ֤ ֶ With that, Ps
118 entrenches into other messianic passages, making it also about the Messiah. That passages, like Isa 8
and 28, interlink with Ps 118 in turn situates them as messianic texts, all using the stone in a technical
sense as a messianic title.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 159

2:1 and Ezekiel 40:2, and that this mountain would “fill the earth” just as Isaiah 6:3
and Ezekiel 43:2 describe. Daniel demonstrated awareness of the very prophetic
contexts which described the Messiah as the stone. Having made such allusions, it is
unlikely that he jettisoned those texts and simply chose the imagery of the stone at
random. Instead, the usage of the word “stone,” especially given Daniel’s inter-
textual awareness, points to his conscious reference to the Messiah.
Third, the activity of the stone argues for a messianic referent. Daniel recorded
that the stone became a “great mountain” and “filled the earth” (cf. Dan 2:35).
Throughout the Old Testament, Jerusalem was known as a mountain and was
prophesied to become the highest peak in the region when the Messiah reigned from
Zion (Isa 2:2; Ezek 17:23; Mic 4:1; Zech 14:10). Likewise, the language of filling
the earth was used to describe the eschatological state of the Messiah’s reign (cf. Isa
11:9; Hab 2:14). Daniel not only used a familiar title to indicate he was speaking of
the Messiah but also familiar descriptions of His rule. These strong indicators
establish a firm foundation that Daniel indeed deliberately prophesied about the
Messiah in his book.

Daniel 3

Gazing into the fiery furnace, Nebuchadnezzar noticed a fourth figure in addition
to Daniel’s three friends. A major question is whether this individual is the Messiah.
Nebuchadnezzar at first stated that this one was like a “son of the gods” (‫)לְ בַ ר־ ֱאל ִ ָֽהין‬
and later declared that this was God’s angel ( ֙‫)מַ לְ ֲאכֵהּ‬. Because of the latter description,
some contend that this was simply an angelic being as opposed to a manifestation of
the second person of the Trinity. However, several considerations argue that this was
indeed the Messiah. For one, given that Nebuchadnezzar described the situation from
his view, the title “son” is quite significant. The notion of “son” does not refer to a
mere supernatural messenger but one of royal status in the divine pantheon. 26 The 25F

Babylonian king instinctively recognized that the figure in the fire was divine and a
royal inheritor.
Furthermore, the term “angel” does not contradict such an assertion of divinity
either from Nebuchadnezzar’s perspective or from Daniel’s intention. In
Nebuchadnezzar’s pantheistic worldview, gods can frequently send other gods to
represent them. That was what Nebuchadnezzar most likely meant in this situation. 27
Relative to Daniel’s own intent, the mention of angel accords with the Angel of
Yahweh, who is revealed to be Yahweh Himself in numerous contexts (cf. Gen 16:7–
10; 22:11–15; Num 22:35; Judg 2:1; 2 Kgs 19:35). The term “angel” seems to
indicate that the One in the fiery furnace was the perfect representative of God
because He was God.
Third, in Scripture, while angels are collectively called “sons of God” (‫בְ נֵי־‬
֙‫האֱ�הִ ים‬,
ֽ ָ plural, cf. Gen 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1), an angel is never described as a “son of
God/gods.” That this angel is called a “son of God” then in Daniel 3 is quite

26
Stephen R. Miller, Daniel, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman
Publishers, 1994), 123; Joe M. Sprinkle, Daniel, Evangelical Biblical Theology Commentary (Bellingham,
WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 105.
27
J. E. Goldingay, Daniel, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word, 2002), 235.
160 | All That Is in a Name

significant and distinctive. One may argue that since Nebuchadnezzar is the one who
said this from his pagan perspective, the wording does not have to conform to biblical
norms. However, it must be noted that Daniel chose to preserve the king’s words and
would most likely not employ phraseology that would confuse his audience. What
Daniel did write down, he did so not merely for historical accuracy but also for his
inspired purpose. This observation pushes back against the notion that
Nebuchadnezzar simply saw an angel. Daniel’s selectivity did not describe the figure
in the fire that way. Instead, under inspiration, Daniel wrote down Nebuchadnezzar’s
exact quote to indicate the identity of the fourth person in the fire.
Fourth, given Daniel’s choice to preserve the term “son” in Daniel 3, the context
of the book of Daniel argues for a messianic understanding of this text. Within the
book, the language of “son of the gods” in Daniel 3 distinctively parallels “one like
a son of man” in Daniel 7 (‫כְּ ַב֥ר אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬, v. 13). The term “son” (‫ )בַ ר‬is not used often in
Daniel, and within this, being used in the singular and in construct with another noun
is even rarer, only happening in Daniel 3:25 and 7:13. That the usages of “son” in
both contexts refer to One who is divine further support such a correlation. 28 These 27F

parallels argue that if Daniel 7 speaks of the Messiah (Dan 7:13; cf. Rev 1:7), then
Daniel 3 does as well.
Fifth, that the fourth person in the furnace is Messiah fits into a larger framework
of Daniel 2 and 3. In Daniel 2, Nebuchadnezzar dreamed of an image (‫ )צְ ֵל֥ם‬composed
of multiple materials (2:32–33). In Daniel 3, Nebuchadnezzar constructed an image of
gold (‫י־ד ֔ ַהב‬
ְ ‫)צְ ֵל֣ם ִ ֽדּ‬. Nebuchadnezzar’s act intentionally challenged God’s earlier
revelation in the king’s dream, putting Daniel 2 and 3 in parallel. As such, just as
Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of an image ends with a divine stone crushing it, it is fitting
that the saga of Nebuchadnezzar’s image ends with a divine Son overcoming his plot. 29 28F

Though debate exists about the identity of the fourth figure in the fire, that He is
readily recognized as divine, that His description accords with Scripture and Daniel’s
own terminology for God’s Son, and that it fits multiple layers of parallelism within
the book, all argue that this figure is the Messiah. The above argumentation also
begins to indicate the interconnectivity of messianic passages with each other within
Daniel’s prophecy.

Daniel 6

The episode of Daniel in the lion’s den only makes a single statement that is
potentially messianic. Daniel declared, “My God sent His angel and shut the lions’
mouths” (Dan 6:22). With such a simple mention of an angel, one might wonder
whether this could really refer to the Messiah. Two factors suggest an affirmative
answer. First, in context, Darius had declared to Daniel that, “Your God whom you
constantly serve will Himself save you” (Dan 6:16). While some could argue that this
was true in the sense that God was the ultimate cause and the angel was the
intermediary, Darius was quite explicit that God was personally involved. Darius
pronounced that God “will Himself save you” (� ‫)הוּא ְישֵׁ יזְבִ ָ ֽנּ‬,
֖ using an emphatic

28
See Daniel Boyarin, “Daniel 7, Intertextuality, and the History of Israel’s Cult,” Harvard
Theological Review 105, no. 2 (March 30, 2012): 147.
29
See Chou, I Saw the Lord, 132–34.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 161

pronoun. The verb “save” (‫ )שֵׁ יזִב‬has been used to refer to a unique work that God
alone does (cf. Dan 3:15–17). Hence, the context anticipates that Daniel’s deliverance
could only be accomplished by God personally. This sets up that the angel is God
Himself, which accords with the usage of the terminology of the Angel of Yahweh
in Scripture and the usage of angel so far in Daniel (� ַ‫מַ לְ א‬, cf. Dan 3:28).
Speaking of which, in the broader context of the book, Daniel 6 has unique
parallels with earlier passages in Daniel, particularly chapter 3. The officials of
Persia sought to condemn Daniel (‫ )בָ ﬠַ ֧ ִין‬just as Arioch sought to kill Daniel in
Daniel 2 (‫וּבְ ֛ ֹﬠ ו‬, 2:13). Daniel served Yahweh in Daniel 6 (‫פּ ַ ֽלח‬, ֽ ָ 6:17) just as his
friends did in chapter 3 (‫פּלְ ִ֔חין‬,ֽ ָ 3:14, 17, 28). Likewise, the term “save” is also
uniquely shared between these chapters (‫שֵׁ יזִב‬, cf. 3:15, 17, 28; 6:15, 17, 21, 28).
Furthermore, the term “cast” is uniquely used between chapters 3 and 6 in
discussing casting people into the fiery furnace or Daniel into the lion’s den (cf.
3:6, 11, 15, 20, 21, 24; 6:8, 13, 17, 25). 30 Both of these chapters also alone employ
the Aramaic term for angel (� ַ‫מַ לְ א‬, cf. Dan 3:28; 6:16). Given that quite a few of
these words are only found in between chapters 3 and 6, it stands that these chapters
are parallel. 31 Daniel’s point is whether over Babylon or Medo-Persia, Yahweh still
30F

rules. Given the parallel, if the angel of Daniel 3 was the pre-incarnate Christ, then
the angel of Daniel 6 was also the same individual.
Because of these factors, Miller concludes:

Who was the “angel” who spent the night in the den with Daniel? He may have
been a member of the angelic host, but it is more likely that this heavenly being
was the divine angelic messenger, the angel of the Lord (cf. Gen 16:11–14;
22:15–16; Exod 3:2–4; Judg 6:11–26; 13:13–23; 1 Chr 21:16–18). Although the
LXX interpreted the text to mean that “God” saved Daniel from the lions,
Lacocque comments, “It is nothing other than the very presence of God, as the
LXX has well understood.” The angel was evidently visible to Daniel, and it is
comforting to think of the faithful old prophet spending the night in fellowship
with the Lord during this trying ordeal (cf. comments on 3:24–27). 32

Daniel 7

Scholars have variously identified the “one like a son of man” ( ‫)כְּ בַ ֥ ר ֱא נָ ֖שׁ‬
found at the climax of the vision of Daniel 7. Some have contended that this one
is a symbolic figure representing the saints or the nation of Israel. 33 They argue 32F

that the very text of Daniel 7 interprets the character that way. In response to
Daniel’s question of what the vision meant (Dan 7:16), the angel informed him
that the horn waged war against the saints who in the end would receive the
kingdom and glory (cf. Dan 7:27). Because such language was used uniquely for

30
The only exception to this is Dan 7:9, which probably uses the term in incorporating all that was
happening earlier in the book. The irony is that while God’s people were cast in seeming defeat and
persecution into life threatening situations, in the end, God casts thrones to support them in ultimate
triumph in His Son.
31
See Hamilton, With the Clouds of Heaven, 71.
32
Miller, Daniel, 187.
33
Collins, “The Son of Man and the Saints,” 51–55.
162 | All That Is in a Name

the “one like a son of man,” commentators observe that the individual must be
one and the same with the saints. 34
Others posit that the “one like a son of man” is an angel. Considering that angels
were involved in numerous deliverances leading up to Daniel 7, scholars argue that
it makes sense this final deliverance belongs to such a being. 35 Likewise, Daniel 7
seems to connect to later passages in the book that refer to angelic messengers such
as Gabriel (cf. Dan 8:16) and Michael (cf. 10:13). In addition to these parallel
descriptions of glory, Gabriel is described as one “who had an appearance of a man”
(‫ה־גֽבֶ ר‬
ָ ֵ‫כְּ מַ ְרא‬, Dan 8:15), highly similar language to Daniel 7:13. Based upon these
interconnections, scholars contend that Daniel’s own interpretation clarifies that the
figure in Daniel 7 is an angel.
However, identifying the “one like a son of man” either as Israel or as an angel
has problems. For one, the “one like a son of man” has different experiences and
arises in history at a different time than the saints. The “one like a son of man,” unlike
the saints, does not suffer under the reign of the horn in Daniel 7:8, 11. Similarly, the
son of man does not appear on scene until after the horn has been defeated (Dan 7:13)
whereas the saints live under his dominion (v. 21). In addition, while the word “man”
(‫ )אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬can be collective in the book of Daniel (Dan 3:10; 4:17, 22) the term “son” in
the singular is not (cf. Dan 3:25; 5:22). Linguistically, it is difficult then to view the
phrase “one like a son of man” as symbolic of a corporate entity. These factors argue
that while there may be parallels between the “one like a son of man” and the saints,
they are not identical.
Likewise, relegating the “one like a son of man” to a mere angel is unlikely. In
Scripture, no angel is destined to reign over all kingdoms of the world (cf. Heb 2:5)
and to receive worship (cf. Rev 22:9). Moreover, the supposed parallel between later
parts of Daniel and Daniel 7 are not as tight as they may initially seem. Though both
the “one like a son of man” (‫ )כְּ ַב֥ר אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬and Gabriel in Daniel 8 (‫ה־גֽבֶ ר‬ ָ ֵ‫ )כְּ מַ ְרא‬are
compared with a human being, their descriptions are quite different. The description
of the “one like a son of man” stresses His transcendent glory (Dan 7:13–14) whereas
the emphasis of Gabriel’s description is on his humanlike appearance. The terms for
“man” in both passages (‫ אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬vs. ‫ )גֶבֶ ר‬also do not correspond. Moreover, the language
of “appearance” (‫ )כְּ מַ ְראֵ ה‬in Daniel is used to distinguish Gabriel, who appears like a
man (‫ה־גֽבֶ ר‬ ָ ֵ‫ ;כְּ מַ ְרא‬cf. Dan 10:18), from the figure in Daniel 10:6, who appears like
lightning ( ֙‫)כְּ מַ ְר ֵ ֤אה בָ ָרק‬. In the book of Daniel, the language of appearance is not meant
to connect Gabriel with the individual in Daniel 7 but to show that the figure in Daniel
10:18 is not to be confused with Gabriel. 36 In addition to all these differences, that
35F

Gabriel is named and the figure in Daniel 7 is unnamed is yet another distinction
between the two. The anonymity of the “one like a son of man” distinguishes Him
from any angel and even unites Him with the unnamed angels earlier in Daniel (cf.
Dan 3:28; 6:22). 37 Similar to the saints in Daniel 7, Gabriel may share some
36F

resemblance to the “one like a son of man” (cf. Dan 8:15–16), but they are distinct.

34
J. Montgomery, The Book of Daniel, International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T&T Clark,
1989), 310.
35
Goldingay, Daniel, 171.
36
This argues that the figure in 10:18 is more aligned with Daniel 7, see below.
37
This is further evidence that the supernatural beings in Daniel 3:28 and 6:22 are actually Christ
pre-incarnate. See above.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 163

The resemblance may pertain to the fact that Gabriel is one who expounds upon the
vision that discloses the glory of the Messiah. 38
Having demonstrated the problems with identifying the “one like a son of man”
with Israel or an angel, a case can be made for a messianic interpretation. First, the
inner-textuality within Daniel argues for this. The similarities between the four
materials of the image in Daniel 2 and the four creatures in Daniel 7 suggest that the
two visions are parallel. 39 As such, the stone that crushes the feet of the statue in
Daniel 2 parallels the “one like a son of man” that has victory over the final creature
in Daniel 7:13. Since the stone, by title and description, is identified with the Messiah
(see above), so the “one like a son of man” is the Messiah as well. The clarity of the
stone anchors the interpretation of the Messiah. Likewise, the description of the angel
in Daniel 3 and 6 also supports a messianic interpretation of Daniel 7. While the view
that identifies the “one like a son of man” as Gabriel or Michael has problems, the
view rightly observes a connection between the “one like a son of man” and the
angels mentioned in Daniel 3 and 6. All three passages have an angelic figure
involved in deliverance. All three instances do not name the supernatural agent
involved (unlike Gabriel and Michael later on in the book). If the being in all these
passages is the same, that Nebuchadnezzar recognizes the angel in the fiery furnace
as divine (cf. Dan 3:25) suggests that this is the case with the “one like a son of man”
in Daniel 7. This is further supported by the fact that the “one like a son of man” can
approach the Ancient of Days and receives dominion and worship. Accordingly, the
one in the vision in Daniel 7 is no mere angel but divine, climactic, and thereby a
messianic figure.
Second, in addition to inner-textual considerations, inter-textual factors also
support a messianic reading of Daniel 7. Of course, later revelation confirms such a
perspective (cf. Matt 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27); however, previous revelation
also grounds this. For one, Vries observes that the imagery of the psalms is in the
background of Daniel 7. The enthronement of the “one like a son of man” matches
Pss 2 and 110, both of which pertain to the eschatological Davidic ruler. 40 Vries,
citing Haag, also points out the background of Psalm 89 in Daniel 7. Both passages
discuss clouds (Ps 89:7; Dan 7:13), thrones (Ps 89:5; Dan 7:9), and eternal reign (Ps
89:38; Dan 7:14). 41 Just as Psalm 89 discusses the Davidic covenant and its ultimate
fulfillment (cf. Ps 89:3), so Daniel 7 envisions it. Even more, the presentation of “one
like a son of man” in Daniel 7 heavily alludes to Ezekiel. Vries provides a list of
comparisons:

38
Note that Miller argues the being in Dan 8:15 is actually different than Gabriel and is Christ
Himself. See Miller, Daniel, 231. However, this is unlikely since the term “man” (‫ )גֶבֶ ר‬is a word-play off
of the name Gabriel. See E. Lucas, Daniel, Apollos Old Testament Commentary (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press, 2002), 219.
39
Parallels include that the first beast was made to stand like a man and have a heart of a man (7:4),
depicting Nebuchadnezzar who was identified as the head of gold (cf. 2:38). That the bear was raised up
on one side connects with the emphasis of a binary pairing of two arms found in the image (cf. 2:32). The
fourth beast had iron teeth (7:7), just like the iron of the statue (2:33). The fourth beast also had ten horns
(7:7) even as the statue had ten toes in its feet (2:34).
40
Pieter de Vries, “The Identity of Him Who Is like a Son of Man in Daniel 7:13–14,” Journal for
the Evangelical Study of the Old Testament 6, no. 1 (2020): 17.
41
de Vries, 19.
164 | All That Is in a Name

Likewise, we read in Ezek 1 and 10 about a throne (‫כִּ סֵּ א‬/‫ )כּ ְָרסֵ א‬Dan 7:9c; Ezek.
1:26; 10:1) and about wheels (‫( )גַּלְ גַּל‬Dan 7:9c–10; Ezek 1:16; 10:2, 6,13). In
both cases, images related to light and fire are used (Dan 7:9c; Ezek 1:4, 13,
14, 27, 28; 8:2). What is more important, the glory of YHWH is described as
having a human form (‫( )דְּ ֞מוּת כְּ מַ ְר ֵ ֥א ה אָ ָ ֛דם‬the likeness of the appearance of a
man) (Ezek 1:26). I would also point to the fact that in Ezek 8:2, the Septuagint
did not read ‫ה־אשׁ‬
ֵ ֔ ֵ‫( ְדמוּת֙ כְּ מַ ְרא‬likeness as the appearance of fire) but ‫ה־אישׁ‬ ִ ֵ‫כְּ מַ ְרא‬.
However, we can see the portrait of the glory of YHWH in Ezek 1–3; 8–11 not
only as the outline behind the description of the Ancient of Days in Dan 7:9–
10 but also behind that of him who is like the son of man in Dan 7:13–14. The
likeness of the appearance of a man of the glory of YHWH in Ezek 1–3; 8–11
is reflected not only in the figure of Ancient of Days in Dan 7 but also in the
figure of the one who is like a son of man. In particular, Ezek 8 must be
mentioned in this connection because there the human figure is described
without any mention of the throne on which he sits. In that passage the human
figure occurs separately from the throne. What is of special importance is that
we can postulate a relationship between the glory (‫ ) ָכּ ֹבוד‬of YHWH that is
portrayed in the appearance of a man in Ezek 1:26 (‫ )דְּ ֞מוּת כְּ מַ ְר ֵ ֥א ה אָ ָ ֛ד ם‬and the
one who is like a son of man ( ‫ )כְּ ַב֥ר ֱאנָ ֖שׁ‬in Dan 7:13, that he who is like a son
of man is given dominion, glory (‫) ְי ָקר‬, and the kingship that all peoples,
nations, and languages should serve him. 42 41F

The connection between Daniel 7 and Ezekiel demonstrates that the one discussed in
Daniel is the one in Ezekiel who has the very glory of Yahweh yet approaches the
throne of Yahweh. Such a figure is the second person of the Triune godhead, the
Messiah. Daniel 7 ties itself with Ezekiel’s vision and identifies the “one like a son
of man” with Christ.
Though Daniel 7 definitely associates the “one like a son of man” with the saints
(cf. Dan 7:18), the vision does not equate the two but presents them in distinction.
This is seen in that the “one like a son of man” is already identified by inner-textual
and inter-textual allusion as His own person who is the ultimate Davidic king and
divine deliverer. The reason then that the saints and the “one like a son of man” have
their own distinct experiences in Daniel’s vision is because the vision always
portrayed them as distinct. The “one like a son of man” is the Messiah and the saints
are the people joined with Him.

Daniel 9

At the heart of the famous seventy weeks prophecy, Daniel foretold the coming
of Messiah the Prince (‫מָ ִ ֣שׁיחַ נ ִָ֔גיד‬, Dan 9:25). Some have contended that this could
refer to a historical ruler, perhaps even a non-Israelite as the Hebrew term ‫ נ ִָ֔גיד‬has
referred to such individuals (cf. Isa 45:1; Ezek 28:2). 43 However, given that the term
ַ‫ מָ ִ ֣שׁיח‬does refer to the Messiah in the Old Testament (cf. 1 Sam 2:10; Ps 2:2), that the
term “prince” can be used of Israelite royalty (cf. 1 Sam 9:16; 13:14), and that Daniel

42
de Vries, "Son of Man," 26. See also, Chou, I Saw the Lord, 118–19.
43
Goldingay, Daniel, 260; Montgomery, The Book of Daniel, 378.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 165

has spoken of the Messiah elsewhere, the phrase arguably refers to the Messiah. This
corresponds with the context of the seventy weeks prophecy, which foretells the
climax of Israel’s history in its salvation from sin and fulfillment of vision and
prophecy (Dan 9:24). Such an eschatological context fits with a messianic individual
as opposed to a historical one. The eschatological and even messianic character of
the seventy weeks prophecy is recognized not only by a host of commentators, but
even by the earliest Jewish interpreters. 44 In fact, even certain manuscripts of the
Greek Old Testament render ‫ מָ ִ ֣שׁיחַ נ ִָ֔גיד‬as κυρίῳ (Lord), a title picked up in the New
Testament for the Messiah. 45 Such agreement illustrates the clarity of messianic
intention in Daniel 9, both with the phrase ‫ מָ ִ ֣שׁיחַ נ ִָ֔גיד‬in Daniel 9:25 and the repetition
of the term ַ‫ מָ ִ ֣שׁיח‬in the next verse.
However, the question is whether in verse 26 the “prince who is to come” ( ‫נ ִָג֤יד‬
֙‫ )הַ בָּ א‬refers to Christ. Since the word “prince” (‫ )נ ִָג֤יד‬is found in verse 25, discussing
the Messiah, Gentry contends that the prince in verse 26 must refer to the same
individual. 46 In response, several factors of consideration argue against such a view.
First, as mentioned, the term “prince” by itself does not necessarily refer to the
Messiah. By itself, it can even refer to Gentile rulers and historical individuals, and
later in Daniel, this is the case. In Daniel 11:22, the “prince” referred to is most likely
Onias III, who lived during the reign of Antiochus IV. 47 So “prince” does not
automatically have to refer to the Messiah, not even in the book of Daniel. Second,
the language of “one who is to come” distinguishes the prince in Daniel 9:26 from
the prince of Daniel 9:25. Since, in the context of the prophecy, the Messiah had
already arrived on scene, it is odd to claim that He is still coming. Instead, saying the
“prince to come” creates a distinction between the messianic prince who has been cut
off for His people and the prince who is yet to come. Third, the “prince who is to
come” is described as one who brings abominations ( ֙‫)שׁקּוּצִ ים‬ ִ and makes desolate
(‫ ;שֹׁ ֵ ֽמם‬9:27). Such language is used not with Christ but with the Antichrist (cf. Dan
12:11; Matt 24:15). This accounts for why the term “prince” is used in verse 26. The
Antichrist will attempt to deceive many to think he is the Christ even though he is
anything but. The repetition of the term “prince” foretells this confusion. This too
demonstrates the necessity of a distinction between “Messiah the prince” and the
“prince who is to come.” 48 That being said, the Messiah is present in Daniel 9 in
47F

determining the critical moments and climax of Israel’s history and even defines the
eschatological archnemesis of God’s people.

44
Robert C. Newman, “Daniel’s Seventy Weeks and the Old Testament Sabbath-Year Cycle,”
Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 16, no. 4 (1973): 229–34; Dean R. Ulrich, “How Early
Judaism Read Daniel 9:24–27,” Old Testament Essays (New Series) 27, no. 3 (2014): 1062–83; Ron
(Ronald) Haydon, “The ‘Seventy Sevens’ (Daniel 9:24) in Light of Heptadic Themes in Qumran,” Journal
for the Evangelical Study of the Old Testament 3, no. 2 (2014): 203–14.
45
Especially as other Old Greek translations have χριστῷ κυρίῳ, this could partially explain the
prevalence of this title in the New Testament. See Montgomery, The Book of Daniel, 378, 401.
46
Peter J. Gentry, “Daniel’s Seventy Weeks and the New Exodus,” Southern Baptist Journal of
Theology 14 (2010): 32–35.
47
Lucas, Daniel, 284.
48
There are additional times that Daniel in this passage took previous messianic prophecies and
revealed that the Antichrist will imitate them in a perverse way. For example, Isaiah recorded that Christ
will justify the many (Isa 53:11) but the Antichrist would make a false covenant with the many (Dan 9:28).
166 | All That Is in a Name

Daniel 10

The question of the identity of the figure in Daniel 10:4–9 is difficult. Some have
argued that this is not the Messiah but perhaps Gabriel or another interpreting angel
found in other visions (cf. Dan 9:21). That the angel raises his hands and swears by
God (as opposed to Himself) may argue that he is not deity (compare with Gen 22:16
and Heb 6:13). Furthermore, some of his descriptions match the living creatures in
Ezekiel’s vision. 49 People are hesitant to identify this one as God the Son, especially
given the fact that it appears he requires assistance later on in the passage (Dan
10:13). The similarities the messenger has with God’s glory in Ezekiel, Daniel, or the
book of Revelation may be due to his association with that glory as opposed to
possessing it. 50
Nevertheless, a case can be made that the individual in Daniel 10:4–9 is Christ.
Daniel’s description deliberately distinguishes between this character and Gabriel.
Daniel earlier described Gabriel’s appearance as that of a man (‫ה־גֽבֶ ר‬ ָ ֵ‫כְּ מַ ְרא‬, 8:15), but
the angel in Daniel 10 had an appearance quite different, one of lightning ( ֙‫;כְּ מַ ְר ֵ ֤אה בָ ָרק‬
Dan 10:6). The repetition of the term appearance (‫ )מַ ְר ֵ ֤אה‬with two quite divergent
descriptions argues that Daniel deliberately differentiated Gabriel from the person in
Daniel 10. Daniel set the two in contrast as opposed to comparison. The figure in
Daniel 10 is also distinguished from Gabriel in that he is never named but Gabriel is
(cf. Dan 8:16). Counter to some who contend that this person must be the same one
who requires help in Daniel 10:13, the discourse structure in Daniel 10 suggests a
change of scene after verse 9, making it very possible that individual in Daniel 10:4–
9 is different than the one later on in the chapter. 51 Initially, nothing definitively
50F

anchors this individual to being an angel, Gabriel or otherwise. In fact, there is some
effort to differentiate this figure from any known angel, adding to His mystique,
which is why there is a question of His identity to begin with.
There are characteristics of the person in Daniel 10 that do inter-textually
connect with the Messiah. Most definitively, He is described as “a certain man
dressed in linen” (‫)אישׁ־אֶ ָח֖ד ל ָ֣בוּש בַּ ִ ֑דּים‬, ִ wording that is distinctively only found in
Ezekiel 9:2 (‫)וְ ִאישׁ־אֶ ָח֤ד בְּ תֹ וכָם֙ לָבֻ ֣שׁ בַּ ִ֔דּים‬. The figure in Ezekiel 9:2 cannot be any
ordinary angel as He approached God’s very throne and is able to behold and bear
His glory (Ezek 10:2–6). Given that the One in Ezekiel was also the agent of God’s
salvation of Israel (Ezek 9:11), His identity is arguably the Messiah, God the Son. If
the figure in Ezekiel 9:2 is Christ and the one in Daniel 10 is uniquely identified as
the same individual, the one in Daniel 10 is also Christ. Moreover, while there are
initial similarities between the one in Daniel 10 with the angelic living creatures in
Ezekiel’s vision, there are marked differences. 52 The differences demonstrate that the
51F

49
Both the living creatures and this individual are described with beryl or Tarshish stone, lightning,
and bronze.
50
Hamilton, With the Clouds of Heaven, 147–48.
51
The phrase ‫ וְ הִ נֵּה‬is not only disjunctive, potentially marking a new section, but with the deictic
marker, points the audience’s attention to a specific focal point or new entity on scene. Cf. IBHS, §16.3.5.b,
300. §
52
Fundamentally, the living creatures take the form of animals whereas the being in Dan 10 is in the
form of a man. As a result, while both are described with bronze, different parts of their form have this
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 167

individual in Daniel 10 is not identical with the living creatures of Ezekiel’s vision
but associated with them. Specifically, He is the glory they reflect and per Ezekiel’s
vision, such glory belongs to the One seated on the divine chariot who, while being
God, is like a man (cf. Ezek 1:26). Such a description tightly corresponds with
Daniel’s discussion of “one like a son of man” (Dan 7:13). Considering that Daniel
alludes to Ezekiel frequently, even in Daniel 7 (Dan 7:9; cf. Ezek 1:15), 53 Daniel
depicts the one in Daniel 10 as the very figure of Ezekiel’s vision. The center of
Ezekiel’s vision is the center of Daniel’s vision. He is the Christ, God the Son, the
One who bears divine glory and authority. This is affirmed by the book of Revelation
which describes Christ in identical terms (cf. Rev 1:14–15). 54

Structure

The above discussion surveyed chapter by chapter through Daniel, proving

Daniel’s deliberateness in foretelling the Messiah. In so doing, Daniel pulled on
various messianic threads in the Old Testament, from Genesis to Ezekiel. The final
factor that remains concerns Daniel’s deliberateness in piecing all of this together.
Put differently, did Daniel just have a series of disparate portraits of the Messiah or
did he intend for his readers to put them together into a cohesive whole?
In response, the above discussion initially noted linkages between certain
passages. Daniel 2 and 7 are parallel in that four nations are presented culminating in
the Messiah. Daniel 2 and 3 are connected in that the imagery of the statue and stone
of Daniel 2 is taken up in Daniel 3. Daniel 3 and 6 share many parallels, which is part
of the argument of why the one who rescued Daniel from the lion’s den is the same
that rescued his friends from the fiery furnace. 55 These interconnections already
argue that though Daniel spoke of the Messiah in individual passages, they were
meant to provide a compounding picture.
The structure of Daniel solidifies these preliminary observations. The book of
Daniel is not organized chronologically. For example, Daniel 7 occurs in the first
year of Belshazzar and Daniel 8 in his third year even though Daniel 5 already
recounted his final days. Daniel 9 occurs in the first year of Darius even though
Daniel 6 already discussed events in that time period. In light of this, Daniel did not
structure his book chronologically but topically. Specifically, scholars readily
observe that the book is chiastic. For example, Vries proposes the following double
chiasm: 56

character. Likewise, while the being in Daniel 10 has the appearance of lightning, it appears that lightning
flashes around the living creatures. The being in Daniel 10 had eyes that were torches of fire but the living
creatures had flashing torches among them. These distinctions distinguish what was happening around and
associated with the living creatures with the living creatures themselves. This supports the notion that the
living creatures reflect the glory of God, but the person in Daniel 10 is that very glory.
53
For example, both discuss the chariot throne of God (Dan 7:9; cf. Ezek 1:15).
54
Both have eyes that are flaming fire, feet of burnished bronze, and a golden sash.
55
See above. See also, Hamilton, With the Clouds of Heaven, 71.
56
Notice that the structure gives heed to parallels already established. Chapter 2 and 7 are parallel
even as chapters 3 and 6 are parallel.
168 | All That Is in a Name

A – The dream of Nebuchadnezzar: four empires and God's future kingdom

(ch. 2)
B – The friends of Daniel tried by fire and delivered (ch. 3)
C Nebuchadnezzar warned, chastised, and delivered (ch. 4)
C' Belshazzar warned, defiant, and deposed (ch. 5)
B' – Daniel tried in the lions' den and delivered (ch. 6)
A' – The vision of Daniel: four empires and the everlasting kingdom of him
who is like a son of man (ch. 7)
A – The destiny of the world is revealed to Daniel, with its final outcome being
the everlasting kingdom of him who is like a son of man (ch. 7)
B –Daniel's vision of the triumph and end of the empire of Alexander
the Great and its explanation by Gabriel (ch. 8)
B' – Daniel's prayer for the end of his people's exile and the answer to
his prayer by Gabriel (ch. 9)
A' – A celestial figure reveals to Daniel what will happen to his people at the
end of history (ch. 10–12)

With this structure, the center of the double chiasm is chapter 7. This coincides
with the observation of other scholars that Daniel 7 is a hinge chapter for the book. 57
Daniel 7 concludes the Aramaic portion of Daniel, yet its themes of the horns and
creatures representing nations are carried on into the latter half of Daniel (cf. 8:3–8;
11:1–45). Indeed, Daniel 7 is the central chapter of the book by position and by design.
Scholars often contemplate if there is a center in the theology of Peter or Paul. 58
For Daniel, there is little doubt. The parallelisms between chapters initially observed
are indicative of a greater organization of the entire book. Such structure
demonstrates that Daniel arranged all of his messianic discussions (and thereby
significant strands of Old Testament Christology that Daniel alluded to) to come
together in the central depiction of Daniel 7 and the “one like a son of man.” That is
the unifying center of Daniel’s Christology.

The Christology of the Son of Man

Having identified that Daniel has a cohesive Christology, one that fleshes out the
notion of the Son of Man, it is appropriate to trace each part as they come together in
the whole.

Daniel 2: The Son of Man Identified

The events described in Daniel 2 introduce both Nebuchadnezzar and the readers
of the book of Daniel to the revelation of Messiah in Daniel’s ministry. God, in His
design, revealed Christ in terms familiar to Daniel and his audience in order to develop

57
Richard D. Patterson, “The Key Role of Daniel 7,” Grace Theological Journal 12, no. 2 (1991):
250; J. G. Baldwin, Daniel: An Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament Commentary
(Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1978), 137; Goldingay, Daniel, 151–52.
58
See Thomas R. Schreiner, Paul Apostle of God’s Glory in Christ: A Pauline Theology (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2001), 16–18; Ernst Kasemann, “God’s Righteousness in Paul,” Journal of
Theology and Church 1 (1965): 100–10.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 169

that which was less defined, the concept of the Son of Man. Because of this, it is
significant that the Messiah is first introduced with the term “stone” ( ֙‫אבֶ ן‬, ֶ ֨ 2:34). As
noted, the word is one of the most ancient titles of the Messiah (cf. Gen 49:24),
emphasizing His constancy and reliability. The Messiah is the One who would not
waver but ensure Israel’s destiny. 59 It is used particularly of the ultimate king of the
58F

Davidic dynasty, the unwavering One in whom Israel should put their trust (cf. Isa
28:16).
Nebuchadnezzar’s dream reinforced these very characteristics of the stone.
Fundamentally, that the Stone crushed the statue accords with the fact that the stone
metaphor emphasizes the Messiah’s great strength and resilience. Even more, the
Babylonian king’s dream affirms that the Stone is divine as the stone is one “cut out
without hands” (‫ידיִן‬ ַ ֔ ‫י־ל֣א ִב‬
ָ ‫)ה ְתגְּ זֶ ֤ ֶרת ֨ ֶאבֶ ן֙ ִדּ‬.
ִ The language “without hands” is used
consistently to refer to divine intervention through Scripture (cf. Mark 14:58; Col 2:11)
and particularly within Daniel (cf. Dan 8:25). 60 Finally, Daniel emphasized the royalty
of the stone. He paralleled the Stone with other kings and emphasized that He will crush
them and their kingdoms such that “not a trace of them was found” (‫ָא־ה ְשׁתֲּכַ ֣ח‬ ִ ‫וְ כָל־אֲ ַ ֖תר ל‬,
2:35b). Daniel further declared that the kingdom of the messianic king will be like a
mountain that fills the earth ( ‫וּמ ָל֥ת כָּל־אַ ְר ָ ֽﬠא‬ ְ ‫לְ ֥טוּר ַ ֖רב‬, 2:35c). The language of “fill the
earth” alludes to a variety of texts which describe the glory of Yahweh filling the earth
(cf. Isa 6:3; Ezek 43:2). 61 It describes the eschatological moment that the majesty of
60F

God’s light alone reigns over all the earth with no competitor, not even the sun, moon,
and stars (cf. Isa 24:23), banishing all night, sin, and evil (cf. Isa 60:19–20). 62 Such an 61F

emphasis on king and kingdom affirms the Messiah as the culmination of the Davidic
dynasty and as such, the ultimate ruler of the world (cf. Ps 72:8). The title of “stone”
introduces Daniel’s discussion of the Messiah and brings forth the key characteristics
of resilience, divinity, and royalty that are foundational for concept of the Son of Man.

Daniel 3 and 6: The Son of Man Proven

Having announced that the Stone will overtake all kingdoms and possess the
ultimate kingdom of the world, Daniel recounted that the Lord proved this truth. In
Daniel 3, King Nebuchadnezzar defied the dream God revealed by constructing his
own image out of gold (Dan 3:1). The Babylonian king contended that he was the
sum of man’s strength and that he, not the Stone, was the final ruler of this world.
However, the ruler discovered that his plans, as mighty as they were (cf. Dan 3:6,
19), could not oppose the power of God. In gazing into the fiery furnace, the king
was confronted not only with the survival of Daniel’s three friends but a fourth figure,
one whom he immediately recognized as divine and the very emissary of God (Dan
3:25, 28). 63 Nebuchadnezzar attempted to stop God’s plan for the Stone but in the
end was confronted by that very Stone. Daniel 3 demonstrated that the Stone was

59
Matthews, Genesis 11:27–50:26, 905; Hamilton, The Book of Genesis Chapters 18–50, 684.
60
Matthews, Genesis 11:27–50:26, 905; Hamilton, The Book of Genesis Chapters 18–50, 684.
61
See Chou, I Saw the Lord, 118.
62
John Watts, Isaiah 34–66, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco, TX: Word Books, 1987), 887; John
N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah Chapters 40–66, New International Commentary on the Old Testament
(Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1998), 557. See also Chou, I Saw the Lord, 70–72.
63
See earlier discussion.
170 | All That Is in a Name

indeed divine, cannot be resisted, and is the final ruler over all, just as Daniel 2
established. Even more, that the Messiah was not touched by the flame alludes back
to Isaiah 43:2, which prophesies as much for Israel’s final deliverance from exile. 64
Daniel 3 exhibits the person and the eschatological capability of Christ.
In paralleling Daniel 3, Daniel 6 continues the proof that the Stone truly is who
Nebuchadnezzar’s dream said He is. As the kingdom of Medo-Persia arises, the
question is whether God and His plan advances unhindered in these new conditions
or will be stopped by a more powerful king and kingdom than Babylon. 65 The
parallels between the chapters demonstrate that though new circumstances arise,
nothing in essence has changed. To be sure, Daniel was thrown (‫רמה‬, Dan 6:17, 25)
in the lion’s den just as his friends were thrown (‫ )רמה‬in the fiery furnace earlier (Dan
3:6, 11, 15, 20, 21). However, just as Daniel’s friends were protected by the pre-
incarnate Christ, so that One shut the lions’ mouths (Dan 6:22). Christ’s divinity and
resilience are on display again, proving that the Stone triumphs over not just one
kingdom but any and all. He is the final king that Daniel 2 prophesied.
Within Daniel 6, just as the Messiah’s control over the flame in Daniel 3 is
significant, so the Messiah’s control over the lions also carries theological weight.
Fundamentally, it is noteworthy that the only other time the lion’s mouth is used in
the Old Testament is in Psalm 22 where it speaks of the deliverance of the psalmist
from the lion’s mouth (‫מ ִ ֣פּי אַ ְריֵ ֑ה‬,
ִ Ps 22:21 [Heb., v. 22]; compare with ‫אַ ְר ָיו ָ ָ֖תא פֻּ ֥ם‬, Dan
6:23). Given Daniel’s inter-textuality throughout his book, such linguistic
distinctiveness suggests that this may be a proleptic assurance of the Messiah’s
deliverance prophesied in Psalm 22. 66 The Messiah will be delivered from the lion
like strength of His foes for He has the power to overcome actual lions as seen in
Daniel’s life. Furthermore, the assurance of such might contributes to the ongoing
development of the Son of Man in the book of Daniel. The Messiah’s control over
the lions sets up for the beasts ( ֙‫חֵ יוָן‬, Greek OT: θηρία) He will overcome in Daniel
7. 67 It is a reminder that Christ’s dominion is not merely over kingdoms but even
creation, a truth that carries ramifications into His earthly ministry (cf. Mark 1:13,
καὶ ἦν μετὰ τῶν θηρίων). 68 67F

64
Miller, Daniel, 142; Goldingay, Daniel, 68; Baldwin, Daniel, 112; Lucas, Daniel, 95.
65
Lucas, Daniel, 145.
66
For example, Daniel refers to the Psalms in Daniel 2, with the mention of the Stone (Ps 118:22),
the wicked being like chaff (Ps 1:4), and the mention of a great mountain (Pss 2:6; 48:1–2; 68:16). Given
Daniel’s familiarity with the psalms and their influence, it is not unreasonable that other psalms, like Ps
22, would be involved as well.
67
Lucas, Daniel, 147.
68
To be clear, the presence of the beasts is not necessarily one of pure Edenic imagery, but rather
one of struggle. Their presence highlights His suffering yet demonstrates He came to have ultimate
dominion over all creation. See Robert A. Guelich, Mark 1–8:26, vol. 34A (Dallas: Word, Incorporated,
1998), 38. However, France is correct (over Guelich) that Christ’s presence with the animals does not
necessarily denote one of peace but of conflict and conquest. R. T. France, The Gospel of Mark: A
Commentary on the Greek Text, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: William
B. Eerdmans, 2002), 86. Along that line, Lane argues that the wild animals testify to the victory of the
New Adam against Satan, which is valid but Lane fails to cite an anchor text for such an assertion.
However, the entire notion of the Son of Man/final Adam and beasts are found in Daniel 6–7, which serves
as a proper grounding for such an interpretation. William L. Lane, The Gospel of Mark (Grand Rapids:
Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1974), 60. See France, Gospel of Mark, 60. In being an alluded text,
Daniel 6–7 helps to establish the right baseline of interpretation for this passage.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 171

In ramping up for Daniel 7, Daniel assured his readers that the Stone is entirely
what Daniel 2 prophesied Him to be. Daniel also began to acquaint his readers with
the full context of the role of the Son of Man as He is tied to the fulfillment of Israel’s
destiny and end of exile, the One who would overcome suffering and enemies, and
the One who has dominion not only over people but even the world. While the stories
of the fiery furnace and the lions’ den intend crucial lessons about the
unchallengeable sovereignty of God, the infallibility of His plan, the effectiveness of
His power to save, and the nature of true faithfulness to God, they simultaneously
develop a Christology that will blossom in Daniel 7.

Daniel 7: The Son of Man as the Final Adam

As the center of the book, Daniel 7 incorporates what had already been revealed.
After all, Daniel 7 is a recapitulation of Daniel 2. That the final beast is killed and the
Messiah will take dominion (Dan 7:12–14) reenacts that the Messiah will be the
Stone that crushes all the nations (cf. Dan 2:35). That the Messiah can approach the
Ancient of Days and is served (‫ )פלח‬by all men (Dan 7:13) affirms His divinity and
that He is not made by human hands (cf. Dan 2:34). That Daniel 7 focuses upon kings
(cf. vv. 17, 24) upholds the idea that the Stone is royalty (cf. Dan 2:37). Such rule
becomes even more poignant given the inner-textuality of Daniel 7 with the rest of
the book. The Ancient of Days grants the Son “dominion, glory, and a kingdom, that
all the peoples, nations, and men of every tongue might serve Him” (Dan 7:14).
Throughout the book of Daniel, kings sought and claimed dominion (‫שׁלט‬, cf. Dan
6:27), glory (‫יקר‬, Dan 2:6; 4:27), and a kingdom (‫מַ לְ כוּ‬, 2:37, 5:7) only to acknowledge
that they do not possess these things (cf. 2:37; 3:33; 4:34; 5:18, 21). Likewise,
throughout the book, kings also sought the recognition of “all the peoples, nations,
and men of every tongue” (cf. Dan 3:4; 5:19) only to acknowledge that God was over
these peoples (cf. 4:1; 6:26). The inability of the kings to seize such majesty is
because such dominion, glory, kingdom, and worship belongs to one and only one:
the Lord Jesus Christ. God has reserved this global power for His Son, and all history
attests that fact as no one can possess such might. All this to say, Daniel 7 certainly
reinforces and expounds upon the key characteristics of the Messiah presented in
Daniel 2.
Daniel 7 also reinforces what was presented in Daniel 3 and 6. The One whom
the flames cannot touch (cf. 3:25) stands in the midst of the throne and river of fire
(Dan 7:9–10). His victory secures the triumph of the saints from their time in exile
(Dan 7:16–27), which affirms the point of Daniel’s allusion to Isaiah 43:2 in Daniel
3. Daniel 7 also presents that Christ reigns over creatures (cf. Dan 7:1–8), which
accords with the Messiah’s power over lions in Daniel 6 (cf. v. 22). The Messiah is
king not only over the nations but the world. With that, Daniel 7 reiterates the strands
of Christology laid throughout the book.
Daniel though does not merely repeat what was said before but adds a new
element onto these descriptions. After all, even though Daniel 7 recapitulates Daniel
2, Daniel 7 does not repeat the metaphor of a statue found in Daniel 2. Instead, Daniel
7 depicts the nations as different beasts (Dan 7:1–9) in the context of the winds of
heaven stirring a great sea. Lacocque rightly observes that these elements mirror the
172 | All That Is in a Name

creation account of Genesis 1. 69 This explains the title “one like a son of man” (‫כְּ ַב֥ר‬
‫ )אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬in Daniel 7:13. Just as creation starts with the spirit ( ַ‫רוּח‬, Gen 1:2) hovering over
the waters, then the making of heaven (‫הַ שָּׁ ַ ֖מיִם‬, Gen 1:8), the waters and the sea (‫י ִ ַ֑מּים‬,
Gen 1:10), the beasts (Gen 1:25) and then the creation of Adam (Gen 1:26–28), so
Daniel 7 discusses the wind ( ַ‫רוּח‬, Dan 7:2a), the heavens (‫;שׁמַ ָ֔יּא‬ ְ Dan 7:2b), the sea
(‫יַם‬, Dan 7:2c), the beasts (Dan 7:3–9), and “one like a son of man” (Dan 7:13). In
light of these parallels, the “one like a son of man” parallels Adam, which explains
why the one in Daniel 7 bears the title “one like a son of man.” Christ is “like a son
of man” in that He shares some similarity with Adam even while there are
differences. While being truly man and of Adam’s line, the Messiah is still distinct
from man because He is equal to the Ancient of Days (see above). He is like Adam
because He is everything Adam failed to be and should have been. The “one like a
son of man” then is the final Adam, and Daniel 7 adds that truth to Daniel’s
Christology.
However, the Son of Man is not merely an element in Daniel’s Christology but
its unifying principle. Fundamentally, as mentioned, the structure of the book centers
on Daniel 7, making it centrifugal. Even more, all Christological elements found
previously in the book are not merely found in Daniel 7 but seamlessly incorporated
in the creation motif of the chapter. They are presented as part of the cohesive whole
of the final Adam’s work and destiny. In Genesis, the first Adam functioned as a
ruler, as he was to have dominion (Gen 1:26–28). His rule extended not only over
people but over the very created order (Gen 1:28). To this end, he was made in the
image of God (‫ֱ�הים‬ ֖ ִ ‫ )בְּ ֶ ֥צלֶם א‬and functioned as the representative head of humanity (cf.
Gen 5:1–3) with the name “Adam” (‫ )אָ דָ ם‬being a term to refer to mankind (cf. Gen
1:27; 5:2). Daniel 7 systematically depicts the Son of Man in such terms. For one,
Daniel 7 establishes the Messiah as ruler and king (cf. 7:13, 17; see above),
possessing final dominion. It is fascinating that some Greek translations of the Old
Testament use the same Greek root to render the dominion that Adam was to have
(ἀρχέτωσαν) and the dominion that the Messiah will have (ἡ ἀρχὴ, Dan 7:14). There
was even an ancient recognition of the connection between the two. Furthermore, just
as Adam was to rule over the entire created order (cf. Gen 1:26–28), so the Son of
Man will, which is precisely why Daniel 7 uses creation imagery. That Adam was
made in God’s image explains why the term “like” is used for the Son of Man in
Daniel 7 (‫)כְּ ַב֥ר אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬.
As discussed, the Son of Man is “like” Adam because He is not only man but
God. However, that makes the Son of Man the true image of God. This notion is
supported by Ezekiel’s vision, a vision incorporated in the dream of Daniel 7 (Dan
7:9; cf. Ezek 1:15). 70 In Ezekiel’s vision, the prophet used comparative language to
describe God’s glory (‫דּ ֣מוּת‬,ְ 1:10, 13, 16, 26, 28), even while alluding to the image
language of Genesis 1 (cf. Gen 1:26, ‫מוּתנוּ בְּ צַ לְ ֵ ֖מנוּ אָ ָ ֛דם‬ ֑ ֵ ‫)כִּ ְד‬. 71 In so doing, Ezekiel
70F

69
André Lacocque, “Allusions to Creation in Daniel 7,” in Book of Daniel Volume One, ed. John
Joseph Collins, Peter W. Flint, and Cameron VanEpps (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 114–31.
70
See previous discussion. See also, Chou, I Saw the Lord, 118.
71
In fact, the tie between Ezekiel and Daniel is strengthened as Ezekiel is the originator of the
language of “appearance” or “like the appearance” (‫ )כְּ מַ ְר ֵ ֣אה‬found so often in Daniel (Ezek 1:28; Dan 8:15;
10:6, 18). This further ties Daniel with Ezekiel in the specific line of comparison, image, and likeness
language.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 173

declared that Christ is not merely in the image of God but the image of God Himself
because He is divine. 72 By using the same language and logic in this passage, Daniel
upholds the same idea. The “one like a son of man” is meant to show that while the
Messiah has some similarity to Adam, He has gone beyond him. The technical title
of the “one like a son of man” is intended to show the fulfillment of the Adamic role.
It is precisely as Kim observed, “when Ezekiel says he saw God in the form or
likeness of man he is describing the reverse side of the great statement in Gen 1.26f
that man was made ‫ בצלם כדמות‬of God.” 73 72F

Moreover, just as Adam was the head of humanity, so the “one like a son of
man” has corporate solidarity with the saints. That is why God’s people receive the
same reward as the Son of Man. It is not because they are one and the same but
because of His perfect representation of them. Just as His resilience in the fire in
Daniel 3 testifies that Israel will be delivered from the fire of exile (Isa 43:2), so His
reward in Daniel 7 will be theirs as well. Even more, just as the name Adam correlates
with the very word for humanity, so the title “one like a son of man” (‫ )כְּ ַב֥ר אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬uses
the very word in Aramaic for mankind in Daniel (‫אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬, cf. Dan 2:10, 38, 43, 3:10;
4:16; 17, 25, 32). The Son of Man’s title shows not only His humanity and connection
with Adam, but even more functions the same way the name “Adam” did in Genesis.
Christ is the final Adam, the final ruler over the entire created order and the head of
God’s people.
With that, the concepts found in Daniel of divinity, humanity, royalty, dominion,
representation and headship may seem quite disparate; however, they all cohere
together in a singular concept. The different elements God revealed and Daniel
recorded were not scattered descriptions of Christ. Rather, they were introduced
(Daniel 2) and proven (Daniel 3 and 6) to demonstrate that the Messiah truly is the
fulfillment of Adam in all that he originally was to be. In the historical context of the
fall of Jerusalem, the defeat of Judah, and the collapse of the Davidic dynasty, Daniel
proclaims the true triumph of the ultimate Davidic king. He will not merely be ruler
of Israel. He will not merely rule over various events or even every nation. Rather,
He will be the One who reigns over the entire created order—every place on the earth
and all that fills them. He will have dominion, glory, and a kingdom that every human
king vied for but could never possess. To those who thought Babylon or any other
nation might rival their God, Daniel declared that these nations are no rival to God’s
Son. He is the final Adam, the ultimate man, one unmatched and unparalleled by any
man, and the very destiny of this world and its history. All of that is because the Son
of Man is not merely a man but the very image of God as God Himself.

Daniel 9: The Means to Being the Son of Man

Having disclosed the central idea of the Son of Man, the question is whether the
rest of the book carries this idea forward. This is particularly at issue in Daniel 9. While

72
Boyarin, The Jewish Gospels, 83–87; Julian Morgenstern, “‘Son of Man’ of Daniel 7:13f : A New
Interpretation,” Journal of Biblical Literature 80, no. 1 (Mar 1961): 76–77; Kim, The Origin of Paul’s
Gospel, 207; Gordon H. Johnston, “Messianic Trajectories in Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel,” in Jesus the
Messiah: Tracing the Promises, Expectations, and Coming of Israel’s King, ed. Herbert W. Bateman IV,
Darrell L. Bock, and Gordon H. Johnston (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2012), 187; Chou, I Saw the Lord, 143.
73
Kim, The Origin of Paul’s Gospel, 207.
174 | All That Is in a Name

Daniel 9 explicitly discusses the Messiah (‫מָ ִ ֣שׁיחַ נ ִָ֔גיד‬, Dan 9:25; see above discussion),
does Daniel 9 connect with Daniel 7 especially since Daniel 9 does not call Christ the
Son of Man? Several factors argue that there is a fundamental connection between the
two passages. First, the famous seventy weeks prophecy marks the fulfillment of vision
and prophecy (‫)וְ ל ְַחתֹּ ם֙ חָ ֹ֣זון וְ נ ִָ֔ביא‬, which would include Daniel 7. Second, the seventy
weeks prophecy also describes the fulfillment of an everlasting (‫)ﬠל ִ ָ֑מים‬ ֹ ֽ righteousness,
a term used consistently in the book to refer to the culmination of God’s kingdom on
earth (cf. Dan 4:3, 34; 7:14, 27; 9:24; 12:2). In speaking of an everlasting righteousness,
Daniel 9 looks to the same outcome as the everlasting kingdom of Daniel 7:14 and 7:27.
Finally, Daniel 9 inner-textually overlaps with Daniel 7. Daniel 7 speaks of a horn that
wages war against the saints (Dan 7:21). Daniel 8 connects with Daniel 7 by also
describing a horn who causes desolation (‫ )שׁמם‬to God’s people (cf. Dan 8:13). Though
the horn in Daniel 8 describes a different ruler than the one in Daniel 7, the common
imagery unifies both. The horn in Daniel 8 prefigures the eschatological horn
prophesied in Daniel 7. Daniel 9 connects with Daniel 8 and 7 by prophesying about
that very individual, the eschatological figure who makes desolate (‫משֹׁ ֔ ֵמם‬, ְ Dan 9:27).
Hence, as opposed to being disconnected from Daniel 7, Daniel 9 connects with and
expounds upon Daniel 7.
What then is the nature of the connection between the two passages and why
does Daniel 9 not use the title of “one like a son of man”? The seventy weeks
prophecy lays out the major landmarks of Israel’s future. Instead of Israel’s exile
being over in seventy years (Dan 9:2; cf. Jer 25:11–12; 29:10), its conclusion will
revolve around a much longer set of time, seventy times seven years. 74 Because this
timeline involves the most major events of Israel’s history, the central figure of
Israel’s history, the Messiah, must be involved. So the events presented in Daniel 9
lay out the path for vision and prophecy to be fulfilled as the Messiah attains
everlasting righteousness for His people in His kingdom. 75 These seventy weeks are
the means for the Messiah to reach the end of being the Son of Man.
Daniel 9 prophesies that the Messiah will come after the reconstruction of
Jerusalem and be “cut off and have nothing” (‫ ִיכּ ֵ ָ֥רת מָ ִ ֖שׁיחַ וְ ֵ ֣אין �֑ ו‬, Dan 9:26). The
language of “cut off” not only refers to execution but the most shameful and wrathful
death. It is a death of covenantal proportions as one who is cut off is separated from
the blessings of God’s people and put under God’s curse (cf. Exod 30:33, 38; 31:14;
Lev 7:25, 27; 17:4). 76 Scholars rightly recognize that this refers to the crucifixion,
and Isaiah 53:8 uses a synonym (‫ )גזר‬to foretell of the same event. 77 With such a 76F

death, the Messiah would have nothing. It will appear He does not have any
possession, allies, success, or reward for His efforts, a reality that was certainly true

74
See Dean R. Ulrich, “The Need for More Attention to Jubilee in Daniel 9:24–27,” Bulletin for
Biblical Research 26, no. 4 (2016): 481–500; Newman, “Daniel’s Seventy Weeks and the Old Testament
Sabbath-Year Cycle”; Gentry, “Daniel’s Seventy Weeks”; G Geoffrey Harper, “The Theological and
Exegetical Significance of Leviticus as Intertext in Daniel 9,” Journal for the Evangelical Study of the Old
Testament 4, no. 1 (2015): 39–61; Ulrich, “The Need for More Attention to Jubilee in Daniel 9.”
75
See above discussion about how the terms “everlasting” and “vision and prophecy” link Daniel 9
with Daniel 7.
76
Miller, Daniel, 267; Lucas, Daniel, 266; Baldwin, Daniel, 190.
77
Miller, Daniel, 267. Isaiah’s use of ‫ גזר‬is unique, only occurring in Isa 53, though Isaiah always
uses ‫ כרת‬of either the covenant or those who are genuinely wicked, so his use of ‫ גזר‬demonstrates both
violence done to Jesus and that Jesus is not deserving of such wickedness.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 175

at the crucifixion (cf. Matt 27:35) and also prophesied by Isaiah (cf. Isa 53:1–10).
According to Daniel, the means to the eschatological glory and honor of the Son of
Man is through the sacrificial suffering of Messiah the prince.
This explains the distinction of titles between Daniel 7 and 9. The title “one like
a son of man” is associated with the eschatological outcome described in Daniel 7.
The title “Messiah” is associated with the means to that outcome described in Daniel
9. Technically in the seventy weeks prophecy, the Messiah is entitled “Messiah the
prince” (‫)מָ ִ ֣שׁיחַ נ ִָ֔גיד‬, where “prince” (‫ )נ ִָ֔גיד‬not only refers to the royalty in the Davidic
line (2 Sam 7:8) but also the priestly leaders of Israel (cf. 2 Chron 35:8). Such a title
is fitting for the priestly work of dying for His people described in Daniel 9:26.
Nevertheless, though the titles refer to distinctive realities about Christ, they are
connected. The idea of “one like a son of man” entails such suffering as it does
include the Messiah’s humanity, a reality that is necessary for Him to be cut off for
His people. Accordingly, at least in Daniel’s theology, Son of Man emphasizes
eschatological glory but not to the absolute exclusion of suffering and sacrifice.
Rather, such sacrifice is presumed and facilitated by Christ being the “one like a son
of man.”

Daniel 10–12: The Certainty of the Son of Man

The above discussion already made a case that the individual in Daniel 10:1–9
is messianic. The case should also be made that Daniel 10 connects with Daniel 7.
Initially, the descriptions of the figure in Daniel 10 do not linguistically correspond
with Daniel 7. However, they do heavily correspond with Ezekiel’s visions. As
mentioned, the phrase “certain man dressed in linen” (‫אישׁ־אֶ ָח֖ד ל ָ֣בוּשׁ בַּ ִ ֑דּים‬, ִ 10:5)
distinctively matches Ezekiel 9:2. The figure in Daniel 10 also is described as having
a body of beryl or Tarshish stone (‫)כְ תַ ְר ֗ ִשׁישׁ‬, language used in Ezekiel 10:9 concerning
the man dressed in linen. 78 The being in Daniel 10 also has the appearance of
lightning ( ֙‫)כְּ מַ ְר ֵ ֤אה בָ ָרק‬, a description of the glory of God in the midst of the living
creatures in Ezekiel’s first vision (Ezek 1:13). 79 These parallels support that Daniel
78F

recognized the figure in Daniel 10 as the one in Ezekiel’s vision.

That said, the vision of Daniel 7 is tied with Ezekiel’s vision. Of particular note,
a distinctive item in Ezekiel’s vision is God’s chariot throne, a throne that has fiery
wheels (cf. Ezek 10:6). Daniel 7:9 explicitly describes a throne with wheels of
burning fire (‫גַּלְ גִּ �֖ והִ י נ֥ וּר דָּ ִ ֽלק‬... ֙‫)כּ ְָר ְסיֵהּ‬. While the divine thrones of the ANE may have
been depicted with wheels, the imagery is far less common in Scripture. God’s throne
is mentioned numerous times (cf. Pss 45:6; 47:8; 103:19; Isa 66:1) but without
wheels. In Scripture, the only times that a wheeled throne is mentioned are in Ezekiel
and Daniel, linking the two together. For this reason, Miller states, “’Wheels’ on a
throne may at first seem strange, but the image of God sitting upon a chariot-throne
with wheels is set forth in other passages, particularly Ezek 1 and 10, where the

78
In Ezekiel 10, the man in linen is invited to commune in the very glory of the divine chariot throne
and execute judgment from that throne. As such, He shares in the very glory of God which is reflected
through beryl or Tarshish stone.
79
Lamar E. Cooper, Ezekiel, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1994), 67.
176 | All That Is in a Name

chariot-throne is more fully described.” 80 Goldingay agrees, “The vision of God

enthroned especially parallels Ezek 1: the stormy wind, the cloud, the four animal-
like creatures with four faces and four wings emerging from them alongside the
wheels with rims full of eyes, a mighty sound (see also Deut 33:2; 1 Kgs 22:19; Isa
6; Jer 49:38; Ps 50)” 81 Sprinkle asserts, “Daniel may be alluding to Ezekiel’s imagery
of a chariot-throne with fiery wheels that allow it to move rapidly as required.” 82
Such consensus that the imagery of the chariot throne is striking, forming a
connection between the vision of Daniel 7 and Ezekiel.
Because Daniel 7 and Ezekiel’s visions are connected and Daniel 10 is connected
with Ezekiel’s visions, then Daniel 7 and 10 are connected. Using the imagery of
Ezekiel’s visions, Daniel 10 offers a more in-depth description of the glory found in
Daniel 7. This verifies that the “one like a son of man” is divine, sharing in the very
glory of God as described in Ezekiel (cf. 1:26–28). Moreover, in context, this
Christophany assures a weary Daniel that the full glory revealed to him and Ezekiel
will take place. The Messiah’s glorious presence comforted Daniel because it exuded
the power to overcome any obstacle and demonstrated that the majesty found in
Daniel’s vision was not hyperbole. That the Messiah’s glory served as a guarantee is
confirmed at the end of the book when the one dressed in linen swears that the timing
detailed in the prophecy is absolutely true and that the events of the prophecy will
reach their completion (Dan 12:7). Such assurance is a fitting ending to Daniel’s book
of prophecy. It is equally an appropriate conclusion to Daniel’s Christology. The
book not only discloses the eschatological outcome of the Son of Man and the means
to achieve this goal, but also that the Son of Man in all His might and glory is the
guarantee of all of this (Dan 10–12). With that, Daniel established that all glory goes
to Christ for He is the means, the end, and the One who is sovereign over all of this.

Conclusion

Though a small book, the impact of Daniel echoes throughout all of Scripture
from the Gospels to Acts to Paul and Revelation. Even Peter’s declaration that the
prophets discovered “the sufferings of Christ and the glories to follow” (1 Pet 1:11)
is the very paradigm found in Daniel. All of this is because Daniel established the
favorite title of Christ in His earthly ministry: the Son of Man.
The beginning of this article posed the following questions: What exactly is the
meaning of the Son of Man? Does it refer to Christ’s humanity, deity, or both and in
what manner? Is there a unifying principle in the idea that accounts for the diversity
of contexts in which it is found? Why does the Son of Man only appear in the gospels
and Revelation and not in any other part of the New Testament?
The answer to these questions can be found in Daniel’s unified Christology.
Indeed, Daniel not only deliberately revealed Christ but also, under the inspiration of
the Spirit, did so to expound a singular concept: the Son of Man. This pulls together
all Daniel’s descriptions about the Messiah, which can then give responses to the
above issues.

80
Miller, Daniel, 205.
81
Goldingay, Daniel, 149.
82
Sprinkle, Daniel, 180.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 177

Within this, to be sure, Daniel has a high Christology, demonstrating that Christ
is God. He is the Stone, a divine title (cf. Gen 49:24), wields supernatural power (cf.
Dan 3:25; 622), and bears the glory of the Ancient of Days and the One who sits on
the divine chariot-throne (cf. Dan 7:9–10; 10:1–4). All of this is because Christ is
One like a son of man, that is, while being truly man, He is more than a man. He is
the very image of God and the Son of God (cf. Dan 3:25; 7:13), being God Himself.
To those who are skeptical that the Old Testament ever conceptualized a divine
Christology, Daniel’s work debunks such a notion. As Boyarin, a Jewish scholar,
recognizes, “The particle ke (‘like’) in the case of the One like a son of man is quite
different in usage than the same particle with respect to the beasts. In the former case
it means a real divine entity that has the form of a human being.” 83
That being said, the notion of the Son of Man includes true humanity. That is
why He has solidarity with His people (Dan 7:13–14, 18) and even is cut off for them
(cf. Dan 9:26). According to Daniel, while Christ is divine, taking on flesh is the
means by which the Messiah achieves salvation for His people and eschatological
destiny (cf. Dan 9:24). This accounts for why Son of Man can be used in contexts of
glory and victory (Matt 24:27) as well as suffering (Matt 8:20). While irony is
certainly a part of the intention in those latter texts, the title “Son of Man’ can
fundamentally relate to Christ’s travail because it has always been linked with
suffering and sacrifice since its origin in Daniel.
Speaking of which, Daniel’s conceptualization of the Son of Man, while
inclusive of His sacrifice and suffering, concentrates on His eschatological dominion.
The title “Son of Man” is a reminder that He rules not only over every nation but
over the entire created order. The title is a reminder that just as Adam was the
progenitor of humanity’s state, so Christ is determinative of the saints’ destiny. The
title “Son of Man” describes Christ as the destiny of the entire world and its history
(cf. everlasting kingdom cf. Dan 7:27).
Understanding this concept explains the usage of the phrase in the New
Testament and why it is found in some books but not others. Even in the book of
Daniel, the language of “Son of Man” is used in Daniel 7 but in discussing Christ’s
incarnation and suffering, He is called Messiah or Christ ( ַ‫ ;מָ ִ ֖שׁיח‬Greek OT: Χριστός,
9:26) as well as Messiah the Prince (‫)מָ ִ ֣שׁיחַ נ ִָ֔גיד‬, which certain Greek translations
render as Lord (κυρίῳ). Interestingly enough, the New Testament follows this very
pattern. The phrase “Son of Man” is exclusively found in the Gospels and Revelation
but not in the epistles. That is because while Christ introduced Himself and His
complete mission in the Gospels, the title will not reemerge until the realization of
that eschatological reality as prophesied by Revelation. Until that time, the New
Testament calls Him “Christ” and “Lord” (cf. Rom 1:4; 1 Cor 1:10; 2 Cor 8:9; Jas
2:1; 2 Pet 1:8), the very titles Daniel associated with Christ’s incarnational ministry.
The Christology of Daniel seems to influence not only the titles the New Testament
uses for Christ but in what contexts they are used in the New Testament.
Daniel’s Christology illustrates the sophistication of theology in the Old
Testament and that the prophets were theologians in their own right. They wrote
theology and did so cohesively and with complexity, one that thoroughly shapes later
revelation. That being said, one would be remiss to neglect the point of Daniel’s

83
Boyarin, “Daniel 7, Intertextuality, and the History of Israel’s Cult,” 151.
178 | All That Is in a Name

Christology and the very truth that drives the resolution to all the scholarly questions
mentioned above. The reason that “Son of Man” is Christ’s favorite title is because
it introduces the fullest understanding of the Messiah, one that not only deals with
the story of Israel and the Gentiles or even sin and salvation, but creation to its final
creation, beginning and end. Christ is not ruler over part of this story and world, but
the destiny of its entirety, and to anyone who is caught up in pride (cf. Dan 4:4–18)
or downtrodden by those who possess power (cf. Dan 1:1–7; 7:23–27), Daniel
declared that there is only One who then has glory, dominion, and a kingdom forever:
the One who is the final Adam over this creation.
179
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TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 181–198

THE HEAVENLY THIRD PARTY IN JOB:

A PREVIEW OF THE WORK OF CHRIST
Jamie Bissmeyer
Ph.D., The Master’s Seminary

*****

Though the book of Job was written long before the days of Christ, it makes
significant contributions to the believer’s understanding of Christology. Job protests
his case before God and man, observing the need for a heavenly third party to plead
on his behalf. This third party is found in legal metaphor as a adjudicator between
God and Job who would bring about Job’s justification. Job realizes the need for this
adjudicator because of God’s holiness and righteousness. As this becomes clear to
him, Job appeals to the heavenly third party to save him from sin, grant him a
resurrection body, and reconcile him to God. This third party previews the work of
Christ Jesus, who accomplishes salvation from sin, grants resurrection from the
dead, and reconciliation to God for His redeemed.

*****

Introduction

The book of Job has one of the most well-known passages traditionally
interpreted by Christians as referring to Christ—Job 19:25 and Job’s Redeemer. At
the same time, much of the book’s possible connections to Christ remain unexplored.
Scholars sometimes assume that Job could not have had any messianic hope in his
discussions with his friends. Others note the connection between Job’s Redeemer or
Mediator and Jesus Christ but simply conclude that Jesus fulfills Job’s hope.
However, this article will argue that the “heavenly third party” 1 occupies a central
place in Job’s arguments—especially in his desire to be reconciled to God. In fact, if
there are parallels between the book of Job and Christ, they lay primarily not with
Job, but with the Heavenly Third Party. This article will conclude by noting several
parallels between this third party and the work of Christ.

1
Job’s Mediator/Adjudicator in Job 9:33–34; Job’s Witness in 16:19–21; and Job’s Redeemer in 19:25.
Elihu’s mediator in Job 33:23–24 deserved to be included but is outside the scope of this article. For further
discussion see the above forthcoming monograph and William D. Barrick, “Messianic Implications in Elihu’s
‘Mediator Speech’ (Job 33:23–28)” (ETS Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA, 2003), 1–15.
181
182 | The Heavenly Third Party in Job

The Heavenly Third Party and Legal Metaphor

The context of the heavenly third party is forensic. The book of Job frames the
heavenly mediator as acting within a forensic framework, described in legal
metaphor. 2 In fact, much of the book of Job is set within the context of a legal
metaphor that depicts unfolding forensic scenarios. 3
Job and his friends employ legal language because each speaker is attempting to
understand the justice of God in the world. Job’s friends are attempting to prove that
God being just or righteous means He always punishes the wicked and blesses the
upright in this life (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–7)—and therefore, Job’s suffering (cf. 2:11–13)
can only be explained by God’s judgment upon him for a sin Job committed (4:5;
5:1, 17; 11:6). For his part, Job both defends his innocence to His friends and wishes
he could meet God in His courtroom (9:19; 23:3–4). 4 Within a constructed courtroom

2
This article defines “metaphor” as a word or words that point to a larger concept or semantic
domain. The dominating presence of legal metaphor and legal language in the book of Job is well-attested.
A few of the better known resources for further discussion are: Rachel F. Magdalene, “Through a Glass
Lawyerly: Reading the Legal Metaphors of Job 1–31,” in Law and Narrative in the Bible and in
Neighboring Ancient Cultures, ed. Klaus-Peter Adam et al., Forschungen Zum Alten Testament. 2. 54
(Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2012), 123–38; Rachel F. Magdalene, On the Scales of
Righteousness: Neo-Babylonian Trial Law and the Book of Job, Brown Judaic Studies 348 (Providence,
RI: Brown Judaic Studies, 2007); John Beresford Frye, “Legal Language in the Book of Job” (PhD diss.,
University of London, 1973); Sylvia Huberman Scholnick, “Lawsuit Drama in the Book of Job” (PhD
diss., Brandeis University, 1976); Pierre Van Hecke and Avi Shveka, “The Metaphor of Criminal Charge
as a Paradigm for the Conflict between Job and His Friends,” Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses 90,
no. 1 (2014): 99–119; Carol A. Newsom, “The Invention of the Divine Courtroom in the Book of Job,” in
The Divine Courtroom in Comparative Perspective, ed. Ari Mermelstein and Shalom E. Holtz, Biblical
Interpretation Series 132 (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2014), 246–59; Stephen Vicchio, The Book of
Job: A History of Interpretation and a Commentary (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2020), 399–401.
3
Yair Hoffman argues that the trial motif is the dominant motif that is developed in the dialogue and
structures the book (Yair Hoffman, A Blemished Perfection: The Book of Job in Context, Journal for the
Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 213 [Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996],
167–68). See also Shalom E. Holtz, “Praying as a Plaintiff,” VT 61, no. 2 (2011): 262; and Samuel E.
Balentine, Have You Considered My Servant Job?: Understanding the Archetype of Biblical Patience
(Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2015), 138. Hoffman notes that Job plays out like a
trial and has similarities to other ANE legal and wisdom texts, but also key differences. See Yair Hoffman,
“The Book of Job as a Trial: A Perspective from a Comparison to Some Relevant Ancient Near Eastern
Texts,” in Das Buch Hiob Und Seine Interpretationen: Beiträge Zum Hiob-Sympoisum Auf Dem Monte
Veritá Vom 14.–19. August 2005, ed. T. Krüger et al., ATANT 88 (Zürich, Switzerland: Theologischer
Verlag Zürich, 2007), 27–28.
4
The two primary terms Job uses to denote waging a legal dispute with God are (‫ ִ;ריב‬rîb) and (‫;מ ְשׁפָּט‬
ִ
mišpāṭ). If two disputing parties cannot reach agreement, a rîb can develop into a mišpāṭ —a formal trial
scenario with a presiding judge who will listen to both sides and then hand down a binding verdict.
For extensive discussion of rîb in Job, see Bovati, Re-Establishing Justice, especially pages 3–167;
B. Gemser, “The Rib- or Controversy-Pattern in Hebrew Mentality,” in Wisdom in Israel and in the
Ancient Near East, ed. M. Noth and D. Winton Thomas, 2nd ed., VTSup 3 (Leiden, The Netherlands:
Brill, 1969), 122. Bovati notes that the rîb was a well-known legal concept in the ANE and references
Julian Harvey as giving a survey of other ANE cultures who use the rîb as a legal institution. See Julien
S. J. Harvey, Le Plaidoyer Prophétique contre Israël après la Rupture de l’Alliance: Étude d’une Formule
Littéraire de l’Ancien Testament, Studia 22 (Paris: Bruges, 1967), 119–43. As cited in Bovati, Re-
Establishing Justice, 182n192. For usage of mišpāṭ in Job, see Sylvia Huberman Scholnick, “The Meaning
of Mišpaṫ in the Book of Job,” Journal of Biblical Literature 101, no. 4 (1982): 522–23. For further
discussion on the various uses of mišpāṭ, see Bovati, Re-Establishing Justice, 208–11.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 183

scenario, Job will envisage his heavenly third party as obtaining for him justification
before God and reconciliation with Him.

The Heavenly Third Party and Justification

The climax of any legal dispute or courtroom scenario is the verdict: When one
side is declared to be “in the right” or justified while the other side is declared to be
“in the wrong” or condemned. Because Job’s desire for a day in court with God drives
much of the argument of the book, it makes sense that justification language would
be present as well. 5
It is when Job desires to be justified before God that he first speaks of a heavenly
third party coming to his aid. While Job wrestles with the goodness of God
throughout the dialogues, at times he has remarkable moments of faith. It is a faith
that, if God were truly gracious, He would provide a third party who can bring him
and God together by removing the barrier of sin between them. The next sections will
look at how Job envisages his third party obtaining reconciliation between him and
God. Job’s hope begins faintly in Job 9 but builds to a climax of bold faith in Job 19
with Job’s Redeemer.

The Adjudicator in Job 9

In Job 9, Job will wrestle with the specific legal mechanisms of how a person
might be in the right with God. He first thinks about the impossibility of winning a
legal dispute against God and then develops a courtroom scene with a heavenly
adjudicator as the legal mechanism which would allow him to be reconciled to God.

Job 9:2–3: Justification Is Impossible under Normal Circumstances

Job 9 is Job’s first response to Bildad. Bildad’s main argument was that since
God in His justice punishes sinners through suffering and calamity, Job by default
falls into the category of a judged sinner (Job 8:3–7, 11–13). Like Eliphaz though,
Bildad holds out hope for Job to receive blessings from God if he admits his guilt and
repents (8:5–7, 20–22). To Bildad, even though Job has sinned, he is still overall a
pure, upright, and blameless person (8:6, 20).

Two-party and three-party legal disputes or trials were common throughout the history of the ANE.
For a survey and examination of ANE law, see Raymond Westbrook, ed., A History of Ancient Near
Eastern Law, 2 vols. (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003). For a brief overview of ANE legal procedure
like, see Raymond Westbrook, ed., “Introduction: The Character of Ancient Near Eastern Law,” in A
History of Ancient Near Eastern Law, vol. 1 (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 31–35.
5
Job has almost half of all occurrences of the verb “to justify” (‫ ;צדק‬ṣdq) in the Old Testament (41
times in the Old Testament, 17 times in Job). See also J. A. Ziesler, who provides a breakdown of where
the various forms of the verb occur in Job (J. A. Ziesler, The Meaning of Righteousness in Paul: A Linguistic
and Theological Enquiry, Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 20 [Cambridge:
University Press, 1972], 20–28). He further notes that 14 out of the 22 occurrences of the Qal of ṣdq occur
in Job and concludes that if one takes Job as a whole as forensic, then almost all occurrences of ṣdq in Job are
forensic.
184 | The Heavenly Third Party in Job

As he begins, Job responds to Bildad by drawing upon Eliphaz’s words from Job
4:17: “In truth I know that this is so. How then 6 can a man be in the right with God?” 7
Job affirms Bildad’s and Eliphaz’s statements about the righteousness and justice of
God (Job 4:17; 8:3) but views them as a negativity—Job feared God and yet because
of his fallen nature, he can still be judged by God. Mankind cannot be in the right
with God, then, regardless of what they do. 8 By connecting legal language to
mankind’s fallen nature, Eliphaz and Bildad contemplate a personal legal dispute
with God that has mankind’s fallen nature in mind (cf. Job 7:17–21). 9 In other words,
Job cannot win a legal dispute with God because he, like all mankind, stands
condemned before Him. 10

Job 9:4–28: God’s Transcendent Holiness Makes Justification Impossible

Job 9:4–28 expands on the dilemma Job faces. Because of the gap between his
fallen nature and God’s righteousness, Job knows that no legal dispute with God
would be successful. There is not only a power and wisdom disparity between Job
and God (Job 9:3–12) but a moral one as well (cf. 4:17–21; 9:2–3). Job sums up the
impossibility of winning a legal dispute against God in verse 14, indicated by the
repetition from verse 3 of the preposition ʿim and the conclusive phrase ‫( ֭אַ ף ִ ֽכּי־‬ʾap
kî): “How then can I answer Him, and choose my words with Him (‫ ;ﬠִ מֹּֽ ו‬ʿimmōw)?” 11 93F

Job then turns to his only hope in verse 15: “I would have to plead for the grace
(‫ ;חנן‬ḥnn) of my judge.” 12 Job’s use of ḥnn in 9:15 is a reference to a section of
94F

Bildad’s speech from Job 8:5–6: “If you would seek God earnestly and plead for the
grace (ḥnn) of the Almighty, if you are pure and upright, indeed now He would rouse
Himself for you.” Bildad saw God’s grace as something given in response to
repentance. But Job references ḥnn to show that he is innocent and does not need to

6
Most translations take the waw as adversative (but) but taking it as connective/resultative (then) fits
just as well. Bildad’s verbatim reference in 25:4 to Job’s words here also employ the waw in a
connective/resultative sense, which most English translations bring out. For translations and commentators
that interpret the waw in Job 9:2a in a connective/resultative sense, see: Schlachter 2000; Geneva Bible; LXX;
Vulg.; Norman C. Habel, The Book of Job: A Commentary (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1985), 178;
John E. Hartley, The Book of Job, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 166; and Samuel Rolles Driver
and George Buchanan Gray, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Job, ICC (Edinburgh:
T&T Clark, 1921), 83–84.
7
Author’s translation.
8
Translating the waw in Job 9:2b as “How then” also explains why Job changes Eliphaz’s syntax from
‫( מֵ אֱ�֣ וה‬mēʾĕlōw) in 4:17 to ‫ם־אל‬ֽ ֵ ִ‫( ﬠ‬ʿim-ʾēl) in 9:2b. Job is not just agreeing with Eliphaz that no man can be
righteous in God’s sight. He is also arguing that since no one can be justified before God, even winning a
legal dispute against Him is impossible. The use of the preposition ʿim with ‫( ִריב‬rîb; Job 9:3) is common,
since one party is disputing “with” another party. See James Limburg, “Root Rîb and the Prophetic Lawsuit
Speeches,” Journal of Biblical Literature 88, no. 3 (September 1969): 296.
9
Bildad in Job 25 quotes Job’s words in 9:2 verbatim, but in a clearly moral/ontological context.
10
Ash brings out this connection, in part, when he says that Job’s suffering, “…is deeper than a
present-tense suffering. It is a present-tense suffering that is the harbinger of a future condemnation” (Ash,
Job, 146).
11
Author’s translation.
12
The word “grace” translates the Hithpael form of ‫חנן‬, which means, “To implore favor, compassion.”
The word is used in contexts where one party pleads for help or favor from another party (Gen 42:21; 1 Kgs
8:33; Esth 4:8).
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 185

repent of anything—so he cannot “earn” grace from God. Job’s implication is that if,
however, God unilaterally showed grace to Job, his predicament would be resolved. 13
Job’s problem is that God is not only Job’s legal adversary—He is also his Judge:
“Though I am righteous, my mouth will condemn me; though I am blameless, He
will declare me perverse” (Job 9:20). Job believes he is in an impossible situation
where even in a courtroom scenario—since God is both legal adversary and judge—
God would condemn Job and cause him to suffer. Job knows he is not sinless, but he
also does not know why God is treating him like a wicked person. He again connects
his perceived treatment by God to how God relates to all mankind, regardless of their
relative innocence or wickedness (9:22–24; cf. 7:1, 17–21). These statements
underscore how Job does not want to simply win a legal dispute against God. He sees
mankind’s fallen nature as the reason why no one can truly be reconciled to Him.

Job 9:32–35: Only an Adjudicator Can Bring God and Man Together

In Job 9:32, Job sums up the preceding discourse on why he cannot be justified
before God with kî (for): “For He is not a man as I am that I may answer Him, that
we may go to court (mišpāṭ) for judgment together.” Job believes if God were like
man, then Job and God could go to a court of law and have a judge render a just
verdict after hearing both sides. 14 But as seen earlier, in Job’s courtroom scenario
God is both his legal adversary and his judge who is set on punishing Job for his
moral fallenness, despite his relative uprightness.
So, in Job 9:33–35, Job will turn to hoping that a heavenly third party would
come to his aid: the adjudicator. 15 Job envisions this adjudicator as having a positive

13
Clines notes the wordplay with Bildad’s use of grace in Job 8:5 but argues if Job pleaded for mercy
he would be giving up on his integrity. See David J. A. Clines, Job 1–20, vol. 17, Word Biblical Commentary
(Dallas, TX: Word Books, 1989), 234. The MT technically says “If I were righteous” in 9:15a, but the point
is the same: Job knows he is innocent in his legal dispute against God but he also knows his moral fallenness
prevents him from winning one. God as judge would need to condescend to him in a gracious act if Job is to
be reconciled to Him. For a similar discussion see Francis I. Andersen, Job: An Introduction and Commentary,
Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries 13 (London: InterVarsity Press, 1976), 158.
14
Bovati argues that verbs of motion move a controversy into a formal trial procedure which contains
two parties and a judge. See Gen 18:23; 44:18; Exod 18:16; 22:8; 24:14; Num 27:1; 36:1; Deut 17:8–9; 25:1,
7; 1 Sam 14:36, 38; 2 Sam 12:1; 15:2, 4, 6; Judg 4:5; 1 Kgs 3:16; 2 Chron 19:10; Isa 41:1 (Bovati, Re-
Establishing Justice, 217–18). In Job 9:32, Job uses a verb of motion (‫ ;נָבֹ֥ וא‬nābōwʾ) to indicate his desire to
go to court (mišpāṭ) with God.
15
The essential meaning of the root ‫( יכח‬ykḥ) is, “to put in the right,” although in legal contexts it can
mean “to argue” (“‫יכח‬,” HALOT, 410). The verb can represent any part of a lawsuit, including the potential of
taking legal action, where it can be semantically parallel to rîb or mišpāṭ (NIDOTTE, 2:441–42).
This article follows the LSB’s translation of ַ‫וכיח‬
֑ ִ ֹ‫( מ‬mōwkîaḥ) in verse 33 as “adjudicator” rather than
the more common translation, “mediator.” A mediator in ANE law is, generally, a third party who helps
two opposing sides come to an agreeable conclusion, and he may or may not have binding authority over
the disputants. Meanwhile, an adjudicator (or panel of judges acting as adjudicators) has vested authority
to bring about a resolution to the legal procedure. Job 9:33 uses the substantive form (mōwkîaḥ), which
elsewhere in the Scriptures in legal contexts has the basic sense of authoritative decision-making (Isa
29:21; Amos 5:10; Hab 1:12; cf. Gen 31:36). BDB notes that the Hiphil form of ‫ יכח‬means, “to decide.”
(“‫ ָיכַח‬,” BDB, 406). In other words, a mōwkîaḥ is, in forensic contexts, someone vested with legal authority
to argue the case and hand down a binding decision to prove one side right and the other wrong (cf.
NIDOTTE, 2:442). Mōwkîaḥ occurs later in the book of Job in Elihu’s speeches, where Elihu notes there
186 | The Heavenly Third Party in Job

outcome in bringing Job and God together. The following sections will argue, that to
Job, the heavenly third party is the person who enables forgiveness of sins and
justification before God for man.

Job 9:33: The Adjudicator Is a Heavenly Third Party

Job 9:33 and his hope in an adjudicator is his recognition that he cannot, by
himself, merit a justifying verdict before God (cf. Job 9:2). He knows that even his
faithful and upright living means nothing considering the moral gap between God
and man. So, Job turns to a legal mechanism—the adjudicator—that can enable Job
to stand in God’s court justified: “There is no adjudicator between us, who may lay
his hand upon us both.”
Various scholars argue that Job’s adjudicator is not real, and that Job is painting
a hypothetical scenario that he knows is not true. 16 They caution against reading a
Christian bias backwards into Job 9:32–35. 17 However, while Job’s hope in what the
adjudicator might do for him is pessimistic, he still expresses belief that the
adjudicator exists and can adjudicate between him and God. 18 And there is no need
to read backwards into Job to see the unique function Job’s adjudicator has.
Eliphaz is aware that there are other parties in heaven that could come to Job’s
aid (Job 5:1). But argues that no man, being a fallen sinner (Job 4:17–21), can appeal
to others for help in God’s courtroom (5:1). 19 The mere fact that Job wishes for an
adjudicator to act for him goes beyond anything Eliphaz or his other friends say. Job’s

was no adjudicator to reprove Job (Job 32:12). Mōwkîaḥ takes on added significance in Job 40:2, where
God charges Job with attempting to act as an adjudicator for himself (Job 40:2).
Note the similar role of adjudicators in the ANE in Hertel, Old Assyrian Legal Practices: Law and
Dispute in the Ancient Near East, 222; and Cornelia Wunsch, “Legal Narrative in Neo-Babylonian Trial
Documents: Text Reconstruction, Interpretation, and Assyriological Method,” in Law and Narrative in the
Bible and in Neighboring Ancient Cultures, ed. Klaus-Peter Adam, et al., Forschungen Zum Alten
Testament. 2. 54 (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2012), 4, 7, 25.
16
E.g., Seow, Job 1–21, 571; Hartley, The Book of Job, 182; Edward L. Greenstein, Job: A New
Translation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019), 43; Habel, The Book of Job: A Commentary,
196; Robert Gordis, The Book of Job: Commentary, New Translation, and Special Studies, vol. 2, MoSe (New
York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1978), 111; Clines, Job 1–20, 17:243; Alden, Job, 133; Ash,
Job, 147; Longman III, Job, 165; and Wilson, Job, 71–72.
17
Wilson, Job, 317; and Longman III, Job, 262–63.
18
So also John H. Walton and Kelly Lemon Vizcaino, Job, NIV Application Commentary (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 172. The Hebrew constructions for denoting non-existence or negating an
existence are specific: either the adverb ‫( אֵ ין‬ʾên) (“there is not”; cf. Job 20:21; Pss 53:1, 3 [MT 2, 4]) or the
wish particle contrary to fact ‫( לוּ‬lû) (“would that there be”; cf. Gen 17:18; Job 6:2). Job himself knows how
to use both particles (6:2, 13; 9:10; 16:14; 21:33). Scholars who argue that Job is expressing a wish contrary
to fact usually emend lōʾ to lû while admitting that Job’s construction as given in the MT is found nowhere
else. See for example: Clines, Job 1-20, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas, TX: Word Books, 1989), 220;
Greenstein, Job, 43.
In Job 9:33, Job uses the particle of negation followed by the particle of existence (‫ ; ֣ל ֹא יֵשׁ‬yēš lōʾ). Yēš
itself is never negated (cf. A&C, 156; Bruce K. Waltke and Michael Patrick O’Connor, IBHS [Winona
Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990], 623). So, Job is most likely using lōʾ with reference to the imperfect ‫י ֵ ָ֖שׁת‬
(yāšēt) in 9:33b to cast strong doubt regarding whether the adjudicator will act for him. What Job is
expressing in 9:33 is something akin to an American saying, “There is no President who will help me.”
This person is not denying the existence of the president of the United States. Rather, he is expressing
doubt as to whether the President will help him.
19
See Seow, Job 1–21, 415 and Clines, Job 1–20, 137.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 187

hope for aid from a heavenly third party drives him to return to the topic multiple
times (16:19–21; 19:25–26). Elihu will also draw upon and develop Job’s hope in
Job 33:23–26. 20

Job 9:34–35: The Adjudicator Enables Forgiveness of Sins and Reconciliation

As seen above, mōwkîaḥ can refer to a legal third party who is vested with
authority to adjudicate between two disputants and thus render a binding judgment
as to who is in the right. However, in Job 9:33–34, Job does not simply want help in
winning a legal dispute against God—he wants someone who can bring himself and
God together.
Job describes how he wants his adjudicator to function in the second half of Job
9:33: “Who may lay his hand upon us both.” His description of what the adjudicator
would do is unique in the Old Testament. 21 The closest parallel is in Genesis 31:37,
where the adjudicator is a third party who adjudicates a legal dispute between Jacob
and Laban. 22 However, Job and God are not equals in any sense (Job 9:32), and Job
is not just wishing for an impartial third party to hear both sides and render a fair
judgment. Job wants the adjudicator to, with some level of authority, place his hand
on both God and Job. This adjudicator also cannot not be opposed to or over God,
since God is not just a legal adversary but the judge in Job’s courtroom scene. 23 Thus,
if Job’s adjudicator were to act on his behalf, such action would only be possible if
God allowed the adjudicator to act as an extension of God’s grace towards Job (cf.
9:15). 24
Job 9:34a explains what the result of the adjudicator’s work would be for Job:
“Let Him remove His rod from me.” Regardless of who the first “Him” refers to,
Job’s point is that the adjudicator’s work affects the removal of God’s wrath
(signified by “rod” [‫ ;שֵׁ בֶ ט‬šēbeṭ]). 25 The second half of verse 34 expands the scope of
107F

20
For scholars that argue Job 9:32–35 begins a theological motif in Job, see Ash, Job, 147; Robert S.
Fyall, Now My Eyes Have Seen You: Images of Creation and Evil in the Book of Job, New Studies in Biblical
Theology (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 44; Lindsay Wilson, Job, Two Horizons Old
Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015), 98; Habel, The Book of Job, 196–97; and Walton
and Vizcaino, Job, 172. For further discussion on messianic implications of Elihu’s mediator see Barrick,
“Messianic Implications in Elihu’s ‘Mediator Speech’ (Job 33:23–28)”; and the forthcoming monograph
currently under review by SCS Press that this article is adapted from.
21
The root of ykḥ can occur where God is the subject (2 Sam 7:14; 2 Kgs 19:4; 1 Chron 12:17; 16:21;
Job 5:17; 13:10; 22:4; 33:19). However, the book of Job is unique in that in multiple places God is the object
of ykḥ (Job 13:3, 15; 16:21; 23:7; 40:2).
22
See also Habel, The Book of Job, 196.
23
It is preferable to see Job’s adjudicator as someone who brings God and Job together (so Francis
Andersen, Job [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1976], 151; and Hartley, The Book of Job, 181), rather
than as someone who has more authority than God (so Driver and Gray, A Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on the Book of Job, 95–96) If the adjudicator has more authority than God, Job’s problem would
not really be with God, but with the adjudicator.
24
So also Hartley, The Book of Job, 181. Hartley further notes that “Job is grasping for any means to
restore his relationship with God. His sense of meaninglessness before inexplicable suffering is deepened by
God’s absence from his life. That is why his search for vindication is essentially a search for God to make
himself known to him” (Ibid., 181).
25
So also Clines, Job 1-20, 17:243; Robert L. Alden, Job, New American Commentary (Nashville, TN:
Broadman & Holman, 1993), 133; Edoard Dhorme, A Commentary on the Book of Job (Nashville, TN:
188 | The Heavenly Third Party in Job

the adjudicator’s work: “And let not dread of Him terrify me.” Job’s current situation
is one where He is afraid of God because of His wrath upon him. In context, Job’s
hope in Job 9:33–34 is the answer to Job’s question in 9:2. By removing God’s wrath
and thus Job’s fear of God, the adjudicator would put Job in the right before God.
Job’s sin before God would somehow be forgiven and Job would no longer be afraid
of God (cf. Job 7:17–21).
Some commentators argue that Job is overwhelmed by God’s power and imply
that Job simply wants the adjudicator to bring him and God to equal terms. 26 They
also argue that God’s rod upon Job is God figuratively “beating” Job or something
similar. 27 However, Job has already indicated that the gap between him and God is
not only one of power and transcendence but of sin and holiness. Mankind’s fallen
nature prevents anyone from engaging in a successful legal dispute with God (Job
4:17; cf. 9:2). What Job wants is for that sin to no longer be a barrier between him
and God (7:21; 14:15–17; 19:26–27). 28 If that sin is removed by the adjudicator, then
Job would be able to speak to God without fear of His wrath (9:35). 29 Job does not
want to be ontologically equal to God or to have God brought down to his level. He
wants forgiveness and reconciliation.
In Job 9:32–35, Job hopes for reconciliation and peace between God and
himself. 30 He knows that his fallen nature is the reason why he cannot win a legal
dispute with God in the first place. By implication then, Job’s legal dispute against
God would go away if sin was no longer a barrier between them. Job knows that if
God, through an adjudicator, can fix the greater issue of the sin that separates Him
from man, then a legal dispute is not necessary. Job would know God cares for him
despite his suffering. The work of a heavenly adjudicator is how Job’s wish to be
justified before God (Job 9:2) is accomplished.

Thomas Nelson, 1984), 144; Hartley, The Book of Job, 182; and Ash, Job, 147–48. Cf. Exod 17:9; 2 Sam
7:14; Ps 89:32; Prov 22:8; Isa 10:5; and Lam 3:1. For God as the subject of the rod, see Greenstein, Job, 43;
Dhorme, A Commentary on the Book of Job, 144; Clines, Job 1-20, 17:215; Andersen, Job, 151; Longman
III, Job, 176; and Alden, Job, 133. Zeev Falk argues that šēbeṭ is a symbol of the judicial office. See Zeev W.
Falk, “Hebrew Legal Terms,” ed. H. H. Rowley and P. R. Weis, JSS 5, no. 4 (October 1960): 350.
26
So Tremper Longman III, Job, Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms (Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 176; and Wilson, Job, 71.
27
So Seow, Job 1–21, 571; and Driver and Gray, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book
of Job, 96.
28
Cf. the ESV’s translation of Job 14:15–17.
29
It is best to take the imperfect that begins 9:35 as indicating potentiality (‫;אדַ ְבּ ָרה‬
ֽ ַ ֭ ʾadabbərâ). Job is
expressing what he would do if the mediator acted on his behalf. For further discussion see Alden, Job, 134.
30
So also Clines, Job 1–20, 243; and James Strahan, The Book of Job Interpreted, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh:
T&T Clark, 1914), 102. Strahan goes further than Clines in arguing that Job’s wish points towards Jesus: “Job
is no conscious prophet, but his instinctive cry for a God in human form, and for a daysman between God and
man, is an unconscious prophecy of incarnation and atonement. His faith is creative, his heart’s intuitions are
precursors of revelation” (Ibid.).
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 189

Job 16: Job’s Heavenly Witness Can Enable Reconciliation After Death

Job 16 marks Job’s first response in the second cycle of speeches in Job (Job 15–
21). Job is responding to Eliphaz’s second speech, where Eliphaz returned to his
original argument about mankind’s moral fallenness before God (15:14–16). In Job
16, Job returns to the topic of a heavenly third party who might come to his aid. But
in contrast to 9:32–35, in chapter 16 Job will express more confidence in what a
heavenly third party might do for him. He will also indicate that the time frame in
which he believes the heavenly third party will act is after his life. Job 16 thus
represents another affirmation of the centrality of the heavenly third party to
reconciling him and God, and is a development of when he believes his hope will be
fulfilled.

Job 16:1–17: Job Believes God Is Set against Him

In Job 15, Eliphaz had argued that all humans are born morally fallen (Job 15:14–
16) and are judged when they sin (15:20–35). To Eliphaz, the evidence points
towards Job being a wicked person who is being judged. Job’s response is simple—
God framed me: “You [God] have shriveled me up, it has become a witness (‫;ﬠֵד‬
ʿēd); 31 and my leanness rises up against me, it answers to my face” (16:8). Job does
13F

not claim to be perfect (cf. 14:3–4), but he cannot see why God has chosen to cause
suffering to him when he was living an upright life (16:16–17). 32 14F

By introducing the concept of a legal witness, Job is continuing the forensic

metaphor to explain his situation and depict him and God as being legal adversaries. 33
However, if Job had no hope of winning a legal dispute with God before, it is even
less so now. To Job, God has created false witnesses to successfully frame Job for
wickedness. 34 Job is losing the strength and hope to win a legal dispute with God
while he is still alive (Job 16:15–16).

Job 16:18–22: A Heavenly Witness Who Will Act After Death

In Job 16:18, Job appears to lose almost all hope of winning his legal dispute
during his life: “O earth, do not cover my blood, and let there be no resting place for
my cry.” 35 So, Job turns to the only hope he has left in verse 19—not an earthly

31
An ʿēd was a witness in a legal trial who could testify for or against the accused. See Carl Schultz,
“‫עוֹד‬,” TWOT, 648–49.
32
Job uses more hostile language in Job 16, depicting God as a warrior (Job 16:12–14) and wild beast
(16:9) intent on harming him. For further discussion see Seow, Job 1–21, 736; Longman III, Job, 238; and
Ash, Job, 190.
33
So also Fyall, Now My Eyes Have Seen You, 42.
34
Hartley notes that because of the physical evidence of Job’s suffering, “No one who sees him believes
his verbal testimony of innocence” (Hartley, The Book of Job, 260). For further discussion see Clines, Job 1–
20, 382.
35
So also Clines, Job 1–20, 388. Clines rightly notes that Job’s cry for vindication must be placed in an
afterlife, because it assumes that Job’s blood has already been spilled (Ibid.; and Andersen, Job, 197; contra
Hartley, The Book of Job, 264). Scholars have noted the connection between the earth covering Job’s blood
190 | The Heavenly Third Party in Job

witness, but a heavenly witness who would testify on his behalf: “Even now, behold,
my witness (‫ ;ﬠֵד‬ʿēd) is in heaven, and my advocate is on high.” The following
sections will argue that the nature and function of Job’s witness is almost identical to
the adjudicator of 9:33–34, with the same expected outcome: removal of God’s wrath
and reconciliation to Him.

The Heavenly Witness Is Also the Adjudicator from Job 9:33–34

Various scholars argue that Job’s witness in Job 16:19 is God Himself and that
Job is appealing to God to act on his behalf and testify for him in court. 36 However,
both the broader context of Job’s speeches and a plain reading of the text of 16:19–
22 argue against seeing Job’s witness as God. Job has described God as more than
just a legal adversary but a hostile party intent on causing him as much suffering as
possible (Job 6:4; 7:12–21; 9:20–31; 10:3, 6–7, 12–13, 16–17; 13:24–28). Job also
believes that because of his moral fallenness, with a heavenly third party he has no
hope of being justified before God (9:2, 20, 28–35). 37 It thus goes against the
argument of the book and the context of Job 16 to see Job as suddenly expressing
hope that God would be His witness. 38

and the testimony of Abel’s blood crying out as a witness against Cain (Gen 4:10). See Clines, Job 1–20,
388–89; Hartley, The Book of Job, 263–64; and Longman III, Job, 239.
Clines, and Driver and Gray argue that Job’s cry is a cry not just for vindication but for vengeance
(Clines, Job 1-20, 388–89; and Driver and Gray, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Job,
147–48). However, this article has argued that Job desires reconciliation with God, not revenge (cf. Job 9:34–
35; 14:13–17; 19:26–27). Even so, there may be a connection between Job’s cry for vindication and the
concept of avenging or vindicating justice. In both the ANE and Israel, the shed blood of an innocent victim
required retribution (cf. Num 35:15–25). See Samuel Greengus, Laws in the Bible and in Early Rabbinic
Collections: The Legal Legacy of the Ancient Near East (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2011), 152. Job could
be expecting his heavenly witness to act as an avenger or redeemer for him after he has died.
36
So Hartley, The Book of Job, 264; Dhorme, A Commentary on the Book of Job, 239; Andersen, Job,
183; Gordis, The Book of Job, 2:178; and Greenstein, Job, 70, 72–73. Fyal and Ash argue along similar lines
of reasoning, that Job is confusing the divine council from Job 1–2. They argue that in the end God will
actually be a witness for Job. See Fyall, Now My Eyes Have Seen You, 43; and Ash, Job, 141. Ash concludes
that Job is appealing to God against God (Ibid., 193).
37
Seow argues similarly, although he probably goes too far in arguing Job expresses no hope in God to
act graciously at any point thus far. See Seow, Job 1–21, 738. Job 13:15 could be used to support the argument
that Job is appealing to God to witness for him. But see also the ketiv of the MT of Job 13:15: “Behold, He
will slay me; I have no hope.”
38
So also Clines, Job 1–20, 389. Longman adds that in the God as the witness view, in verse 19 the
witness would be speaking against God (Longman III, Job, 239). See also Wilson, Job, 97–98; and Marvin
H. Pope, Job, Anchor Bible Commentary (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1973), 146. Seow concludes that if
God is Job’s witness, “Accordingly, God, who has been portrayed as Job’s enemy in the preceding stanza, is
at once the accused, the witness, and the judge” (Seow, Job 1–21, 1:738).
The witness or ʿēd also cannot be Job’s own cry of innocence, since Job is thinking of a third party and
not his own integrity as the means of adjudication between him and God (so Longman III, Job, 239–40; contra
Clines, Job 1–20, 368; and Seow, Job 1–21, 739–40). Job has already affirmed the existence of a heavenly
third party and expressed hopelessness that his own testimony could vindicate him (cf. Job 9:3, 14, 19, 20).
In Job’s courtroom scenario, God has stacked the deck against him through false witnesses (10:17; 16:8) and
a refusal to answer him (9:16). No amount of personal integrity or claim of innocence will produce a victory
for Job. For further discussion on the weakness of seeing Job’s cry as his witness see Fyal, Now My Eyes
Have Seen You, 12:42–43. Fyal concludes: “It [Job’s cry] has no existence in itself, and indeed is the
expression of Job’s need for vindication, not that vindication” (Ibid., 43).
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 191

However, Job’s more hostile and pessimistic rhetoric in Job 16 does not mean
that he has no hope in God at all. The section on Job 9:32–35 argued that Job viewed
the work of his adjudicator as an extension of God’s grace—and a similar scenario
holds true in chapter 16. The tone of Job’s rhetoric is that, while he believes God is
set against him, he still holds out hope that God, in the end, would provide a witness
to act on Job’s behalf. 39
If Job’s heavenly witness is not God and not his own cry for vindication, it must
be a third party. Job’s witness thus takes a similar role to the adjudicator of Job 9:33,
because Job is placing hope in a heavenly third party to successfully act for him and
resolve his dilemma. Job’s witness must also in some way be equal to God, like the
adjudicator (Job 9:33–34), as he must be able to effectually testify on Job’s behalf—
such that God is moved to vindicate Job. Otherwise, there is no reason for Job to hope
in a witness in the first place.
Job possibly makes further connections to the adjudicator of Job 9:33–34 in
16:20–21. Most English versions translate verse 20a (‫יצ֥י ֵרﬠָ ֑י‬ַ ִ‫)מל‬
ְ as something like,
“My friends are my scoffers,” 40 and some commentators emend the MT here to
reflect such a translation. 41 However, the NIV and NET Bible offer a different
possible translation: “My intercessor is my friend.” 42 This latter translation of verse
20 would provide a stronger indication that Job is continuing to hope in a heavenly
third party who would intercede on his behalf in God’s courtroom.
To begin Job 16:21, some English translations have something like, “O that a
man might plead with God.” 43 However, the verse begins with a wayiqtol (‫;וְ יֹ וכַח‬
wəyōwkaḥ) from the root ykḥ, and there is no wish statement or formula that would
necessitate a translation implying Job is wishing for something (as in Job 6:20; 11:5;
13:5; 14:4, 13). Although the syntax of verse 21 is difficult, a natural way to do justice
to the waw is to view it as continuing the line of thought from verse 20, while viewing
the final clause of verse 20 as circumstantial, similar to the NET Bible’s translation:

39
Habel argues that “Job is not contemplating the good side of a schizophrenic deity, but with bold faith
seeking vehicle for winning his case against God” (Habel, The Book of Job, 275). Habel is correct to see Job
having bold faith, but that faith is connected to hope in God to be gracious, not simply to win a legal dispute.
40
E.g., LSB, NASB, ESV, KJV.
41
Cf. Seow, Job 1–21, 748–49.
42
HALOT glosses the Hiphil form of, ‫( ליץ‬lyṣ) as “to scoff, deride” (“‫ליץ‬,” HALOT, 529). However,
BDB notes that the Hiphil participle form of lyṣ (‫ ;מֵ לִ יץ‬mēlîṣ) is only used to refer to people who are mediators
(“‫לִ יץ‬,” BDB, 539; cf. Gen 42:23; Isa 43:27; Job 33:23; 2 Chron 32:31). The occurrence of the same form in
Job 33:23 could also mean that Elihu is directly referencing Job 16:20 and Job’s hope in a heavenly mediator.
For further discussion on ‫ ְמלִ ַיצ֥י‬in Job 16:20 meaning mediator, see Walter C. Kaiser, “1113 ‫לִ יץ‬,” TWOT, 479;
Tim Powell, “‫לִ יץ‬,” NIDOTTE, 2:800; Habel, The Book of Job, 263; Ash, Job, 452n10; John B. Curtis, “On
Job’s Witness in Heaven,” JBL 102, no. 4 (December 1983): 554; Clines, Job 1–20, 390; Alden, Job, 187;
and Balentine, Job, 258–59. Hartley adds that if the Hiphil of lyṣ is taken as “scorn,” it would create a single
occurrence of the word. Instead, the Qal participle form is always used to refer to scorning (Hartley, The Book
of Job, 263n6). Seow and Dhorme further note that Targum Job has something like, “My intermediaries are
my friends/there I have intercessors and friends” (Seow, Job 1–21, 748; and Dhorme, A Commentary on the
Book of Job, 240). The BHS critical apparatus entertains the idea of taking mēlîṣ as mediator.
The primary challenge to taking mēlîṣ as mediator/intercessor in Job 16:20 is the difference in the
pronominal suffixes in verses 20 and 21 (plural in verse 20, singular in verse 21). One solution is to emend
the vocalization of the consonants, so that the suffixes in verses 20–21 can all match as singular (so Hartley,
The Book of Job, 263; and NET Bible). This author believes such a solution is more plausible than emending
the consonants of the MT (as referenced above).
43
E.g., LSB, NASB, KJV.
192 | The Heavenly Third Party in Job

“My intercessor is my friend as my eyes pour out tears to God; and he [the
intercessor] mediates with God on behalf of man.” 44 This translation suggests that
Job’s witness is the same person as his adjudicator (cf. ykḥ in Job 9:33) 45—and thus
the same desire for the removal of God’s wrath and for reconciliation is present. Even
when Job is despairing due to his perception that God is attacking him, he hopes to
be restored to a close relationship with Him (cf. Job 16:20b).
Job 16 thus marks a development in Job’s mind of being reconciled to God: 1) He
begins to lose hope of being reconciled to God while he is alive; 2) he expresses more
confidence in the help of a heavenly third party; 3) and he places that hope of help in a
life after death. Job is laying the groundwork for an eschatological theology of
justification and reconciliation, one which will take full expression in Job 19:23–27.

Job 19: Job’s Eschatological Hope

In Job 19, Job gives full expression to how he thinks a heavenly third party might
come to his aid. Here he combines his resurrection hope (Job 14:13–14), his desire
for forgiveness of sins and reconciliation (7:17–21; 14:15–17), and his hope in a
heavenly third party (9:33–35; 16:19–22). The result is a clear explanation of an
eschatological hope of justification that is fulfilled through the work of a heavenly
third party.
Job 19 is Job’s second response to Bildad. Job is tiring of his friends’ disbelief and
condemnation of him as a wicked sinner (Job 19:1–6). Job’s sense of despair also
becomes deeper, as for the first time, Job states that every person in his life has
abandoned him (19:13–20). Job’s response to being rejected by the world is to appeal
to pity from his friends, a pity that they are not willing to give (19:21–22).46 Job’s hope
in vindication during his life is at its lowest point. However, in his despair is also when
Job’s faith in a heavenly mediator acting for him in a new life is at its strongest.

Job 19:25–27: Job’s Redeemer Accomplishes Eschatological Justification

The following sections will argue that, since Job has lost all hope of vindication
in this life, he turns to hoping in a heavenly third party for a final justification in the
eschaton. 47 The sections will also argue that his description of the heavenly third
party as a “redeemer” is Job’s acknowledgement of his need for cleansing from sin.

44
Author’s translation. The ESV, NIV, and LEB have similar translations as the NET for verse 21. See
also Hartley, The Book of Job, 264. He notes that “The interpreter is one who advocates a party’s case,
explaining the situation to the court and defending him against any charges” (Ibid.; italics original). Clines
notes the “extreme difficulty of the Hebrew” but affirms Hartley’s position (even if they differ on who the
interpreter is). See Clines, Job 1–20, 390. He takes the waw to begin verse 21 as one of purpose (ibid., 390–
91).
45
So also Habel, The Book of Job, 275.
46
For further discussion see Hartley, The Book of Job, 287–90. He concludes: “Just as his [Job’s]
alienation is total, so too his physical suffering is complete” (Ibid., 289).
47
Seow sees verses 23–27 as conveying Job’s desire for justice to be done even after he dies (Seow,
Job 1–21, 794). Balentine similarly describes Job’s knowledge of a redeemer in 19:25 as “hope for ‘something
beyond’” (Balentine, Job, 286). By “eschaton” it is not meant that Job had a full-fledged doctrine of the end
times. Job is simply theorizing that things will be made right “in the end,” in a time after his current life.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 193

And finally, they will argue that Job views the outcome of justification not as victory
over God but reconciliation to Him.

The Redeemer Is a Heavenly Third Party Who Saves from Sin

Job 19:23–24 sets the timeframe of Job’s words in verses 25–27. In verse 23 Job
uses the formula mî-yittēn, here to express his wish that permanence would be given
to his words. 48 Job believes no one in this life will help him. So, Job’s desire for a
written record that will last forever (lit. “to the end [‫ ; ֝ ָל ַ֗ﬠד‬lāʿad]” in verse 24b) must
be in the hope that someone in the future would come to his aid. 49 Such a reading 13F

comports with Job’s already expressed desire for a new life after death and
reconciliation with God in that new life (Job 14:13–17). 50 132F

Verse 25 then begins with a shift from what Job’s friends and family think about
him, to what he knows to be true: “As for me, I know that my Redeemer lives…” 51
Earlier, Job said that he knew God would not acquit him (Job 9:28) and did not know
why God was causing his suffering (13:23). Yet Job in 19:25 knows that a redeemer
is for him. There is thus a notable development and growth of Job’s hope in how he
and God might be reconciled. Job is also not making a random or sudden turn to
discussing a redeemer. Rather, his words here are the result of a developed, confident
theology of hope and reconciliation. 52
Job 19:25–27 marks a high point in the development of Job’s faith and hope. In
9:32–35, Job had expressed strong doubt as to whether a heavenly third party would
come to his aid. In Job 16, Job expressed strong hope that a heavenly third party
would vindicate him after death. In Job 19, Job says “I know” regarding this hope. It
is not something Job “knows” is false but is a building and triumphant affirmation. 53

48
Cf. Dhorme, A Commentary on the Book of Job, 281. The reference to writing multiple times in these
verses further shows Job’s desire that his words endure.
49
Cf. William David Reyburn, A Handbook on the Book of Job, UBSH (New York: United Bible
Societies, 1992), 361–62; Seow, Job 1–21, 1:802; and Wilson, Job, 106.
50
Contra Clines, who believes “forever” simply contrasts with Job’s imminent death. See Clines,
Job 1–20, 433.
51
The disjunctive waw and the doubling of the first-person pronouns (‫ַאֲנ֣י ָ֭ידַ ﬠְ ִתּי‬
ִ ‫ ;ו‬aʾănî yādaʿtî) indicate
a distinct shift in thought and an emphasis on what comes next. Contra David Wolfers, Deep Things Out of
Darkness: The Book of Job: Essays and a New English Translation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 486.
Seow appears to argue that Job’s use of “know” in Job 19:25 is either mistaken or shortsighted. He thus
concludes that Job is merely, “lifting up a conceit for consideration” (Seow, Job 1–21, 803). Seow’s
interpretation of Job’s other uses of ‫( ידע‬ydʿ) is debatable—but even if he were correct that Job’s knowing
was shortsighted or incorrect, Job can still be expressing true conviction. Furthermore, only if one is
interpreting Job 19:25 without setting it in context with Job’s other statements can one claim Job’s statement
is a fanciful expression that he simply wants others to consider. Job’s description of his redeemer as “alive”
(‫;ח֑י‬
ָ ḥāy) further underscores the strength of Job’s hope.
52
Contra James Wood, who believes Job was making a passing wish statement (James Wood, Job and
The Human Situation [London: Geoffrey Bles, 1966], 77); and Mike Mason, who argues Job was raised to a
state of “prophetic ecstasy” (Mike Mason, The Gospel According to Job [Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books,
1994], 217).
53
Clines argues that Job is stating something he knows is not true. See David J. A. Clines, Job 21-
37, vol. 18A, Word Biblical Commentary (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2006), 457–59. Clines does not
give evidence to support his assertion. Furthermore, the context would support Job making a claim of faith,
not being sarcastic or ironic (contra Seow, Job 1–21, 805).
194 | The Heavenly Third Party in Job

Following Job’s logic so far, Job’s redeemer must be the heavenly third party 54 from
Job 9 and 16. 55
What might Job’s redeemer do? In the Old Testament, a ‫( גֹּ אֵ ל‬go’el) would
avenge the blood of a relative or deliver an oppressed family member. 56 He would
do so through means of buying back or recovering something, 57 thus making payment
the means of redemption. 58 In Job’s case, his redeemer would not only act on his
behalf but would take it upon himself to do away with Job’s debt. Job’s language of
ֹ ֣ gōʾălî) is also more personal than the adjudicator or even “my
“my redeemer” (‫;גּאֲלִ י‬
witness.” Job is referring to someone whom he would have a personal relationship
with—who would thus take Job’s debt upon himself and procure redemption for Job.
What kind of debt does Job owe, and who does he owe it to? Job must owe some
kind of legal debt to God, since he has been operating within legal metaphor and has
stated that he is a condemned sinner before God (Job 7:7–21; 9:2–3; 14:1–4). Job is
also not just asking his redeemer to help him win a legal dispute with God—
something he wants to happen before he dies (cf. 13:3, 18–19). Job is hoping for his
redeemer to remove the legal debt his creaturely fallenness has accumulated against
a holy God. In other words, Job is asking his redeemer to remove the barriers to his
reconciliation to God, as he has spoken of regarding the adjudicator and the witness.

54
Clines asserts that Job’s redeemer is his cry for vindication (Clines, Job 1-20, 459). However, Clines’
argument appears to be driven from his assumptions about Job 16. Moreover, the personal pronouns used for
the redeemer in 19:25 seem to undermine against Clines’ position.
55
So also Pope, Job, 146; Seow, Job 1–21, 804; and Wilson, Job, 107. Wilson notes about Job 9:33,
16:18, and 19:25: “Each passage has a call for an arbiter, is preceded by an angry protest, and succeeded by
despair and the floating of unfulfilled hope” (Ibid.).
Hartley argues that Job’s redeemer is God, in large part because the root ‫( גאל‬gʾl) has a rich theology in
Israelite literature, where it often refers to God. See Hartley, The Book of Job, 292–93. However, Hartley’s
objection is avoided if one takes Job’s historical setting as being earlier than the other Old Testament
Scriptures. But even if Job is dated late, this article has argued that the best contextual understanding of Job’s
adjudicator/witness/redeemer is a third party, not God.
Another objection to seeing the redeemer as a third party is that Job is a monotheist, so he would not
think of another divine being equal to God who would come to his aid (so Gordis, The Book of Job, 2:206).
While it is true Job is a monotheist, his language regarding the heavenly third party consistently points to
someone who can stand between Him and God. Job can still affirm faith in the one true God, while hoping
that some way, a third party would bring God and him together. The LXX’s translation of ‫( ֣ ֹגּאֲלִ י ָח֑י‬gōʾălî ḥāy)
in Job 19:25 as “an eternal one is” (ἀέναός ἐστιν ὁ) indicates that pre-Christian Jews had no difficulty ascribing
divine characteristics to Job’s redeemer.
56
See Reyburn, A Handbook on the Book of Job, 362–63.
57
“‫גאל‬,” HALOT, 169; cf. Lev 25:33, 48.
58
Cf. R. Laird Harris, “‫גֹּ אֵ ל‬,” TWOT, 144. See also Jeremiah Unterman’s chapter in which he
examines the socio-legal contexts that form the basis of the metaphoric meaning of redemption. He argues
that the go’el was “Always the nearest adult male relative responsible for the economic well-being of his
kind, inasmuch as the latter lacked sufficient means to redeem his own property of himself. As blood-
redeemer, the go’el avenged murder and, by extensions, all severe harm inflicted upon a relative (Num
35:12–28; Deut 19:4–6, 11–13; Judg 8:18–21; 2 Sam 3:27; 13:28–29; 14:11).” See Jeremiah Unterman,
“The Social-Legal Origin for the Image of God as Redeemer ‫ גואל‬of Israel,” in Pomegranates and Golden
Bells: Studies in Biblical, Jewish, and Near Eastern Ritual, Law, and Literature in Honor of Jacob
Milgrom, ed. David P. Wright, David Noel Freedman, and Avi Hurvitz (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns,
1995), 399–400. However, Unterman’s argument that Job 19:25 is a prayer to God to redeem him from
unspecified enemies (cf. Ibid., 401). does not fit the thought process and argumentation of either Job or
his friends.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 195

Job’s Redeemer Will Do His Work in the Eschaton

In Job 19:25–27, Job also incorporates his hope in life after death. He does so by
positioning his redeemer as one who will give Job life in the eschaton, signified by
the phrase ‫( ְ֝ואַ חֲרֹ֗ ון‬wəʾaḥărōwn; and at the last) 59 in 19:25b: “And at the last He will
take his stand over the dust of the world.” 60 What will Job’s redeemer do in the
eschaton? Job believes his redeemer will “take his stand” (‫ ;י ָֽקוּם‬yāqûm), acting for
him in God’s court like the witness of 16:19. 61 Job’s reference to “dust” (‫ ; ָﬠפָר‬ʿāpār)
and the eschatological context denoted by ʾaḥărôn indicates Job believes his
redeemer will do his work after Job has died to reverse the consequences of his sinful
nature—and by implication, the consequences of sin, which is death. 62 14F

The Work of Job’s Redeemer Will Result in Resurrection and Reconciliation

In Job 19:26–27, Job expands upon his hope of reconciliation with God by
including the concept of resurrection: “And after this skin is destroyed, yet from my
flesh I shall behold God, whom I myself shall behold, and whom my eyes will see

59
The phrase ʾaḥărôn always refers to the end of something (Exod 4:8; 2 Chron 9:29, 26:22; 29:29;
Dan 11:9; Zech 14:8). The question remains, though, as to how to translate ʾaḥărôn and what it refers to:
Job’s redeemer, as a substantive (So NET Bible), or to the stand his redeemer takes, as an adverbial accusative
(So NASB, LSB). Under the former view, Job is picturing his redeemer as the last one left to defend him, but
there is no mention of timing: “and that as the last.” However, whenever ʾaḥărôn is used in reference to a
person, it does not mean last as in “only” but rather differentiates between groups of people (Deut 24:3; 29:22).
There is only one person in view in Job 19:25—Job’s redeemer.
Seow argues that ʾaḥărôn is never used adverbially and is better taken as a substantive: “the last,” in
reference to God the Redeemer being the first and the last in Isaiah 44:6 (Seow, Job 1-21, 806–7; so also
Clines, Job 1–20, 428). However, if the book of Job was written before Isaiah, then Isaiah would be drawing
upon Job, not the other way around. Furthermore, the syntax in Isaiah 44:6 renders ʾaḥărôn as the object of
an assumed predicate “am”: ‫ַאֲנ֣י אַ חֲרֹ֔ ון‬
ִ ‫( ו‬waʾănî ʾaḥărôn). Seow’s grammatical argument that ʾaḥărôn is never
used as an adjective is weighty (Ibid., 823–24). But the ultimate rule of how a word is used is the
speaker/author, and Seow’s translation of verse 25 (But I know that my redeemer lives, and the last will rise
over dust) does not clarify what Job meant when he spoke these words. It is more natural to take the third
singular verb ‫( י ָֽקוּם‬yāqûm) as giving the main action of the second half of verse 25, while the subject doing
the action is the redeemer—with ʾaḥărôn then modifying when such action takes place. The redeemer will
take his stand for Job “at the last.”
60
Author’s translation. Italics give the implication of ‫ﬠַל־ﬠָפ֥ר‬
ָ (ʿal-ʿāpār).
61
‫( קום‬qwm) can occur in legal contexts to refer to a party taking a stand to say or do something in a
courtroom scenario (Deut 19:16; Job 16:8; Pss 27:12; 35:11). See “‫קום‬,” HALOT, 1086–87; Dhorme, A
Commentary on the Book of Job, 283; Habel, The Book of Job, 293; Waters, “Job 19:23-27: A Living
Redeemer,” 443; and Clines, Job 1–20, 460. Seow is pessimistic about the usage of ‫ קום‬in a forensic sense in
Job 19:25 but admits that legal connotations are present in the verse (Seow, Job 1–21, 807).
62
“Dust” (ʿāpār) in the book of Job is often a metaphor for frailty and death (Job 4:19; 7:5, 21; 10:9;
16:15; 17:16; contra Dhorme, A Commentary on the Book of Job, 283). As a reference to mankind’s origin,
ʿāpār can also refer to source of their creation (Job 8:19). See also Waters, “Job 19:23-27: A Living
Redeemer,” 443; and Seow, Job 1–21, 1:808. Almost every time ʿāpār is used in the Old Testament, it does
not refer to the entire earth, except for Job 41:33 and perhaps here in 19:25. Given that Job has been wishing
for a solution that applies to all mankind (7:17–21; 9:2; 14:3–4), views his redeemer as performing a final,
eschatological work, and refers to a non-definite “dust,” it is possible that Job is not just referring to his own
death but views his situation as representative of mankind’s. ʿApār in 19:25 would then serve as a metaphor
for death, with the redeemer overcoming it.
196 | The Heavenly Third Party in Job

and not another. My heart faints within me!” 63 In these verses, Job speaks of seeing
God in a state of reconciliation with Him, after he has died and risen again. 64 Job is
not referring to a post-death spiritual vision of God. Rather, he has in view a time
after death when he has a renewed body, 65 and where he beholds God face-to-face. 66
The most serious objection to the bodily resurrection view in Job 19:26 comes
from Job’s own words in Job 14:12: “So man lies down and does not rise. Until the

63
Author’s translation. Some scholars argue that the MT of Job 19:26–27 is either corrupted or has
nothing to do with resurrection. For example, Pope and Habel both say verse 26 is “notoriously difficult” to
interpret (Pope, Job, 147; and Habel, The Book of Job, 293). Pope adds that “The ancient versions all differ
and no reliance can be placed in any of them” (Pope, Job, 147). Vicchio similarly claims that that MT is
unrecoverable and that it is impossible to understand what verse 26 says (Vicchio, Job in the Ancient World,
82). Aron Pinker argues that the MT of verse 26 has been edited to reflect a bias towards physical resurrection
and a hope in future vindication. See Aron Pinker, “A New Interpretation of Job 19:26,” Journal of Hebrew
Scriptures 15, no. 2 (2015): 1. However, these scholars do not show objective evidence (manuscripts or textual
discrepancies) for their positions. Vicchio admits that most of the differences between different Hebrew
manuscripts are minor (Vicchio, Job in the Ancient World, 63), and Pinker’s source to support his argument
merely repeats his assertions (cf. T. K. Cheyne, “On Some Suspected Passages in the Poetical Books of the
Old Testament,” JQR 10, no. 1 [1897]: 16).
Other Joban scholars give translations of Job 19:26–27 that are subjective or based on emendations to
the MT. Wilson reflects what seems to be the attitude amongst many of these scholars on verse 26: “However,
a better view is that the limits of language have been reached here, and the details should not be pressed too
far” (Wilson, Job, 108). There seems to be a hesitation amongst scholars to allow the text of Job 19:26–27 to
talk about resurrection.
64
“And after” translates ‫( וְ אַ ַח֣ר‬wəʾaḥar). The primary function of ʾaḥar is to temporally frame
contexts (cf. Deut 8:16; Job 42:12). See also “‫אַ ח ֲִרית‬,” NIDOTTE, 1:361–62. Seow further notes that the
wordplay between wəʾaḥărōwn and wəʾaḥar makes wəʾaḥar temporal (Seow, Job 1–21, 805). See also
Fyall, who sees this verse as Job expecting vindication after he dies (Fyall, Now My Eyes Have Seen You,
51).
65
In verse 26, Job is speaking of a time after his skin (‫ ;עוֹר‬ʿôr) is destroyed or cut off, which is probably
a reference to Job 19:20—where Job is at the edge of death and his bones cling to his “skin” (ʿôr) and “flesh”
(‫ ;בָּ שָׂ ר‬bāśār). Job is envisioning a time when, what is currently physically left of him (his skin and flesh) will
die and be replaced by a renewed body of flesh (bāśār) in 19:26b. For further discussion on what Job means
by “destroyed” (‫ ;נִ קְּ פוּ‬niqqəpû) see Habel, The Book of Job, 293. There is a question as to whether the min in
the phrase ‫( ִמ ְבּשָׂ ִ ֗רי‬mibbəśārî) should be taken as a privative (without my flesh) or one of source (from [the
location of] my flesh). There are a few reasons to take the min as one of source: 1) the only other cognate
construction in the Old Testament is a min of source (Gen 2:23). 2) Job parallels his hope of resurrection in
Job 14:13–17 to the new life a tree gets (Job 14:7), indicating a desire for a new body. Just as Job views his
physical suffering as a sign of judgment, so he views total physical restoration as a sign of reconciliation. 3)
While the min preposition can be used to say, “without” (cf. Job 24:7) it is not usually translated that way
unless it is in combination with another preposition (e.g., ‫[ ִמ ְבּ ִ ֣לי‬mibbəlî] in Job 4:11; 18:15; 31:19; Jer 9:11,
12; Hos 4:6, etc.).
Habel adds that nowhere in Israelite tradition do disembodied people see God and that the broader
context points to Job wanting to see God face-to-face with his own eyes (Ibid., 293–94). Fyal appears to take
the min in a privative sense, but he accurately sums up Job’s meaning in Job 19:26: “Job seeing God without
his flesh does not imply a disembodied experience, but rather that this body has gone” (Fyall, Now My Eyes
Have Seen You, 51; emphasis original). Within the broader ANE context, M. L. Barré has argued that in
Akkadian literature, anytime the verbal parallels to ḥay and qwm occur in the same context, healing and
resurrection are in view. See M. L. Barré, “A Note on Job XIX 25,” VT 29, no. 1 (1979): 107.
66
The words for “behold” (‫ ;חזה‬ḥzh) and “seeing” (‫ ;ראה‬rʾh) in verses 26 and 27 often refer to something
like gazing with wonder at God or His works (Pss 11:7; 17:15; 27:4; 46:8; 63:2). This emotional language fits
the rest of the Job 19:25–27 passage (“I myself,” “not another”) and other places where Job expresses a desire
to be reconciled to God or to speak to Him without fear (Job 9:35; 10:8–9; 14:15–17; 16:21). See also Waters,
“Job 19:23–27: A Living Redeemer,” 443. In verse 25, Job used a reduplication of first-person pronouns to
refer to knowing that his redeemer lives. Job reduplicates first person pronouns again in verse 27 when
referring to seeing God—indicating his confidence and his emotional state about both his redeemer and God.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 197

heavens are no longer, he will not awake nor be aroused out of his sleep.” 67 But while
Job does believe death is the end of man’s existence, just one verse later Job appears
to hope for a new system where death is not the end of mankind’s hope, and where
reconciliation with God is possible (14:13–17). 68 Job’s hope in 19:26–27 is thus a
development of Job’s thought process about how to be reconciled to God. Job would
finally see God—not to challenge Him in a legal dispute, but to see Him while being
in a right relationship with Him, with a new body not affected by sin and death. 69
Job 19:25–27 is the height of Job’s hope of being reconciled to God, and the
heavenly third party plays a central role in fulfilling his hope. Job expresses confident
faith that God would, through a redeemer, raise him from the dead and enable Job to
see Him face-to-face, without sin as a barrier between them. Job has faith that God’s
wrath and condemnation do not solely define Him, and that God is also gracious and
kind to reconcile man to Himself through a redeemer. 70

The Heavenly Mediator and Christ

Job’s heavenly third party is someone who can save Job from His sin, grant him
a resurrection body, and reconcile him to God. For Christians, this is exactly the role
that Jesus Christ fulfills. At a cursory level, there are multiple parallels between the
work of Job’s heavenly third party and the work of Jesus Christ for His people.
Jesus—who is both man and God—stands between God and man as a mediator, to
bring them together (Job 9:33 [LXX]; cf. 1 Tim 2:5–6). Jesus provides the ransom
payment for sin (1 Tim 2:6; cf. Rom 3:24; Eph 1:7; Heb 9:12), while Job’s redeemer
would make a payment to save Job (Job 19:25–27). 71
Job knew no one could be justified before God because of their moral fallenness
(Job 9:2; cf. 4:17), but he still hoped in an adjudicator to bring about justification
(9:33–35). Jesus accomplished justification (Rom 3:23–24; 8:1, 33) and intercedes
for His people before God the Father (8:34; Heb 4:14–16). Job had a hope that his
redeemer would conquer death, somehow enable Job’s bodily resurrection, and
reconcile him to God (Job 19:25–27; cf. 14:13–17). Jesus’ resurrection overcomes
death, reconciles us to God, and gives us new bodies that are free from sin (Rom 6:4;
1 Cor 15:4, 49–57).

67
So Pope, who also notes that Chrysostom denied bodily resurrection in the book of Job based off
this verse (Pope, Job, 147). Vicchio states that it is impossible for Job to be thinking about resurrection
based on Job 14:12. See Vicchio, Job in the Ancient World, 82.
68
Cf. Waters, “Job 19:23–27: A Living Redeemer,” 442; and Ash, Job, 216. See the ESV’s translation
of Job 14:13–17, where Job is giving a picture of what would be true if resurrection is possible. For further
discussion on Job’s resurrection hope in Job 14, see the forthcoming monograph currently under review by
SCS Press.
69
Cf. Ibid. Ash implies that the post-resurrection meeting with God would prove they were already in a
right relationship.
70
Hartley’s conclusion is not quite the same, but his tone is in line with the argument of this article: “To
express it another way, Job believes that his present experience with God’s anger is transitory and ephemeral.
In the end he will encounter God in justice and mercy, the God who will fulfill his kinship commitment to his
servant by vindicating him before the people” (Hartley, The Book of Job, 297).
71
There is also Elihu’s discussion of a heavenly mediator who finds a ransom payment for atonement
in Job 33:23–24. For further discussion, see Barrick, “Messianic Implications in Elihu’s ‘Mediator Speech’
(Job 33:23–28)”; and the forthcoming monograph under review by SCS Press this article is adapted from.
198 | The Heavenly Third Party in Job

There are multiple works written at a more popular level that argue for
connections between the book of Job and Jesus. 72 Yet, there remains a need for
complete scholarly works that examine if and how Paul drew upon Job as he was
developing his own understanding of Christ and His works—including justification,
mediation, atonement, and resurrection. 73 At the very least, the parallels between
Job’s heavenly third party and Jesus should provide an impetus for further research
into this area. There is much fruit that is to be discovered from Paul’s use of Job that
glorifies Jesus.

72
E.g., G. Campbell Morgan, The Answers of Jesus to Job (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1935);
Mike Mason, The Gospel According to Job (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 1994).
73
One in-depth scholarly work that focuses on Paul’s use of Job is by Andrew David Naselli, From
Typology to Doxology: Paul’s Use of Isaiah and Job in Romans 11:34-35 (Eugene, OR: Pickwick
Publications, 2012).
TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 199–218

THE SECOND ADAM AND THE NECESSITY FOR

ESCHATOLOGICAL EARTHLY DOMINION
Jason Beals
Ph.D., The Master’s Seminary
Associate Professor of Theology
The Master’s University

*****

The Old Testament’s portrayal of the coming Davidic King demonstrates His
successes in the realm in which Adam failed. God tasked Adam with a mandate of
dominion, in which he must rule over and subdue the created order such that it
flourishes. However, Adam failed to uphold this mandate by disobeying God’s Word,
plunging the world into sin. Though mankind’s mandate was not removed, none who
followed Adam lived up to the fullness of its requirements before God. Yet the
Scriptures make it clear that the Davidic King will not collapse like Adam, nor any
other earthly king. He will succeed in the divine mandate. And it is this action that
necessitates an earthly kingdom, such that the Second Adam triumphs in dominion
as King over all creation.

*****

Introduction

One of the most theologically rich themes of Scripture as it pertains to Christ is

the last Adam motif. Several scriptural passages show an intentional theological
correspondence between Adam and Christ, communicating rich doctrinal truths
regarding the person and work of Christ. Luke’s gospel draws a parallel in sonship
between Jesus Christ as the Son of God (3:22–23; 4:3, 9) and Adam as the son of
God (3:38). Luke 3–4 intentionally carries the genealogical record back to Adam to
portray Jesus as the second Adam who succeeds in passing Satan’s temptations, in
contrast to the first Adam who failed in temptation. 1 Luke emphasized sonship by
strategically placing the baptism, genealogy, and temptations of Christ side by side.

1
I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text, New International
Greek Testament Commentary (Exeter: Paternoster Press, 1978), 161.
199
200 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

This draws the reader to compare the first Adam with the last Adam. 2 Luke shows a
divine correspondence between Christ and Adam, illustrating that Christ is the Son
of God who succeeded on the earth, against the temptations of the serpent/Satan, in
the same realm where Adam, the son of God had failed. The apostle Paul also draws
a theological correspondence between Christ and Adam, pointing to each one’s
activity upon this earth. He describes Christ as the last Adam (1 Cor 15:45), who
brings life and righteousness for those in union with Him in contrast to the first Adam,
who brought sin and death for those in union with him (Rom 5:12–21; 1 Cor 15:20–
22, 45–49). Likewise, Paul describes Adam and Christ in Romans 5:12–21 as
representatives who impact humanity through the effects of each one’s actions
accomplished upon the earth. Adam and Christ are established as the two “heads” of
humanity 3 in 5:15–21, one being a type (“τύπος”) of the other. Consequently, the last
Adam succeeds in the same realm and against the same foe of the first Adam’s failure
securing soteriological realities.
The concept of the first Adam and last Adam motif in Scripture is most explicitly
connected to hamartiology and soteriology as seen in the above examples. The first
Adam failed, which brought devastating consequences, whereas the second Adam
reverses these consequences for those united in Him. This important pattern
compares Adam’s failure resulting in sin and death (hamartiology) with Christ’s
success resulting in righteousness and eternal life (soteriology). Another significant
correspondence between Adam and Christ is rooted in the creation mandate of
Genesis 1:26–28 for dominion over the earth and animal kingdom. Just as Christ’s
first advent into this world brought soteriological realities of life and righteousness,
so too will His second advent bring eschatological realities of a comprehensive
dominion over the earth. Christ must have a successful reign from, upon, and over
the earth and everything in it as the last Adam in order to fulfill the creation mandate
where Adam had failed in Genesis 1–3. 4 Several biblical passages emphasize the
necessity of an earthly eschatological dominion that reverses Adam’s failure as God’s
viceroy over this world. The exegetical details of these passages overwhelmingly

2
James M. Hamilton Jr., Typology: Understanding the Bible’s Promise-Shaped Patterns: How Old
Testament Expectations Are Fulfilled in Christ (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2022), 60–61.
3
John MacArthur and Richard Mayhue, Biblical Doctrine: A Systematic Summary of Biblical Truth
(Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2017), 464–6. The theological concept of representation or headship highlights
how an individual can represent a larger group. It is typically referred to as federal headship, and most
often connected to covenant theology. However, the label representative headship is a better description
because it directly relates to the emphasis of the texts of Romans 5 and 1 Corinthians 15 which show both
individuals as legal representatives for those who are identified as being either “in Adam” or “in Christ.”
Furthermore, though this view is often a component of covenant theology, one can view Adam and Christ
as representative heads of humanity without embracing theological covenants or covenant theology. Even
some covenant theologians such as Anthony Hoekema and G. C. Berkouwer rejected a covenant of works
in Scripture while holding to the headship concept. See Anthony A. Hoekema, Created in God’s Image
(Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1994), 118–21, 161; G. C. Berkouwer, Sin,
Studies in Dogmatics (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), 208. Thus, one can hold to the exegetical evidence
of a representative-headship view of Adam and Christ in Scripture (specifically Romans 5 and 1
Corinthians 15) without embracing a covenantal theological framework or imposing a covenant of works
upon the text. See MacArthur and Mayhue, Biblical Doctrine, 461–466, and 870–871 for a brief discussion
on representative headship and theological/philosophical covenants respectively.
4
Michael Vlach, Premillennialism: Why There Must Be A Future Earthly Kingdom of Jesus (Los
Angeles, CA: Theological Studies Press, 2015), 69–71.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 201

stress a worldwide and complete dominion that extends to the animal kingdom
displayed through the Davidic King and last Adam. Consequently, the last Adam
must have success in the same location where the first Adam failed in both
soteriological issues and eschatological issues. Otherwise, there is an earth-sized gap
in the biblical storyline of the creation mandate for dominion over this world.

The Creation Mandate for Dominion of the Earth

Adam, created in the image of God, was given a mandate to subdue the earth and
to have dominion over the animal kingdom (Gen 1:28), functioning as a vice-regent
on the earth and mediator between God and His creation. His failure in the garden
brought devastating consequences into the world (Rom 5:12; 8:20–22). Adam’s
failure in the garden was a failure in the creation mandate of dominion over the earth,
introducing a breakdown of the global directive that has not been “wholly
remedied.” 5 No one in history has rectified Adam’s forfeiture of dominion over this
earth. Only Christ can and will fulfill the creation mandate as set forth in Genesis
1:26–28. Scripture shows that Christ is uniquely the true image of God (2 Cor 4:4;
Col 1:15) and perfect mediator (1 Tim 2:5), who will have a successful reign of
dominion upon this earth in a future global kingdom (Num 24:17–19; Pss 8; 72:8–
11; 110:2, 5–7; Dan 7:13–28) that extends to the animal kingdom (Ps 8; Isa 11:6–9).
The Genesis account of creation introduces the concepts of dominion of which other
biblical writers build upon these ideas through intertextual connections and
theological themes, either using the same terms and phrases or alluding to dominion
motifs. These biblical writers build a compounding picture of fulfillment in the
creation mandate for dominion given to the first Adam through the second Adam
earthly reign over geopolitical realities and God’s creation with Edenic-like
conditions of peace and abundance in the culmination of God’s prophetic program.

Genesis 1—The First Adam’s Mandate Expressed

Genesis identifies God as the Architect and Creator of all that exists. 6 He is the
sovereign Creator King who not only establishes the universe, but also owns and
rules over His creation (1 Chr 29:11–12; Ps 89:11–13). He sits on His throne in
heaven (Pss 2:4; 11:4) and His “kingdom rules over all” (Ps 103:19). His universal
kingdom “is an everlasting kingdom” and His “dominion endures from generation to
every generation” (Ps 145:13). While God’s universal kingdom encompasses the
universe, He has also established a mediatorial kingdom 7 upon the earth first
discharged through His creation mandate to Adam to “be fruitful and multiply, and
fill the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the

5
Alva J. McClain, The Greatness of the Kingdom: An Inductive Study of the Kingdom of God
(Winona Lake, IN: BMH Books, 2007), 43.
6
John J. Davis, Paradise To Prison: Studies In Genesis (Salem, WI: Sheffield Publishing Company,
1998), 42.
7
For a detailed discussion between the differences of God’s universal kingdom and man’s
mediatorial kingdom, see McClain, The Greatness of the Kingdom: An Inductive Study of the Kingdom of
God, 34–36; Michael J. Vlach, He Will Reign Forever: A Biblical Theology of the Kingdom of God
(Silverton, OR: Lampion, 2017), 54–56.
202 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

birds of the sky and over every living thing that creeps on the earth” (1:28). This is a
mediatorial dominion in that Adam, and mankind by extension, was to rule over the
earth as God’s representative. The call for dominion is rooted in the divine image,
“Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness, so that they will have
dominion” (1:26). The text suggests that the result of being made in God’s image is
expressed in exercising dominion. 8 The terms for “image” and “likeness” in 1:26–28
not only show a unique relationship with God as Creator, but also accentuate an
exalted and regal role with God’s creation. 9 God’s image bearers function as His
representatives on earth and as rulers over nature. 10 In summary, God is King over
His universal kingdom which entails all of creation (1 Chr 29:11–12; Pss 2:4; 11:4;
89:11–13; 103:19–22; 145:13; Dan 4:34–35) and has created man to be a mediator
over the earth as a vice-regent (Pss 8:6; 115:16).
The specific creation assignment is attached to two key verbs, ‫“( רדה‬to have
dominion”) and ‫“( כבשׁ‬to subdue”). The verb ‫“( רדה‬to have dominion”) is used in
Genesis 1:26 and 28 with reference to five key categories: 1) fish of the sea; 2) birds
of the sky, 3) cattle, 4) the earth, and 5) creeping things on the ground (most likely
reptiles and insects). These categories are marked with the Hebrew preposition ְ‫בּ‬,
describing the exact objects of the dominion injunction. In addition, the phrase ‫וּבְ כָל־‬
‫“( הָ ֔ ָא ֶרץ‬over all of the earth”) makes this mandate specifically a global dominion and
not simply regional or localized. Consequently, dominion on this earth, over all the
earth, and over earthly creatures will be significant markers for other biblical writers
alluding back to Genesis 1:26–28 for the fulfillment through the last Adam. God will
not leave this mandate unrealized but will fulfill it in respect to both the location and
the objects of dominion in the first Adam’s failure.
The charge in Genesis 1:28 contains two indicative sentences introduced by
imperfect consecutive verbs �‫“( ַוי ְָב ֶ֣ר‬to bless”) and ‫“( ַו ֨יּ ֹאמֶ ר‬to speak”). 11 This specific
mandate is established in the context of Yahweh’s blessing and only achievable
through His blessing and empowerment. Additionally, the two indicative sentences
are followed by five imperatives, ‫“( פרה‬be fruitful”), ‫“( רבה‬multiply”), ‫“( מלא‬fill”),
‫“( כבשׁ‬subdue”), ‫ רדה‬and (“have dominion”). 12 The first three verbs (“be fruitful,”
“multiply,” and “fill”) are textually linked to “the earth” (“‫)”אֶ ת־הָ ָ ֖א ֶרץ‬, pointing to the
process of populating the earth in order to bring about the last two verbs of subduing
(“‫ )”כבשׁ‬the earth and exercising dominion (“‫ )”רדה‬over the animal kingdom. Thus,
populating the earth was a part of ruling over it.
The concept of dominion communicated through the terms ‫“( כבשׁ‬subdue”) and
‫“( רדה‬have dominion”) are associated with power, rule, authority, and governance
over a realm, which in the case of the first Adam is the whole earth. The term ‫רדה‬

8
It is beyond the scope of this article to explore the image of God and its implications with any
depth. See MacArthur and Mayhue, Biblical Doctrine, 407–14. The view taken here is the image of God
is “substantive,” something inherently structural to man. Therefore, dominion is a consequence and result
of being made in the image.
9
Stephen G. Dempster, Dominion and Dynasty: A Biblical Theology of the Hebrew Bible, ed. D. A.
Carson, vol. 15, New Studies in Biblical Theology (Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press, 2003), 59.
10
T. Desmond Alexander, From Paradise to the Promised Land: An Introduction to the Pentateuch,
Third Edition (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2012), 125.
11
Mark D. Vander Hart, “Creation and Covenant, Part One,” Mid-American Journal of Theology 6,
no. 1 (Fall 1990): 5.
12
Ibid.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 203

(“have dominion”) stresses “the act of dominance by force” and can seem to have a
negative association in prohibitions in the Torah against subjugating fellow Israelites
(Lev 25:43, 46, 53; Ezek 34:4). 13 Though to be precise, Leviticus 25:43, 46, 53 adds
�‫“( פּ ֶֶר‬brutality”) to qualify the kind of dominion, thereby showing that ‫ רדה‬does not
inherently have a negative connotation. ‫ רדה‬also overlaps in meaning with ‫משׁל‬
(“rule”), as both describe Solomon’s rule (1 Kgs 4:21) and dominion (1 Kgs 4:24)
over the surrounding nations. Moreover, ‫ רדה‬is used to describe the Messiah’s future
global kingdom reign (Num 24:19; Pss 78:2; 110:2). The other key term ‫כבשׁ‬
(“subdue”) “depicts a hierarchical relationship in which humans are positioned above
the earth and granted power and control over it.” 14 “Subdue” can describe the
subjugation and conquest of the land (Num 32:22, 29), but the usage of ‫ כבשׁ‬in
Genesis 1:28 is specifically connected to the earth, implying the kind of work man
must do in order to “bring creation into submission through man’s strength,” 15 170F

through the area of “settlement and agriculture.” 16 Hence, the earth is designed to
17F

flourish, providing plant-based food for man and animals (1:29–30). These two verbs
in the context of Eden point to dominion that is peaceful, productive, and mutually
beneficial for mankind, animals, and the land. This positive view of dominion is
illustrated through Adam’s work in the garden of Eden in chapter 2 by cultivating
and keeping the land (2:5, 15) and giving names to the animals (2:19–20).

Genesis 2—The First Adam’s Mandate Illustrated

The creation mandate of Genesis 1:26–28 is closely linked to both the activity
of God in creation and Adam’s work in the garden. The Creator King has dominion
over His creation, making the formless, void, and uninhabitable earth (Gen 1:2; Jer
4:23) a hospitable place for life (1:3–19), which He then fills with life (1:20–28).
Yahweh also creates man as a mediator and viceroy over His creation for the purpose
of subduing it and exercising dominion over it to bring about its order, productivity,
and flourishing. Man’s vice-regency resembles Yahweh’s sovereign work over the
earth in a limited yet significant way. The creation account describes God’s dominion
over all aspects of creation, providing insight into how His image bearers will
function in the garden in carrying out the dominion of the earth and the animal
kingdom.
The first three days of creation change the barren earth into an inhabitable and
productive environment in the spheres of water, sky, and land (1:3–13). The last three
days pertain to populating the spheres (water, sky, and land) with fish, birds, and land
creatures (1:20–25), culminating in the creation of mankind (1:26–31). Through His
creative word, God cultivates and shapes the earth for the sustainability of life in the
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere. Not only does He subdue the earth,
developing and preparing it for life, but He also gives specific names to what He

13
Philip J. Nel, “‫”רדָ ה‬
ָ in New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology & Exegesis, ed.
Willem VanGemeren (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1997), 3:1056.
14
Theodore Hiebert, “Rethinking Dominion Theology,” Direction 25, no. 3 (Fall 1996): 18.
15
Vander Hart, “Creation and Covenant, Part One,” 7.
16
Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis, Chapters 1–17, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1990), 40.
204 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

creates, demonstrating His authority and dominion over what exists. 17 The text uses
the term ‫“( קרא‬to call”) in 1:5, 7, and 10 to highlight God’s authoritative act in naming
the day, night, heaven, earth, and seas that He spoke into existence. 18 This activity of
173F

naming aspects of His creation illustrates God’s sovereign dominion over it.
Likewise, when man is tasked with dominion over the earth as God’s vice-
regent, he is further told in Genesis 2:15 to “cultivate” and “keep” the garden. Man
was to work the earth to produce a flourishing environment for God’s creation to
thrive. He was also tasked with giving names to the animals (2:19–20). The same
term ‫“( קרא‬to call”) used to describe God’s activity in naming aspects of creation is
used in 2:19–20 to highlight man’s act in naming the animals, demonstrating man’s
representative activity. As Creator King, God had every authoritative right to name
the animals as He had done for other aspects of creation, yet He chose to give that
activity to man as a stewardship of dominion over the animals. Thus, Adam
undertakes similar activities to God in exercising dominion over creation.
Another connection which helps in understanding the creation mandate of 1:26–
28 is the role of the sun, moon, and stars “ruling” the day and night in 1:14–19. The
two great lights separate the day from night (1:14), operate as signs (1:14) for the
calendar (seasons, days, and years), give light to the earth (1:15, 17), and function as
“rulers,” governing the day and night (1:16, 18; cf. 136:8–9). The noun ‫ מֶ ְמשָׁ לָה‬from
the root ‫“( משׁל‬to rule”) in Genesis 1:16 and 18 likens the sun and moon to rulers of
their domain, exercising dominion over day and night. 19 The noun is often used to
highlight the control of a king over his domain. Psalm 145:13 connects Yahweh’s
‫“( מֶ ְמשָׁ לָה‬dominion”) alongside His ‫“( מַ לְ כוּת‬kingdom”). 20 Additionally, ‫מֶ ְמשָׁ לָה‬
described Solomon’s rule over the kingdoms next to Israel (1 Kgs 4:21 [5:1] MT),
with the cognate ‫ מֹ שֶׁ ל‬linked to the global earthly messianic kingdom (Zech 9:10).
The verb ‫“( משׁל‬to rule”) is used in contexts describing God’s rule (Isa 40:10; Pss
89:9; 103:22), as well as man’s creation mandate of ruling over the earth and the
animal kingdom in Psalm 8 (8:6–8). These intertextual connections are important, for
it closely links the action of ‫“( משׁל‬rule”) with the activity of ‫“ רדה‬have dominion” in
Genesis 1:26 and 28. The text subtly associates the rule of the luminaries with the
dominion of man in serving God’s creation. David Carr notes, “…it appears that this
otherwise unexplained “rule” (‫ )ממשלה‬by non-personified heavenly bodies in 1:14–
18 anticipates the (differently worded) “rule” (‫ )רדה‬to which humans will be destined
in 1:26, 28.” 21 Thus, the great lights serve creation on behalf of God by giving light
176F

and serve mankind by providing visible signs for calendar purposes like a world
clock. 22
17F

17
James McKeown, Genesis, The Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 22.
18
Meredith G. Kline, Genesis: A New Commentary, ed. Jonathan G. Kline (Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson Publishers, 2016), 11.
19
Philip J. Nel, “‫מָ שַׁ ל‬,” New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology & Exegesis (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1997), 2:1137.
20
Ibid.
21
David M. Carr, Genesis 1–11, International Exegetical Commentary on the Old Testament 1
(Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer, 2021), 62–63.
22
H. Gross, “‫( מָ שַׁ ל‬2),” ed. G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry, trans.
David E. Green, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1998), 9:71.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 205

Moreover, the sun and moon function as rulers over their particularly designed
realms to assist the earth in flourishing. Similarly, man has been given the charge to
rule over the earth in a more detailed way, through dominion and subjugation of the
earth and all the creatures in the earth. Both the luminaries and mankind are tasked
with providing for the earth in different ways according to their function and spheres.
The luminaries would order and govern their domain in the heavens as divinely
mandated to carry out the cycles of day and night (Gen 1:16–18) for the glory of God
(Ps 19). Likewise, man is to order and govern his domain upon the earth as Yahweh’s
representative and bring Him glory through godly dominion. Thus, Adam’s activity
in Genesis 2:15–20 highlights a governing of the garden and an ordering of the animal
kingdom as God’s vice-regent, serving through royal labor as a mediator on God’s
behalf.

Genesis 3—The First Adam’s Mandate Failure

The blessing of man’s exalted status in exercising dominion is contrasted to the

curse in the Fall (Gen 3:17) through man’s failure in the garden. The very ground
man was to cultivate and keep would require great toil, growing thorns and thistles
because of sin (3:18). In a devastating twist, man would be dominated by the very
ground he was to have dominion over (1:26–28). Adam’s failure happened on the
earth and he would return to it via death and decay through sin (Gen 3:19; Rom 5:12).
Similarly, the last Adam would come to the earth in his first advent to deal with sin
(Rom 5:15–21; Heb 9:28). Additionally, Adam’s failure in governing his wife, his
desires, 23 and the animal kingdom (the serpent) meant failure in the creation mandate.
He can no longer “fulfill his God-given destiny to rule the earth successfully.” 24 This
failure invalidated Adam’s vice-regent and mediatorial position of exercising
dominion over the earth and the animal kingdom under the leadership of God. Only
the last Adam in His second advent through an earthly kingdom can fulfill the
creation mandate in the way the last Adam failed. Christ’s first advent to earth was
necessary to undo the consequences of sin and death of Adam. Correspondingly,
Christ’s second advent to earth exercising dominion over it through His kingdom rule
is necessary to succeed in the same realm and sphere where Adam failed.
The effects of the curse not only brought about the loss of subduing the land as
intended, but also an upheaval in the animal kingdom with hostility between man and
animals. Genesis 9:2 notes that the beasts of the earth, the birds of the sky, the
creeping things on the ground, and the fish in the sea will be fearful and terrified of
man. The very spheres of the animal kingdom that were under Adam’s dominion
(1:28) and of which he organized and named through peaceful dominion (2:19–20)
were now in a state of estrangement, fear, and terror. The devastating consequences
of the curse shattered the peace and tranquility between mankind and the animal
kingdom, bringing enmity and hostility. This is foreshadowed in the hostility between
the seed of the serpent and the seed of the woman in Genesis 3:15. Animals were in
no danger of being eaten prior to the Fall. The menu of the garden was plant-based

Eugene H. Merrill, “Covenant and the Kingdom,” Criswell Theological Review 1, no. 2 (1987), 301.
23
24
Michael Vlach, The New Creation Model: A Paradigm For Discovering God’s Restoration
Purposes from Creation to New Creation (Cary, NC: Theological Studies Press, 2023), 72.
206 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

for both man and creature (1:29–30), but now changes after the Fall, with animals
available as food for people (9:2–3). Additionally, the Fall brought in the inversion
of man’s relationship with the animal kingdom through idol worship. Eugene Merrill
observes, “No longer did man have dominion over all things; instead, he abdicated
his role as sovereign and worshipped what he should have ruled.” 25 Man would no
longer exercise dominion over the animal kingdom as an act of worship of the Creator
King. Instead, man worships the creatures, making idols in the likeness of corruptible
man, birds, four-footed animals, and crawling creatures (Rom 1:23).
Man has failed to fulfill the creation mandate in the exact way it was given and
over the exact realms it covered. While there have been attempts at dominion through
people like Nimrod (Gen 10:8–12), or Gentile nations like Babylon (Dan 2:38; Isa
14:6), Egypt (Ezek 29:13–16), Persia (Isa 41:2), or even future empires like the
Antichrist (Dan 7; Rev 13), they all have failed to include the whole earth, peace in
the animal kingdom, and the abundant flourishing of creation. Even God-fearing men
like Noah and Solomon exhibited only limited aspects of dominion. Noah provided
for and protected two of every kind of bird, animals, and creeping thing on the ground
(Gen 6:16–22; 8:15–19), categories of Genesis 1:26–28. Solomon also functioned in
a similar way, having rule and dominion of the surrounding nations (1 Kgs 4:21; 24).
Furthermore, Solomon’s activities are reminiscent though not a recapitulation of
Adam’s activities in the garden. Solomon’s wisdom is illustrated through his
articulation of creation (1 Kgs 4:33). He spoke of trees, from cedar trees to hyssop,
and of animals, birds, creeping things, and fish. These are the same categories that
Adam had dominion over, ordered, and even named. However, no person nor empire
has even come close to exercising the kind of righteous rule and dominion over the
earth and animals stipulated in the creation mandate. Adam’s failure leaves a hole in
the biblical storyline involving the creation mandate. There is a last Adam who is
destined to have dominion over all the earth and over all the animal kingdom and
succeed in the same terrestrial location where Adam failed. 26

The Messianic Dominion of the Earth

Adam’s failure requires one to fulfill the mandate in its original design and
intent. David in Psalm 8 showed the creation mandate is still applicable. Additionally,
David and other biblical authors established new revelation in connection with the
creation mandate through unique words, phrases, motifs, and concepts 27 directly
anchored in Genesis 1:26–28 language and stipulations. Numbers 24, Psalms 72 and
110, Isaiah 2 and 11, and Daniel 7 are key to this discussion because the biblical
writers connect the messianic expectation of success in the same realm (earth and the
animal kingdom) where Adam’s failure occurred. The prophetic solution to the
dominion mandate through the last Adam is exegetically and theologically consistent
with the mandate failure of the first Adam.

25
Eugene H. Merrill, Everlasting Dominion: A Theology of the Old Testament (Nashville, TN: B&H
Academic, 2006), 285.
26
Vlach, Premillennialism: Why There Must Be A Future Earthly Kingdom of Jesus, 70.
27
Abner Chou, The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the
Prophets and Apostles (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2018), 48–49. For a discussion on the
hermeneutics of OT writers see pages 47–92.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 207

Numbers 24

Numbers describes Israel’s travel to the Promised Land from Sinai (Num 1–10)
to the plains of Moab (Num 22:1; 36:13). There, the king of Moab and Balaam
attempt to curse Israel (Num 22:4–7). The cycle of Balaam’s four discourses (23:7,
18; 24:3, 15) in Numbers 22–24 are initiated due to Moab’s fear of Israel because of
their success against the Amorites (22:2–3). Balak hoped Balaam’s curses would help
him defeat Israel. Yet Balaam can only speak what Yahweh gives him to speak
(22:35, 38; 23:5, 16, 26) pronouncing blessings for Israel, revealing for Israel
Yahweh’s intent of fulfilling His promises made to the patriarchs. 28 Israel’s
immutable God will exhibit an unyielding fidelity to His covenant oath.
Numbers 24 contains the last two discourses of Balaam with the third discourse
centered on the coming messianic King “who would bring the blessings of the
Abrahamic Covenant both to Israel and the nations.” 29 This messianic hope reaches
back to Genesis 3:15 and the promised “head crusher.” 30 Genesis 49:8–12, Jacob’s
latter days prophecy (49:1), describes an eschatological King from Judah wielding a
scepter and ruler’s staff, receiving the obedience of the nations (49:10) in a time of
unprecedented agricultural prosperity (49:11–12). This future king with scepter and
staff is a “warrior-king whose rule will extend from Judah to encompass…all the
peoples of the earth,” 31 and who “brings order and a new creation to this world.” 32
Balaam’s third discourse (24:3–9) predicts a blessings on Israel’s seed with promises
of an exalted king and kingdom (23:7), the crushing and shattering of enemies (23:8),
and a repetition of Genesis 49:9 and Genesis 12:3 in Numbers 24:9. The third
discourse highlights a connection between the Abrahamic promise and a victorious
King over his enemies. Greg Harris states, “Both Genesis 49 and Numbers 24 depict
the promised King as fierce, crouching and lying down like a lion whom no one will
dare to rouse (Gen 49:9; Num 24:9), and—most significantly—it is through this
promised individual King that both the blessing and the cursing will come in its
fullness (Gen 12:3; 27:29; Num 24:9).” 33 Consequently, the third discourse points to
a King who has victory over enemies because of God’s Abrahamic promises of
blessings and curses (Gen 12:3; 22:15–18).
Balaam’s fourth discourse (Num 24:5–19) centers on “the last days” (24:14; cf.
Gen 49:1) emphasizing a ruler exercising dominion. A King will come from Israel,
crush the forehead of His enemies with His scepter (24:17), and have dominion
(24:19). Here, the Hebrew verb ‫“( רדה‬have dominion”) in 24:19 is used to show that
this messianic figure will exercise dominion over his enemies. The usage of ‫ רדה‬in
the Pentateuch is limited, making this a unique case, occurring in Genesis 1:26, 28;

28
Gordon J. Wenham, Numbers: An Introduction and Commentary, Tyndale Old Testament
Commentaries 4 (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1981), 190.
29
John MacArthur Jr., The MacArthur Study Bible (Nashville, TN: Word Publishing, 1997), 231
30
For a detailed discussion of the messianic intentions of Genesis 3:15, see Chou, The Hermeneutics
of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets and Apostles, 83–87.
31
Dempster, Dominion and Dynasty: A Biblical Theology of the Hebrew Bible, 91.
32
Chou, The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets
and Apostles, 86.
33
Greg Harris, The Bible Expositor’s Handbook (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2020),
208 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

Leviticus 25:43, 46, 53; 26:17, and here in Numbers 24:19. 34 The uses in Leviticus
have already been discussed above and refer to the harsh treatment of an Israelite,
thus making Genesis 1:26–28 and Numbers 24:19 the only references in the
Pentateuch dealing with a kingly dominion rule. The creation mandate stipulated in
Genesis is carried over to Numbers 24, describing one who has dominion. Moreover,
other biblical writers continue the language and themes of the Pentateuch’s promise
for a King who will successfully exercise dominion on the earth through God’s
“blessing” in connection with the creation mandate of Genesis 1:26–28.

Psalms 8, 72, 110

The Genesis motif of a man exercising dominion over all of God’s creation as a
vice-regent is tied to three Davidic Psalms (8, 72, 110). The terms used in Genesis 1
for “rule” (‫ משׁל‬- 1:16, 18) and “dominion” (‫ רדה‬- 1:26, 28) in the creation account
are also used in these three psalms to describe kingly rule over creation. Psalm 8 is
an exposition of the Genesis 1 creation mandate by David, in which he praises
Yahweh, the Creator King for creating man as a king to rule over His creation. Later
biblical writers link Psalm 8 with Christ’s own kingdom rule (1 Cor 15:25; Heb 2:7).
Psalms 72 and 110 paint a picture of a future messianic king exhibiting dominion
over his enemies, sharing the language of Genesis 1:26–28. These three psalms
emphasize One who will have unprecedented success in exerting dominion over the
earth, over nations, and over the animal kingdom.
Psalm 8 praises Yahweh for His majestic splendor exhibited through creation
and for creating man to rule over the earth as His representative. The psalm
incorporates an inclusio, beginning and ending with the same phrase, “O Yahweh,
our Lord, how majestic is Your name in all the earth” (8:1, 9). Contained within this
inclusio are two stanzas that: 1) praise God for creation, ending with a rhetorical
question about man’s value (1:1–4) and 2) answers that question through describing
man’s position as vice-regent over creation (1:5–8). 35 There is a parallel emphasis on
the theme of ruling for both Yahweh and man, recalling the Genesis account. Yahweh
is called ‫“( אֲדֹ ֵ֗נינוּ‬our Lord,” or “our Master”) acknowledging His Kingship, which not
only extends over Israel but also over the earth as the universal ruler. 36 At the same
time, Yahweh has created man with regal terms and implications. God “crowns”
(‫)עטר‬, man with “glory” (‫)כבוד‬, and “majesty” (‫)הדר‬,” all of which are royal terms. 37
Two other key concepts that show this vice-regent status are seen in Psalm 8:6. David
proclaims that man “rules” (‫ משׁל‬cf. Gen 1:16, 18) over the works of Yahweh’s hands.
The term ‫“ משׁל‬to rule” has a close association with ‫“ רדה‬dominion” and its usage
here links ‫“ משׁל‬ruling” with the creation mandate (Gen 1:26–28). Both Genesis 1 and
Psalm 8 use terms, concepts, and motifs to describe Yahweh’s dominion over the

34
Chou, The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets
and Apostles, 87, fn. 155.
35
Rolf A. Jacobson and Beth Tanner, “Book One of the Psalter: Psalms 1–41,” in The Book of
Psalms, ed. E. J. Young, R. K. Harrison, and Robert L. Hubbard Jr., The New International Commentary
on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2014), 120.
36
Ibid.
37
Peter J. Gentry and Stephen J. Wellum, Kingdom through Covenant: A Biblical-Theological
Understanding of the Covenants, Second Edition. (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2018), 231–2.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 209

universe (universal kingdom) and man’s role as His viceroy over the world
(mediatorial kingdom).
Moreover, Psalm 8:6 continues the royal motif of man with the phrase “You have
put all things under his feet.” The idea of having something or someone “under the feet”
continues the idea of “dominion.” This was a common concept in the OT (1 Kgs 5:3)
and was associated with a footstool connected to a throne (1 Chr 28:2; 2 Chr 9:18; Pss
110:1 132:7; Isa 66:1). It was also imagery on reliefs for the dominion of ancient kings
subjugating their enemies and wild beasts. Dominion is extended to the animal
kingdom in Psalm 8 in repeated phrases and categories of Genesis 1:26–28, except
listed in reverse order. Consequently, Psalm 8 connects back to Genesis 1 in a multitude
of ways to show the continued relevance of the creation mandate. Though Adam failed
in having dominion, man still possesses the mandate to rule over the earth and the
animal kingdom through God’s blessing. This mandate awaits someone who can
complete such a global task the way God intended in Genesis 1:26–28. The Old
Testament passages will develop the implications of this theme, painting a
compounding picture of One who fulfills the expectations of the creation mandate’s
design of man ruling and having dominion over the earth as God’s vice-regent and
thereby ruling like Him. Furthermore, the New Testament writers quote Psalm 8 in
connection with Christ’s rule on the earth, looking for a future fulfillment in the world
to come when He returns to put all things under His dominion (1 Cor 15:25; Heb 2:7).
Psalm 72 describes a King who has worldwide dominion over the earth. It
focuses attention upon a time of flourishing and abundance upon the earth for both
people and the land. The King functions as Yahweh’s representative, instituting a
period of peace, righteousness, and blessing (72:1–7, 16–17), while exhibiting
absolute power and authority over all kings and nations (72:8–15). This King has a
great and enduring name (72:17), yet brings glory to Yahweh’s name, with the whole
earth filled with His glory (72:19). Hamilton notes that Psalm 72 is structured in a
chiasm with the central focus on the king’s worldwide dominion (72:8–11) and the
exercise of justice in the world (72:12–14). 38 This draws attention to a righteous
dominion over the earth as the root cause of the productive and peaceful land. The
superscription of Psalm 72 notes “of Solomon” though this psalm is hardly fulfilled
in his rule for a few reasons. First, while Solomon did exhibit extraordinary wisdom
in judgment, administering justice (1 Kgs 3:1–28), he personally fell short of a
righteous life (1 Kgs 11) that is exhibited by the king described in Psalm 72. Second,
while Solomon did have tremendous wealth from countries, including Tyre (1 Kgs
9) and Sheba (1 Kgs 10), there was not a global tribute paid to him like this king
(Psalm 72:10–11). Third, while Solomon did “rule” (‫ )משׁל‬the surrounding kingdoms
(1 Kgs 4:21) and exercise “dominion” (‫ )רדה‬in the region (1 Kgs 4:24), his rule and
dominion were limited in scope, degree, and extent, with the kingdom splitting after
his death (1 Kgs 12).
However, the Davidic King described in Psalm 72 has a global kingdom with
absolute dominion over a flourishing and productive earth. The King is one who
represents Yahweh. The psalmist petitions Yahweh to give the King “Your
judgments” (‫)מ ְשׁ ָפּט‬
ִ and “Your righteousness” (‫ )צְ דָ קָ ה‬so that the King implements
righteous displays of “justice” (‫)מ ְשׁ ָפּט‬
ִ for the people, including the afflicted (72:1–

38
James M. Hamilton, Psalms (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Academic, 2021), 1:628.
210 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

2). This King’s vice-regent rule with Yahweh is similar to Isaiah’s description of
Yahweh’s activity as a “judge” (‫ )שׁפט‬of the nations in the last days (Isa 2:1–4) and
the activity of the messiah as a “judge” (‫ )שׁפט‬marked by “righteousness” (‫)צדֶ ק‬ ֶ ֫ in the
future kingdom (Isa 11:3–4). He also exercises worldwide “dominion” (‫ )רדה‬from sea
to sea and from the river to the ends of the earth (Ps 72:8). This unique phrase is the
same geographical description of the messianic kingdom in Zechariah 9:10 (cf. Zech
14:9). The Davidic King brings in abundant peace and abundant productivity upon
the earth (Ps 72:3–7; 16), again reminiscent of the messianic age (Joel 3:18; Amos
9:13). The extent of the King’s rule is connected to the function of the sun and moon
(72:5, 17), describing a kingdom which lasts for as long as the sun and moon follow
their cycle (Jer 31:35–36; 33:20–26). Verse 17 includes “forever,” establishing an
eschatological connection. Therefore, the King and the kingdom described in Psalm
72 is categorically different than Solomon’s rule. Additionally, while this psalm is
not a fulfillment of Solomon’s rule, it most likely is a petition by David (Ps 72:20)
for his son and ultimately fulfilled in the ultimate Son of David, the Messiah. 39 Psalm 194F

72 ends book two of the Psalms with a petition by David for the fulfillment of the
creation mandate of Genesis 1 through the Davidic king, longing for the day when
the Messiah rules a flourishing earth, bringing an end to injustice, subjugating the
nations, and establishing a blessing upon the earth. Though the New Testament does
not quote this Psalm as messianic, the parallels of this psalm with other Old
Testament prophecies of the messiah and his rule are considerable, as has been briefly
shown above. The psalm’s grammatical link with Isaiah 11 alone shows its messianic
intention and has long been recognized as such in both Jewish and Christian
writings. 40
195F

Adam’s activity as king over creation by cultivating it, keeping it, and exercising
dominion over the animals (Gen 1:26–28; 2:15, 19–20) mirrored the activity of
Yahweh in shaping creation (Gen 1:1ff) and naming it (Gen 1:5, 8, 10). The same is
true in Psalm 72, with the Davidic King displaying activities describing God. As
noted above, this comes out in the first two verses where the request is made for
Yahweh to give the Davidic King characteristics and activities belonging to God
(‫“ – ִמ ְשׁ ָפּט‬Your judgments” and ‫“ – צְ דָ קָ ה‬Your righteousness”) so that the king will
implement righteous displays of “justice” (‫)מ ְשׁ ָפּט‬ ִ for the people. The messianic king
functions as Yahweh’s representative empowered by Yahweh’s judgments with
Yahweh’s righteousness (72:1) for the expressed purpose of rendering righteous
decisions to Yahweh’s people and Yahweh’s afflicted (72:2). Four times “Your” is
used in these two verses to emphasize this representative judicial function.
Additionally, the King’s righteous decisions render justice to the afflicted (72:2, 4)
and helpless (72:12). Similarly, Yahweh is described as One who brings help up to
the afflicted (Ps 147:6) and gives justice to the oppressed (146:7). Similarly, the King
saves (72:4), delivers (72:12), and redeems (72:14). These are all works of Yahweh

39
Hamilton, Psalms, 1:620–621; Geoffrey W. Grogan, Psalms, The Two Horizons Old Testament
Commentary (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 131
40
Derek Kidner, Psalms 1–72: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 15, Tyndale Old Testament
Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1973), 273; Allen P. Ross, A Commentary on the
Psalms 42–89: Commentary, vol. 2, Kregel Exegetical Library (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2011–
2013), 533; William Varner, Awake O Harp: A Devotional Commentary on the Psalms (Woodlands, TX:
Kress Biblical Resources, 2011), 187.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 211

in which the coming King will participate in as vice-regent over the earth.
Furthermore, the King will “crush” (‫ )דכא‬the oppressor. This term pictures a type of
crushing that pulverizes and dashes to pieces. 41 This is an activity that describes
Yahweh’s action toward His enemies (Ps 89:10). Finally, another key activity that
this King does as a representative and vice-regent is exercise “dominion” (‫ )רדה‬over
the earth (72:8). This Davidic King acts in Adamic fashion by exercising dominion
over the earth in the exact way Yahweh intended His vice-regent to function. He will
successfully carry out the mandate of dominion with Edenic results.
Blessing and abundance on the earth is an additional theme of Psalm 72 that
recalls Genesis 1–2. The King’s righteous rule through righteous decision making
brings about peace and righteousness in creation (Ps 72:1–2). The mountains and the
hills are actively involved through “lifting up” (‫ )נשׂא‬peace and righteousness
throughout the whole land (72:3). The righteous reign of the Davidic King is like that
of heavy rains bringing about “flourishing” and “abundance” (72:6–7). This Psalm,
and many other messianic passages, show the effects of righteousness established on
the earth through a righteous ruler who propagates prosperity in the land (Gen 49:10;
Isa 32:1–2, 15–20; 35:1–2, 6–7; Jer 31:2–14; Ezek 34:23–27; 36:22–36; Amos 9:11–
15; Zech 8:11–12; 9:9–17; Joel 3:18; Mic 4:4). There is a close connection between
the cultivation of righteousness and the cultivation of abundance that goes back to
the garden. For example, Ezekiel promises a new Davidic King who will bring about
a time of political and agricultural prosperity (Ezek 34:23–29) where the people are
cleansed from sin and the desolate places are cultivated instead of being desolate,
becoming like the garden of Eden (Ezek 36:22–38, esp. vvs. 34–35). Psalm 72
testifies to this by describing the Davidic King working together with creation for the
fruitfulness, prosperity, and flourishing of the earth, illustrated by an abundance of
grain which waves like the trees in Lebanon known for their height (Ps 72:16).
Additionally, abundance carries over to the people living in cities, blossoming like
vegetation (72:16). The prosperity, abundance, and fruitfulness depicted in the psalm
are anchored in the blessings that proceed from the Davidic King. 42 This blessing 197F

affects all the nations, employing language directly connected back to the Abrahamic
covenant (Gen 12:1–3). There is a reversal of the curse on the ground with nature
responding to the righteous rule of the king and abundantly producing food. Thus,
the Davidic King, functioning as a conduit of blessing for both the Abrahamic and
Davidic covenants, brings a blessing of fruitfulness and multiplication that ties back
to Genesis 1:26–28. In other words, the Davidic King as the last Adam succeeds
where the first Adam failed to exercise dominion through the blessing of God (Gen
1:26–28) that includes fruitfulness and multiplication. This emphasizes the
fulfillment of the creation mandate in the specific realm where Adam’s sin took place,
on the earth and involving geopolitical realities of the earth. Psalm 72 defines the
success of the last Adam in terms of Edenic conditions in the same realm where the
first Adam failed, reversing the curse and bringing blessing to Yahweh’s creation.

41
H. F. Fuhs, “‫דָּ כָא‬,” ed. G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, trans. John T. Willis and
Geoffrey W. Bromiley, Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans
Publishing Company, 1978), 3:195.
42
Hans-Joachim Kraus, A Continental Commentary: Psalms 60–150 (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress
Press, 1993), 80.
212 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

One of the most significant aspects of Psalm 72 is the description of dominion

over the earth with specific geographical features and dominion over both the animals
and kings. The Davidic King’s dominion includes the mountains and hills lifting up
peace and righteousness (72:3). It encompasses abundant peace over the whole earth
for as long as the moon functions in its cycles (72:5–7). Moreover, it extends from
sea to sea, pointing to faraway places like Tarshish (Spain) and the coastlands (72:8,
10) rather than the local bodies of water that formed the border of Israel (the
Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea). This is further backed by the addition of “to the
ends of the earth,” emphasizing a global reach of the King’s dominion. His dominion
also includes rulers from the ends of the earth bringing tribute and paying homage
(72:9–11). Additionally, those who are subjugated are described as desert creatures
(‫ )צִ ִיּ֑ים‬and enemies who “lick the dust” (Isa 49:23; Mic 7:17) depicting them as
animals. Desert creatures (‫ )צִ ִיּ֑ים‬describe animals that live in desolate areas once
populated by kingdoms like Babylon and Edom whose dominion has been removed
(Isa 13:20–21; 23:13; 34:14; Jer 50:39). The King’s enemies who “lick the dust”
remind the reader of the serpent cursed in Genesis 3:14 which crawls on its belly and
eats dust (cf. Isa 65:25). 43 The imagery points one back to the garden and Adam’s
198F

failure to subjugate the serpent’s seed, thereby failing to fulfill his dominion mandate.
The King’s enemies are seen as the seed of the serpent, sharing in its fate. Only an
earthly eschatological kingdom dominion fits the description of Psalm 72, which
depicts the Adamic/Davidic King ruling in the midst of enemies who bow in
subjugation and kings who serve Him (72:8–11)—all while He oversees a worldwide
kingdom of Edenic stature. Only the successful dominion of an earthly kingdom
reverses the failure of the creation mandate by the first vice-regent of the earth. Psalm
72 continues the prophetic expectation of One who fulfills the creation mandate over
the earth from the earth.
Psalm 110 reiterates the description of dominion in Psalm 72:8–11 in several
ways. First, the same term for “dominion” (‫ )רדה‬is used in 110:2 in describing
authority granted by Yahweh to David’s Lord, the Messiah, in exercising kingly
dominion over His enemies. The activity of dominion over the earth as Yahweh’s
vice-regent has been building through Scripture in Genesis 1:26–28, Numbers 24:19,
Psalm 8, Psalm 72, and now Psalm 110. Second, the Davidic King will “crush” (‫)מחץ‬
these enemies (110:2) and kings (110:5), including crushing (‫“ )מחץ‬the head that is
over the wide earth” (110:6). 44 Although the term for “crushing” is different in Psalm
72:4, the concepts are the same, conceptually linking back to Genesis 3:15. The
Davidic King will subjugate and crush His enemies, including the serpent.
“Crushing” (‫ )מחץ‬and “dominion” (‫ )רדה‬in Psalm 110 are also used of the promised
deliverer in Numbers 24:17–19, drawing a parallel between messianic texts. Third,
the “scepter” (‫ )מַ טֶּ ה‬of the Davidic King that goes from Jerusalem (“Zion”) in 110:2
is a synonym for the “scepter” (‫ )שֵׁ בֶ ט‬of the promised King who exercises dominion
over all of the nations (Gen 49:10; Num 24:17; Ps 2:9). The scepter is a symbol of

43
Chou, The Hermeneutics of the Biblical Writers: Learning to Interpret Scripture from the Prophets
and Apostles, 88.
44
Chou observes, “Translations may render the Hebrew phrase as “shatter the chief men” but the
word for “chief men” is actually “head.” The language is actually quite distinctive for the verb ‫( מחץ‬crush)
with ‫( ר ֹאשׁ‬head) when combined is consistently used in imagery dealing with crushing an ultimate foe (Ps.
68:22; Hab. 3:13; see also Num. 24:17).” Ibid.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 213

authority that also functions as a picture of dominion through its use in subjugating
enemies. These concepts paint a portrait of man’s rule and dominion over the whole
earth which began through the creation mandate in Genesis 1:26–28, affirmed in
Psalm 8, and expressed through the Davidic King in Numbers 24, Psalm 72, and
Psalm 110. 45 Thus, the OT prophets have predicted that one would come to reverse
what Adam had lost and succeed where Adam had failed upon the earth as Yahweh’s
representative king. These texts form a resounding declaration of the necessity for
the last Adam to successfully rule over the earth in an eschatological kingdom with
Edenic characteristics thereby fulfilling the creation mandate.

Isaiah 11

Although Isaiah does not use the term “dominion” (‫ )רדה‬in connection with the
Davidic King, the conceptual emphasis of dominion indicative of the creation
mandate in Genesis 1:26–28 is expressed in chapter 11. Isaiah shows that the activity
of the Davidic King (Isa 11) is equated with the activity of Yahweh during the last
days (Isa 2). Yahweh, ruling from His eschatological temple 46 in the last days, is the
ultimate global educator through divine instruction (‫)תוֹרה‬ ָ֔ as well as the global
theocratic ruler “judging” (‫ )שׁפט‬and “rendering decisions” (‫ ) ָיכַח‬for the nations in the
establishment of worldwide peace (2:2–4). His exercise of dominion over the nations
includes education, training (2:2–3), arbitration, justice, and peaceful agreements
(2:4). In the same way, the Davidic King functions as Yahweh’s representative on
earth through performing the same activities. He will lead and rule in a new, future
kingdom rooted in “justice” and “righteousness,” while “judging” (‫ )שָׁ ַפט‬and
“deciding” (‫ ) ָיכַח‬global matters with equity (11:3–4). Like Psalm 72, this King will
rule in justice and righteousness that impact the poor and the afflicted (Isa 11:4; cf
Ps 72:1–4, 12–14). This judicial power is exerted throughout the earth resulting in
the judgment of the wicked (Isa 11:4; Ps 72:4). The “rod of His mouth” and “breath
of His lips” in 11:4 highlight the King’s powerful word in judgement (Num 24:17–
19; Psalm 110:2–6; 2 Thess 2:8; Rev 19:15). Scripture again vividly portrays the last
Adam as successfully ruling over the earth in an eschatological kingdom with Edenic
characteristics thereby fulfilling the creation mandate and succeeding as Yahweh’s
representative on earth. The first Adam’s failure is reversed through the righteous
dominion of the earth by the last Adam and Davidic King.
Moreover, both Isaiah 2 and 11 depict an unprecedented time of global peace.
Yahweh and the Davidic King establish peace through their righteous, worldwide
theocratic and judicial rule over the earth. The result of righteous dominion on the
earth is one of peace, harmony, and tranquility where people and the earth can
flourish (see also Ps 72), including animals. The wolf and lamb, the leopard and
young goat, the calf and young lion, and the cow and bear emphasize the wild animals
living peacefully among the domesticated animals (11:6–7). The animals will no
longer kill each other for food, as illustrated by the lion eating straw like an ox (11:7),
harkening back to the harmony of God’s creation in Genesis 1 and the provision of

45
Hamilton, Psalms, 2:293.
For a detailed discussion on the purpose and function of the eschatological temple, see Jason Beals,
46

“Does God Require a House of Cedar?” (PhD Diss., The Master’s Seminary, 2022).
214 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

plant-based food for animals (1:29). The blessings of the Davidic King’s righteous
rule brings tranquility between animal to animal and animal to people, moving back
to pre-Fall conditions under the first Adam in Genesis 1–2. 47 Even the enmity
between the seed of the woman and the seed of the serpent (Gen 3:15) will be
abolished as illustrated by children playing in harmony with snakes in Isaiah 11:8.
Ezekiel 34:25 and Hosea 2:18 concur with an eschatological kingdom tranquility for
animals, showing a reversal of the curse upon creation. The conditions for the animals
will be restored to an Edenic environment through the last Adam’s dominion and
kingdom. 48
Isaiah 11 adds to the compounding picture of Scripture which looks to the
reversal of the curse through Adam’s failure by installing the Davidic King who must
have dominion over the world in a righteous rule over the earth that includes
geopolitical realities like nations and kings, as well as a harmonious animal kingdom.
The restoration promised includes all aspects where Adam failed, even in his failure
with the serpent in the garden. Isaiah illustrates that the Davidic King brings peace
and tranquility extending to all the nations and to all the animals. Under the dominion
of the last Adam, children can even play with serpents! Only an earthly eschatological
kingdom dominion meets the criteria in reversing Adam’s failed dominion upon this
world. Only the earthly eschatological mediatorial kingdom rule from and over this
earth by the last Adam deals with Isaiah’s (as well as others) prophetic expectations
of dominion with any consistency.

Daniel 7

The book of Daniel emphatically demonstrates that Yahweh is the King of the
universe who has dominion and over all nations, including Israel and the Gentile
nations. Yahweh changes the times and seasons as well as removing kings and
establishing kings (Dan 2:21). Though the Gentile kings have dominion, it is a
dominion given by God (Dan 4:17, 22–25), and limited since kingdoms rise and fall
(Dan 2 and 7). Ultimately, it is Yahweh’s King who will have worldwide dominion,
glory, kingdom, and the obedience and worship of all the nations. Daniel emphasizes
Yahweh’s ultimate dominion over heaven and earth, including kings and kingdoms.
Daniel also shows the end of these inferior dominions with the Son of Man
establishing dominion on the earth and ruling it with total authority as Yahweh’s
representative ruler (2:28–45; 7:1–27).
Daniel’s structure has a unique feature as 2:4–7:28 is in Aramaic and not
Hebrew. Therefore, when looking at the issue of dominion, the Hebrew term ‫ רדה‬is
not used. Rather, the Aramaic term ‫“( שָׁ לְ טָ ן‬dominion”) is used in Daniel 7 to denote
the power and dominion of a king and kingdom, with the plural referring to empires
(7:27). 49 Daniel contrasts the dominion of Gentile kingdoms which can be taken away
204F

(7:6, 12) with everlasting dominion of the messianic kingdom that does not pass away

47
Vlach, He Will Reign Forever: A Biblical Theology of the Kingdom of God, 158–60.
48
Vlach, The New Creation Model: A Paradigm For Discovering God’s Restoration Purposes from
Creation to New Creation, 106–7.
49
A. Gianto, “‫שׁלט‬,” ed. Holger Gzella et al., trans. Mark E. Biddle, Aramaic Dictionary, Theological
Dictionary of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2018),
16:771.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 215

(7:14). Both Daniel 2 and Daniel 7 portray four empires as temporal and transitory,
replacing one another in succession (Dan 2:31–33, 36–43; Dan 7:1–8) until these four
are replaced by the enduring kingdom of God (2:34–35, 44–45; 7:13–14). Both
chapters emphasize the earthly sphere of the eschatological kingdom dominion (2:35;
7:27). Both visions contrast the trajectory of human empires (metals and beasts)
through limited dominion with a divine kingdom that can never be destroyed (2:44;
7:14, 27). However, only Daniel 7 emphasizes the concept of dominion of the Gentile
kings (7:6, 12) and ultimate dominion the Son of Man (7:14, 27). Thus, the central
focus of Daniel 7 is a contrast between the transient Gentile kingdoms described as
four beasts and the Son of Man’s enduring dominion as Yahweh’s representative
ruler of the world.
Daniel’s vision includes a lion with wings (7:4), a bear (7:5), a leopard with four
wings and four heads (7:6), and a fourth beast that is mysterious and unclassified but
dreadfully terrifying (7:7–8). These beasts are four kings from the earth (7:17)
representing kingdoms of the earth (7:23). These beasts also represent a twisted and
inferior quality of the rulers and their kingdoms. 50 The imagery of this vision evokes
the creation account in Genesis. 51 First, these kings are described as an amalgamation
of beasts in contrast to the messianic ruler described as One like a Son of Man (7:13).
The creation of beasts and man on the sixth day, along with the concept of dominion
are central to both Genesis 1 and Daniel 7. Second, even though the title “Son of
Man” uses ‫ ֱאנָשׁ‬for “man” in Daniel 7:13, it is reminiscent of the concept of Adam
since his name is closely associated with the general term for “man” (‫)אָ דָ ם‬. 52 This
figure who was like a Son of Man followed the beasts, similar to the creation account
in Genesis 1. Third, the phrase “like a son of man” (‫ )כְּ ַב֥ר אֱנָ ֖שׁ‬possesses both a
resemblance to man as well as disparity to the beasts similar to Genesis 1:26–28. This
implies not only distinction, but a hierarchy of man over beast seen in Genesis 1.
Fourth, both Adam (“Man”) in Genesis 1:26–28 and One like a Son of Man in Daniel
7:13–14 both function as Yahweh’s representative on earth, subduing the earth and
exercising dominion over the animals. Fifth, the beastly kings of Daniel 7 sought to
usurp God’s design for man’s dominion, like the serpent in Genesis 3. 53 In 208F

picturesque imagery that recalls the creation mandate in Genesis, Daniel’s vision in
chapter 7 vividly portrays the Davidic King’s future dominion and rule over beastly
wicked empires. Daniel’s picture of the last Adam’s dominion continues to have the
same characteristics as previous revelation. The Son of Man will receive an enduring
and unending dominion in a kingdom that does not pass away (7:14; cf. 2:44–45),
whereas Gentile kings only have transitory dominion and a temporary kingdom that
is taken away (2:36–45; 4:28–37; 5:30–31; 7:1–8, 11–12, 23–27; 8:20–22; 11:1–45).

50
Paul R. House, Daniel: An Introduction and Commentary, ed. David G. Firth, vol. 23, Tyndale Old
Testament Commentaries (London: InterVarsity Press, 2018), 127.
51
André LaCocque, The Book of Daniel, trans. David Pellauer, Second Edition. (Eugene, OR:
Cascade Books, 2018), 153, 163–64.
52
James M. Hamilton Jr., With the Clouds of Heaven: The Book of Daniel in Biblical Theology, ed.
D. A. Carson, vol. 32, New Studies in Biblical Theology (Downers Grove, IL; England: Apollos;
InterVarsity Press, 2015), 90.
53
Hamilton, With the Clouds of Heaven, 90–93; Joe M. Sprinkle, Daniel, ed. T. Desmond Alexander,
Thomas R. Schreiner, and Andreas J. Köstenberger, Evangelical Biblical Theology Commentary
(Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2020), 398.
216 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

Daniel adds to the compounding picture of an earthly eschatological dominion over

the world developed through previous revelation that describes the last Adam
fulfilling the creation mandate in the same realm as the first Adam’s failure.

Christ’s First Advent—The Gospels

The Gospels show that Jesus is the promised Davidic King of the Old Testament
(John 5:39; 20:30–31; Luke 24:25–27). At His first advent, Jesus offered the kingdom
(Matt 4:17) while teaching, preaching, and performing miraculous acts (4:23–24).
These supernatural acts validated his Messianic role and proved His deity. 54 Miracles
also showcased the “powers of the age to come” (Heb 6:5), illustrating kingdom
conditions (Matt 11:2–5) through the personal presence of the King. 55 Jesus healed
the sick, cast out demons, raised the dead, and did miracles involving nature, showing
authority over the earth and the animal kingdom. The nature miracles of Christ focus
on the environment and animals in the course of His teaching and preaching ministry.
They include calming the storm on the winds and waves of the sea (Matt 8:23–27;
Mark 4:36–41; Luke 8:22–25), walking on the sea (Matt 14:22–23; Mark 6:45–51;
John 6:15–21), a fish with a coin (Matt 17:27), fish and loaves of bread for 5,000
(Matt 14:13–21: Mark 6:32–44; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:1–13), fish and loaves of bread
for the 4,000 (Matt 15:32–39: Mark 8:1–10), and a fig tree (Matt 21:18–22: Mark
11:12–14, 20–24). Additionally, although not a miracle, the unbroken colt which
Jesus uses for His entry into Jerusalem (Matt 21:1–9: Mark 11:1–10; Luke 19:29–
38) would also be an interaction with an animal, demonstrating His dominion as He
entered Jerusalem. These all raise the question, “what kind of man is this?” (Matt
8:27), evoking images of the Davidic King who will have dominion over the earth.
Eugene Merrill notes that “Jesus was exercising the God-given authority of Adam,
an authority designed for the entire human race, forfeited by sinful Adam, and
restored in and through Christ (cf. also Ps 8).” 56 Thus, what Jesus displayed in His
sovereign control over the earth and animal kingdom is a foretaste of the coming
kingdom when He will rule and have dominion over everything on this earth, ruling
over this earth, from this earth.
The dominion Jesus exercised in the first advent was done on a limited basis, in
one geographical area (Israel), and for a limited time (while on earth). Some
theologians assert the creation mandate was fulfilled through Jesus’ earthly ministry
at His first Advent and/or currently through the church. 57 However, the fulfillment of
the creation mandate in all its particulars must still be future in an earthly kingdom

54
MacArthur and Mayhue, Biblical Doctrine, 284.
55
McClain, The Greatness of the Kingdom: An Inductive Study of the Kingdom of God, 272–3.
56
Eugene Merrill, “Covenant and the Kingdom,” Criswell Theological Review 1, no. 2 (1987), 300–
1; Michael Vlach, He Will Reign Forever, 294.
57
For example, see Richard P. Belcher Jr, “The Davidic Covenant,” in Covenant Theology: Biblical,
Theological, and Historical Perspectives, ed. Guy Prentiss Waters, J. Nicholas Reid, and John R. Muether
(Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2020), 181–89; Roy E. Ciampa, “Genesis 1–3 and Paul’s Theology of Adam’s
Dominion in Romans 5–6,” in From Creation to New Creation: Biblical Theology and Exegesis, ed. Daniel
M. Gurtner and Benjamin L. Gladd (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2013), 103–22; Harrison
Perkins, Reformed Covenant Theology: A Systematic Introduction (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Academic,
2024), 166–71; Sam Storms, Kingdom Come: The Amillennial Alternative (Fearn, Scotland: Mentor,
2013), 99–109.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 217

for several reasons. First, Jesus’ display of dominion at His first Advent was selective
and limited. The creation mandate’s fulfillment in the eschatological kingdom
requires a global and unlimited exercise of dominion over all the earth and all the
animal kingdom. The details of the passages surveyed cannot be dismissed lightly.
Second, the conditions described in connection with the creation mandate and the
coming kingdom are a reversal of the curse seen in blessing, peace, harmony,
abundance, and flourishing upon the earth and extending to the animal kingdom.
However, in this present age there is sin, disease, death, and disharmony in the earth
that also extend to the animal kingdom. 58 The creation mandate still awaits a
fulfillment in the same realm and sphere. Third, Scripture describes Christ’s
dominion as a future reality in His second advent. Christ points to a future dominion
in Matthew 19:28, describing the act of ruling and judging “in the regeneration.” The
book of Hebrews notes that all things are not subjected to Him yet (2:8), but He has
sat down at the right hand of the Father “until” His enemies are a footstool for His
feet (10:12–13). Paul echoes this future kingdom reality by quoting Old Testament
passages of dominion and linking them to Christ’s future kingdom rule. He quotes
Psalm 8 in 1 Corinthians 15:25–28. Christ must reign until all enemies are defeated,
including death. Paul also quotes Isaiah 11:4 in connection with Christ’s return and
destruction of the Antichrist by “the breath of His mouth” in 2 Thessalonians 2:8.
Moreover, Revelation 3:21; 5:10; 20:6 all use future tense verbs in connection with
ruling and exercising dominion over the earth. Finally, the fulfillment of the creation
mandate must encompass the particulars of the directive to the first Adam. Adam
failed in the garden to exercise dominion plunging the world into sin and chaos. The
last Adam came to this world and succeeded where the first Adam failed in obedience
and righteousness. The first Adam brought sin and death through disobedience upon
the earth and the last Adam reverses this through His redemptive work in time and
space, upon the earth. The last Adam must successfully subdue and have dominion
over the earth, from the earth in order to fulfill the stipulations of Genesis 1:26–28. 59
Exegetical and theological consistency demand an earthly eschatological fulfillment.
All of these point to the necessity of a future earthly kingdom reign of the last Adam
in the same way and same sphere that the mandate was given.

Conclusion

The compounding prophetic picture of the Davidic King exercising dominion

from the earth and over the earth is a major component of the biblical storyline from
Genesis to Revelation. Genesis 1, Numbers 24, Psalms 8, 72, and 110, Isaiah 11, and
Daniel 7 show the fulfillment of the creation mandate by the Davidic King who
ushers in an unprecedented time of Edenic peace, harmony, and abundant flourishing
upon the earth and over the animals that accomplishes God’s mandate for mankind.
The exegetical data shows a compounding picture of the last Adam exercising
dominion successfully upon the earth where the first Adam failed. The
correspondence of the first Adam’s failure and the last Adam’s success requires
fulfillment in the same domain. Christ accomplished His salvific work in the same

58
Vlach, He Will Reign Forever: A Biblical Theology of the Kingdom of God, 294.
59
Vlach, Premillennialism: Why There Must Be A Future Earthly Kingdom of Jesus, 69–71.
218 | The Second Adam and the Necessity for Eschatological Earthly Dominion

realm as Adam’s failure. Theological consistency in the first and last Adam motif
necessitates that Christ will successfully fulfill the creation mandate in the same
realm as Adam’s failure, accomplishing what he failed to accomplish as king over
the earth for God’s glory. All of these strengthen a premillennial view of Christ’s
dominion over the earth from the earth at His second advent. Jesus Christ as the last
Adam must rule in righteousness, peace, and harmony as the Davidic King over the
earth, to the ends of the earth, exercising dominion over everything in the earth
including geopolitical realities and the animal kingdom. Anything short of this
necessary earthly kingdom reign leaves a global hole in the biblical storyline and a
gap in the reversal of Adam’s failure.
TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 219–236

ARE YOUR TEMPTATIONS LIKE JESUS’ TEMPTATIONS?

YES AND NO!
Jared Moore
Ph.D., The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary

*****

The words of the author of Hebrews, that Jesus “has been tempted in all things like
we are, yet without sin,” stir controversy regarding the nature of Jesus’ temptations.
Some utilize this statement as a vindication of the moral difference between the desire
to sin and the act of sin, arguing that only the latter is condemned in Scripture. They
argue that because temptation comes through our desires, and Jesus was tempted as
we are, then desires for sin cannot be sinful because Jesus never sinned. However,
this article refutes that claim by demonstrating that none of Jesus’ temptations came
from within, that is from a sinful nature. Scripture never indicates that Jesus had a
desire to commit sin. Rather, Jesus was tempted by that which was external to Him,
by Satan, for good gifts fulfilled through sinful means.

*****

Introduction

According to the Bible, Jesus was truly tempted, as we are, yet without sin (Heb
4:15). But does this mean that all our temptations are the same as Jesus’ temptations?
Thomas Aquinas wrote of Jesus’ wilderness temptation in The Summa Theologica,

As the Apostle says (Heb. iv. 15), Christ wished to be tempted in all things,
without sin. Now temptation which comes from an enemy can be without sin:
because it comes about by merely outward suggestion. But temptation which
comes from the flesh cannot be without sin, because such a temptation is caused
by pleasure and concupiscence; and, as Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xix.), it is
not without sin that “the flesh desireth against the spirit.” And hence Christ
wished to be tempted by an enemy, but not by the flesh. 1

1
Thomas Aquinas, The Summa Theologica (London: R. & T. Washbourne, 1914), 203–04.
219
220 | Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

Thomas appealed to Augustine from his book The City of God to argue that there
are two forms of temptation in Scripture: one from the flesh and one from an enemy.
Christ was only tempted by an enemy, not by the flesh. This teaching is not unique
to Augustine and Thomas.
According to Phillip Melanchthon, Martin Luther’s successor, in The Apology
of the Augsburg Confession of 1530, he argued that the church, ever since the First
Century, taught that the flesh and all its motions are sin. 2 The Roman Catholic
Council of Trent in 1563 argued the same. 3 During the Reformation, the difference
between Roman Catholics and the Protestants concerning the doctrine of sin was not
about the nature of sin, but about what sin was in the baptized or in those who have
faith. Every Protestant reformer and confession of the Reformation taught that the
flesh and its motions are sin. This teaching was then carried forward to today by the
confessions of the Reformation and Post-Reformation, and by Protestant Reformed
theologians like Jonathan Edwards, Archibald Alexander, Charles Hodge, James P.
Boyce, Charles Spurgeon, Herman Bavinck, and Louis Berkhof. 4
Yet, within evangelicalism today, a surprising number of Christians argue that
since Jesus was tempted and yet was sinless, therefore, all temptation cannot be sin.
Contrary to the Bible and the teachings of church history, they believe that there is
only one form of temptation, inner temptation. 5 This article will argue that when

2
Philip Melanchthon, “The Apology of the Augsburg Confession,” in The Book of Concord or The
Symbolical Books of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, ed. Henry Eyster Jacobs (Philadelphia: General
Council Publication Board, 1916), 81–82.
3
Hubert Jedin, The First Sessions at Trent, 1545–47, vol. 2 of A History of the Council of Trent,
trans. Dom Ernest Graf (New York: Thomas Nelson, 1958), 150–54.
4
See my dissertation where I argue that Christianity has always taught that the flesh and its motions
are morally culpable sin. Jared Heath Moore, A Biblical and Historical Appraisal of Concupiscence with
Special Attention to Same-Sex Attraction (Ph.D. diss., The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2019),
20–129, https://repository.sbts.edu/bitstream/handle/10392/5996/Moore_sbts_0207D_10574.pdf.
5
For example, in a panel discussion on reparative therapy with Denny Burk and Heath Lambert at
the Evangelical Theological Society in 2015, Robert Gagnon, commenting on James 1:14, said, “The text
says, ‘Each one is tempted when he is carried away and enticed by his own desire.’ Okay, so you have to
be carried away by it. First, to be carried away by the desire, it has to present itself to you. The moment it
presents itself to you, you have not sinned. But, if you’re carried away by it, and fall into the enticement
to it, then it says, ‘Then, when the desire has conceived,’ which in the context means you’ve been carried
away by it, and have been brought under its controlling influence, then it gives birth to sin. But, not prior
to that point and time.” Robert Gagnon, “Panel Discussion, Robert Gagnon, Heath Lambert, Denny Burk,
Discussion Q and A, Why Reparative Therapy Is Not an Evangelical Option” (Mp3 of lecture, 67th Annual
Meeting (2015) of the Evangelical Theological Society, Atlanta, November 17, 2015),
http://www.wordmp3.com/details.aspx?id=21498, (03:47–04:27). Then, a few minutes later, Gagnon
argued: “There’s obviously internal temptation for Jesus. When you are being crucified on the cross and
nails are being put into your hands. Okay. And you are suffering excruciating death, if your body at that
point isn’t crying out for some sort of relief, right? ‘Give me an alternative to this.’ To me, that’s just
striking. It’s not, we don’t have this image of a Docetic Jesus. He actually does experience internal desires
to the contrary. Unless you’re a masochist, you’re gonna want to get off the cross at that point. But the
fact is that he experiences that internal temptation and yet rejects it. So, of course there’s no sin in him in
that sense. He’s also fully human in addition to him being fully God. We don’t want to leave out that
dimension either.” Robert Gagnon, “Panel Discussion, Robert Gagnon, Heath Lambert, Denny Burk,
Discussion Q and A, Why Reparative Therapy Is Not an Evangelical Option” (Mp3 of lecture, 67th Annual
Meeting (2015) of the Evangelical Theological Society, Atlanta, November 17, 2015),
http://www.wordmp3.com/details.aspx?id=21498, (10:22–11:10). Gagnon still holds these views today.
What he fails to realize is that Christ did not want to die precisely because, according to God’s design,
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 221

Jesus was tempted in the wilderness, the Garden of Gethsemane, on the cross, and as
our High Priest, He was never tempted from within, only from without.
To prove this thesis, I will interact with a couple current online Christian
magazines: Christianity Today and Mere Orthodoxy. For Christianity Today, I will
rebut an article by A. J. Swoboda, Professor of Bible, Theology and World
Christianity at Bushnell University, and Nijay K. Gupta, Professor of New Testament
at Northern Seminary. They argue that Jesus doubted God and His Word and did not
sin. And for Mere Orthodoxy, I will rebut an article by Matthew Lee Anderson,
Assistant Research Professor of Ethics and Theology at Baylor University’s Institute
for Studies in Religion, who argues that Jesus desired to disobey His Father in the
Garden of Gethsemane but did not sin because He did not intend to sin. 6

Christianity Today and Mere Orthodoxy

In April of 2021, Christianity Today ran an article titled, “Jesus Was the God-
Man, Not the God-Superman: His Moments of Doubt and Temptation Attest that We
Can Follow Him through Our Own,” 7 written by Swoboda and Gupta. They write,

In the history of Christianity, the incarnation of God teaches us that Jesus was
born into…the complete mortal experience, warts and all…. He breastfed as an
infant. He learned to walk. And the Messiah…went through puberty.… What
Jesus brought with him into our world was his godness, which included a deep
trust and faith in his Father; part of what he received from us in his humanness
was our ability to doubt—and doubt he did.… And Jesus was so committed to
entering humanity that he dared to enter human doubt as well. 8

Swoboda and Gupta argue that Jesus in the incarnation took on true humanity, “warts
and all.” And what are these warts? They list breastfeeding, walking, puberty, and
doubts. Of course, one of these is not like the others. Breastfeeding, walking, and
puberty are not inherently sinful but are rather stages of development that Adam and
Eve’s children would have experienced if they had never sinned. But, doubt, on the
other hand, is what Adam and Eve had in their hearts that caused them to trust the
serpent over God and His Word. 9 The Apostle Paul in Romans 14:23 taught that

death was unnatural for Him. He should not want to die, but He should want to do His Father’s will, which
is exactly what He prayed in Gethsemane. Jesus desired everything His Father desired, and therefore it
was natural for Him to want to obey the Father’s will even unto His death, while at the same time recoiling
in holy horror from the experience of the Father’s wrath. Both were holy desires for Jesus (cf. Matt 26:39;
Luke 22:42). While praying with agony over the fury of the Father’s wrath (Heb 5:7), Christ voluntarily
went to the cross and did not seek to deliver Himself (Isa 53:7; John 10:17–18).
6
Robert Gagnon makes the same argument as Anderson, and Anderson appeals to him when making
his case. See Robert Gagnon, “Panel Discussion, Robert Gagnon, Heath Lambert, Denny Burk,” (18:42–
19:28).
7
A. J. Swoboda and Nijay K. Gupta, “Jesus Was the God-Man, Not the God-Superman: His
Moments of Doubt and Temptation Attest that We Can Follow Him through Our Own,” Christianity
Today, April 1, 2021, https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2021/april-web-only/jesus-god-superman-
doubt-temptation-holy-week.html.
8
Ibid.
9
Henri Blocher, In the Beginning: The Opening Chapters of Genesis (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity, 1984), 140–41.
222 | Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

doubt condemns because whatever does not proceed from faith is sin. Doubt is the
opposite of faith, according to Paul. 10 This is why doubt of God and His Word in the
hearts of Adam and Eve led to them eating the forbidden fruit, causing the fall of all
mankind into sin and the curse of all creation. 11
Yet, Swoboda and Gupta argue that Jesus had doubts, but do they prove it with
Scripture, and is this what Scripture teaches about Jesus? No. The authors point to
four examples in Jesus’ life to argue that He had doubts: His temptation, His prayers
in the Garden of Gethsemane, His Cry of Dereliction, and His identity as our truly
human high priest.

Jesus’ Temptation in the Wilderness

The first passage Swoboda and Gupta believe demonstrates that Jesus had doubts
is His temptation by the devil in the wilderness in Matthew 4:1–11. The text reads,

Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the
devil. And after fasting forty days and forty nights, he was hungry. And the
tempter came and said to him, “If you are the Son of God, command these stones
to become loaves of bread.” But he answered, “It is written, ‘Man shall not live
by bread alone, but by every word that comes from the mouth of God.’” Then
the devil took him to the holy city and set him on the pinnacle of the temple and
said to him, “If you are the Son of God, throw yourself down, for it is written,
‘He will command his angels concerning you,’ and ‘On their hands they will
bear you up, lest you strike your foot against a stone.’” Jesus said to
him, “Again it is written, ‘You shall not put the Lord your God to the
test.’” Again, the devil took him to a very high mountain and showed him all the
kingdoms of the world and their glory. And he said to him, “All these I will give
you, if you will fall down and worship me.” Then Jesus said to him, “Be
gone, Satan! For it is written, ‘You shall worship the Lord your God and him
only shall you serve.’” Then the devil left him, and behold, angels came and
were ministering to him.

In this passage, they say that Jesus doubts several times. Let us consider their claim
and offer a response.

Claim One: Jesus Doubted in the Wilderness

Swoboda and Gupta write about Jesus in the wilderness, “There, he has to
wrestle with the Devil’s words: ‘If you are the Son of God’ (Matt. 4:3). These words
place seeds of doubt in Jesus’ head. One wonders if they played like a tape in his
mind at points where he suffered or experienced loss because of his ministry.” 12 It is

10
Douglas Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, New International Commentary on the New Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 862, fn. 82.
11
Blocher, In the Beginning, 141.
12
Swoboda and Gupta, “Jesus Was the God-Man, Not the God-Superman,”
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2021/april-web-only/jesus-god-superman-doubt-temptation-holy-
week.html.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 223

pure speculation to wonder if the devil’s words planted seeds of doubt in Jesus’ mind.
The text says nothing of Jesus considering the devil’s words as an option. To believe
the devil, even for a moment, Jesus would have had to trust the devil more than God
and His Word.
Then, Swoboda and Gupta argue,

What we learn here is that…Jesus could be tempted—though he did not sin.

Indeed, temptation is not a sin. And we learn that…Jesus comes face to face with
doubts about his identity. But hearing and even having these doubts is not the
same as buckling under their weight. By the end of the temptation story, we
witness Jesus’ resilience and determination. Soon, the angels come to care for
him.… Jesus may have needed spiritual reassurance of God’s presence as well.
Jesus passes the test, but his faith may have taken a heavy beating. 13

Again, claiming that Jesus had doubts, leaving His faith damaged is pure speculation.
Scripture does not say or even imply that Jesus ever doubted His identity or that He
ever had less or more faith. Only the devil walks away defeated from Jesus’
temptation in the wilderness. But, if Swoboda and Gupta are mistaken that Jesus had
doubts during His temptation, what is the biblical way to understand His temptation
in the wilderness?

Responding to Swoboda and Gupta’s First Claim

First, the devil tempted Jesus only with good things. Jesus’ first temptation was
to work a miracle to make bread from stones, and to eat the bread. Having been led
into the wilderness full of the Holy Spirit, Christ fasted for forty days and was
tempted. Naturally, He was hungry (Matt 4:1–3). And what is hunger but a desire for
food? Jesus desired food. And the devil knew it. He sought to persuade Christ to sin
and fall like Adam, tempting Him with food first (Matt 4:4).
Food is a good gift from God (Gen 1:29–30). Jesus was tempted by a desire for
a good gift from God that was offered through an evil means. 14 The devil did not use
evil things to tempt Jesus, for he could not. For King David, the devil tempted him
with laziness, adultery, and murder, and he fell for it (2 Sam 11:1–12:15), but he
tempted the True David, Jesus Christ, with food. The devil tempted Jesus, who was
hungry, with bread, encouraging him to do a miracle for His own benefit in obedience
to the devil rather than to fulfill God’s will (Matt 4:1–4). 15
Instead of having fleshly desires, Jesus desired to always fulfill His Father’s will
(cf. Heb 10:5–10). He desired His Father’s food. He was hungry. He later taught the

13
Swoboda and Gupta, “Jesus Was the God-Man.”
14
Henri Blocher writes, “Thus, in the temptation of Jesus, the devil offered him things which by right
belonged to the Son of God; but he invited Jesus to invert the order established by the Father.” Blocher,
In the Beginning,” 141.
15
Walter Liefield, Luke, Expositor’s Bible Commentary 8 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984), 863.
Also, see John A. Broadus, Commentary on Matthew, An American Commentary on the New Testament,
ed. Alvah Hovey (Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1886), 63. As well, see Norval
Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke, New International Commentary on the New Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1966), 156–62.
224 | Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

disciples to pray to God the Father, “Give us our daily bread” (Matt 6:11), which is
a good desire that Christ’s Father would fulfill in due time. Neither Christ nor the
reader would be presumptuous to assume God would provide for Him food, because
He is truly human, to keep Him alive so that He could fulfill His Father’s will. Yet,
the devil tempted Him by claiming the food was his, not God’s, to give. Jesus did not
hesitate but immediately rebuked the devil with Scripture (Matt 4:4).
In the devil’s second effort to tempt Jesus to sin in the wilderness, he told Him
to prove that God would protect Him with His angels. Jesus desired to do His Father’s
will, which would entail enjoying the protection of His angels: again, a good desire.
Yet, the devil tempted Him by commanding Christ to enjoy the protection of His
Father’s angels by submitting to the devil’s will for Him to throw Himself off the
pinnacle of the temple. Again, Christ replied immediately with Scripture, rebuking
the devil, with no contemplation, doubt, or compromise.
Finally, in the devil’s third attempt, he tempted Jesus with the kingdoms of man.
Jesus desired His Father’s future gift to Him of the kingdoms of the world, to rule
and reign with all authority and glory: again, a good desire. 16 Yet, the devil tempted
Him by offering these kingdoms before Christ had earned them, in a truly human
way, by fulfilling His Father’s will. And yet again, Jesus rebuked the devil
immediately with no doubt of God or His Word, or consideration for what the devil
offered.
With these three objects of temptation, the devil took good things and added evil
to them. He took good things and offered them through evil means. This detail
matters because it shows that Jesus’ temptation was void of an internal fleshly desire
arising from a sinful nature—His temptation was external. 17 The objects the devil
offered belonged to God. They were intrinsically good, but Jesus did not desire them
from the devil. The devil tempted Christ with the things the Father had already told
Him would be His, whether in eternity past, through the prophets, through the Holy
Spirit, or all three (cf. Ps 2:8; Isa 53:12). Yet He did not desire to submit to the devil’s
will, but only to His Father’s will. As Jesus said, “For I have come down from
heaven not to do my will but to do the will of Him who sent me” (John 6:38).
The devil offered God-designed objects through his own evil means, which, if
desired and accepted by the devil’s means, the objects then would cease to be God’s
design. God designed not only food, angel protection, and the kingdoms of the world;
He also designed the means to gain these things, and the means to gain every other
object in His creation. If you remove God’s means, you remove God’s design. As
James 1:13–15 says, for sin to take place, an evil lust must lure and entice, and
conceive actual sin, and then bring us to death. Inner lust cannot produce walking in

16
Liefield, Luke, 864. Also, Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke, 160–62.
17
Theologians have often described Jesus’ temptation with the verbiage found in John’s first epistle,
“desires of the flesh, and the desires of the eyes, and the pride of life” (1 John 2:16). However, this usage
of flesh differs from the sinful flesh which Jesus did not possess. There are many times in the New
Testament when the word translated “flesh” (σάρξ) refers to the human body, or state of humanity (Luke
3:6; John 1:14; 17:2; Acts 2:31; etc.). However, in other occurrences σάρξ connotes a theological meaning,
describing the sin nature (Rom 7:18; 8:5–13; etc.). This usage in 1 John likely refers to the flesh (the
physical body), not the sinful nature. Therefore, it could be said that Jesus was tempted in the flesh (bodily
need for food), but not according to the flesh (sinful desire from the sin nature). See John MacArthur and
Richard Mayhue, eds., Biblical Doctrine (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2017), 273.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 225

the Spirit. Inner lust cannot conceive God’s design. And inner lust never ends in life
and holiness.
Jesus’ temptations lacked fleshly desire but were entirely external. He was
tempted only from without and not from within. Desire for evil neither entered Jesus’
heart, nor was willed by Him. Indeed, Jesus, being the Divine Son united and acting
through His human nature, could not desire anything evil. As Augustine argued, if
Jesus was going to desire something inherently evil, something contrary to God’s
law, He would have to will this desire since God was his Father, not Adam. 18 For
Jesus to be tempted toward sin from within, He would have to choose to desire the
devil’s offers from the devil because He had no original sin from Adam. And Jesus
never desired to receive anything from the devil.

When We Are Tempted Like Jesus Was in the Wilderness

Therefore, Christians are tempted like Jesus only when we are offered inherently
good things through an evil means. If we desire the good things because God has
created them good or has promised them to us, and we reject the evil means entirely,
then we have not sinned. We have been tempted like Jesus. But inherently evil things,
things that are forbidden by God, can never be desired without sin, and therefore,
they can never be compared to Jesus’ temptations.
James and Paul tell us that inner temptation occurs when we, with our flesh,
desire something that is contrary to God (Jas 1:13–15; Rom 7:25). God cannot tempt
us because it is against His nature to tempt us (Jas 1:13). Thus, our inner temptation
is contrary to God’s nature and God’s design and is therefore sin. When Christians
face inner temptation, the question is not if we will sin, but how much we will sin.
For the first desire from our hearts that is contrary to God is the beginning of fleshly
desire. Will we feed this desire and let it consume us, or will we starve it and let it
burn itself out to no effect?

Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane

Another passage from Jesus’ life that is often used to justify inner temptation is
Jesus’ temptation in the Garden of Gethsemane. Swoboda and Gupta claim that Jesus
had doubts as He prayed in Gethsemane (Matt 26:36–46). 19 Similarly, Matthew Lee
Anderson believes that Jesus desired to disobey His Father’s command in
Gethsemane. 20 Yet, the Bible says neither of these assumptions. The text (Matt
26:36–46) reads,

18
Augustine, “Unfinished Work in Answer to Julian,” in Answer to the Pelagians, 3, part 1—Books,
vol. 25 of The Works of Saint Augustine: A Translation for the 21st Century, ed. John E. Rotelle, trans.
Roland J. Teske (Hyde Park, NY: New City, 1999), 436–37.
19
Swoboda and Gupta, “Jesus Was the God-Man, Not the God-Superman,”
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2021/april-web-only/jesus-god-superman-doubt-temptation-holy-
week.html.
20
Matthew Lee Anderson, “Sex, Temptation, and the Gay Christian: What Chastity Demands,”
accessed August 24, 2024, https://web.archive.org/web/20231001162846/https://mereorthodoxy.com/
sex-temptation-gay-christian-chastity-demands.
226 | Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

Then Jesus went with them to a place called Gethsemane, and he said to his
disciples, “Sit here, while I go over there and pray.” And taking with him Peter
and the two sons of Zebedee, he began to be sorrowful and troubled. Then he
said to them, “My soul is very sorrowful, even to death; remain here, and watch
with me.” And going a little farther he fell on his face and prayed, saying, “My
Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from me; nevertheless, not as I will, but
as you will.” And he came to the disciples and found them sleeping. And he said
to Peter, “So, could you not watch with me one hour? Watch and pray that you
may not enter into temptation. The spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak.”
Again, for the second time, he went away and prayed, “My Father, if this cannot
pass unless I drink it, your will be done.” And again he came and found them
sleeping, for their eyes were heavy. So, leaving them again, he went away and
prayed for the third time, saying the same words again. Then he came to the
disciples and said to them, “Sleep and take your rest later on. See, the hour is at
hand, and the Son of Man is betrayed into the hands of sinners. Rise, let us be
going; see, my betrayer is at hand.”

Does the text indicate that Christ had doubts or wanted to disobey His Father? Let us
consider the claims of Swoboda and Gupta, and Anderson and offer a biblical
response.

Claim Two: Jesus Doubted in Gethsemane

Swoboda and Gupta write about Jesus,

He is alone. His disciples are asleep. And he is about to enter the final crucible
of his earthly journey. What does Jesus do? He starts getting cold feet: “If it is
possible, may this cup be taken from me.” A moment later, of course, he shakes
this off and confesses, “Yet not as I will, but as you will” (v. 39). But this is not
faith replacing doubt; it is faith moving forward in spite of doubt. Jesus didn’t
want to take that cup of suffering, but he still did. 21

Anderson makes a similar statement about Jesus in Gethsemane, writing,

There is nothing wrong or bad with desiring to not undergo the suffering and
death required to be the Savior of the world—unless, that is, one is the Savior of
the world. Given the peculiarities of Christ’s vocation and His position within
God’s command, not undertaking the work of the cross would have been morally
bad for Him (not to mention damning for us!). Christ may have “never desired
something his Father had forbidden…” but he seems to desire to not do
something his Father commands.

21
Swoboda and Gupta, “Jesus Was the God-Man, Not the God-Superman,”
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2021/april-web-only/jesus-god-superman-doubt-temptation-holy-
week.html.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 227

Anderson argues that Christ desired to disobey His Father in Gethsemane, that
He desired something that “would have been morally bad for Him,” and that this
desire was not sin, for to desire sin is only sin if your desire is intentional. 22
Are these fair interpretations of Jesus’ prayers in Gethsemane? Absolutely not.
Then, how should we understand Jesus’ prayers in Gethsemane?

Responding to Swoboda and Gupta’s Second Claim

Contrary to Swoboda and Gupta, Jesus did not get cold feet or doubt. James
explicitly commands his hearers not to doubt in James 1:5–8:

If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all without
reproach, and it will be given him. But let him ask in faith, with no doubting, for
the one who doubts is like a wave of the sea that is driven and tossed by the
wind. For that person must not suppose that he will receive anything from the
Lord; he is a double-minded man, unstable in all his ways.

If a Christian doubts when he prays, James says he is “driven and tossed by the wind,”
and he should not expect God to answer His prayer because he is a “double-minded
man, unstable in all his ways.” Thus, to say that Jesus doubted when He prayed,
Swoboda and Gupta must also say that Jesus was double-minded and unstable in all
His ways, or that James was wrong.

Responding to Anderson’s Claims

Claim One: Jesus Desired to Disobey God

First, contrary to Anderson, Jesus did not desire to disobey His Father. Luke
summarized Jesus’ prayers in Gethsemane in Luke 22:42: “Father, if you are willing,
remove this cup from me. Nevertheless, not my will, but yours, be done.” Jesus
prayed for God’s will to be done first. Then, He asked if God would permit His cup
of wrath to pass from Him. Doing God’s will is what Christ was born for, what He
lived for, and what He continues to live for even to this day (John 6:38).
Second, Jesus’ inclination to turn away from the experience of God’s wrath
cannot be described as a desire to disobey. In this one instance, obedience to the
Father’s will meant abandonment and wrath, rather than fellowship and blessing. In
every other instance of obedience—the rest of Jesus’ obedience and all of ours—
obedience is the choice of fellowship with God and enjoyment of His blessing. The
fact that Jesus immediately follows His holy inclination away from wrath with the
resolve to obey no matter what (“not as I will, but as You will”) demonstrates His
unbroken pattern of holy desires. After His prayers in Gethsemane, He endured the
betrayal of Judas, His arrest, beating, scourging, mocking, and beard-plucking that

22
Anderson writes, “Christ’s temptation announces in practice the moral salience of the distinction
between an intention and a desire…” Anderson, “Sex, Temptation, and the Gay Christian,”
https://web.archive.org/web/20231001162846/https://mereorthodoxy.com/sex-temptation-gay-christian-
chastity-demands.
228 | Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

resulted in His humiliation, suffering, pain, and death. At Pentecost, Peter described
Jesus’ death as both God’s holy will and man’s sinful will: “This Jesus, delivered up
according to the definite plan and foreknowledge of God, you crucified and killed by
the hands of lawless men” (Acts 2:23). Christ’s death was both God’s definite plan
and the work of lawless men. Jesus’ agony in Gethsemane indicates His
understanding of these two realities at work in His coming death—God’s holy will
and man’s sinful will.
After all, when Jesus finished praying in Gethsemane, He said to the disciples,
“See, the hour is at hand, and the Son of Man is betrayed into the hands of sinners.
Rise, let us be going; see, my betrayer is at hand” (Matt 26:45–46). The angel God
sent in Luke 22:43 evidently strengthened Christ, God the Son Incarnate, to endure
the evil will of man, but Christ’s obedience to God’s will through His human nature,
desires, and actions was never in question. Jesus desired God’s will but did not desire
man’s evil.
Third, should Jesus have desired to become sin (2 Cor 5:21)? Should He have
desired to be forsaken by His Father, to drink the cup of His Father’s wrath (Matt
27:45–46)? 23 The words Jesus used were precise. He requested that the “cup of
wrath” be removed from Him (Luke 22:42). The cup of wrath refers to God’s wrath
while also referring to the suffering Jesus was about to experience. 24 Since Jesus is
holy Man, He should not experience an unhesitating delight at the prospect of bearing
our sin, of being forsaken by His Father, or having to drink the cup of His Father’s
wrath. 25 Christ should and did desire to do His Father’s will, which is exactly what
He prayed, beginning His prayer with, “Father, if you are willing” (Luke 22:42).
Fourth, God the Father approved of Jesus’ prayer since the text says that an angel
came from heaven to strengthen Him (Luke 22:43). With Luke emphasizing where
the angel came from, one must understand that God the Father sent the angel to
strengthen His Son—not because His Son was trying to get out of doing His will. On
the contrary, the Son’s obedience to His Father peculiarly required Him to want to
do His Father’s will, even while not eagerly reveling in having to endure the evils of
the crucifixion.

Claim Two: Jesus Wanted to Do Something Morally Bad for Him

Additionally, Anderson claims that when Christ desired not to go to the cross,
He desired something that “would have been morally bad for Him,” for He seemed
“to desire to not do something his Father” commanded. 26 But what command does
Anderson think that Christ desired to disobey? There is nothing in Christ’s prayer
that indicates that He desired not to be obedient to the law or the additional commands
revealed in Scripture in the eternal covenant of redemption (John 6:38–39; Eph 1:3–

23
Stephen Wellum, God the Son Incarnate: The Doctrine of Christ (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2016), 460.
24
Robert H. Stein, Luke, New American Commentary, ed. David S. Dockery (Nashville, TN:
Broadman Press, 1992), 558.
25
Wellum, God the Son Incarnate, 215–17. Also, see Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of
Luke, 574–75.
26
Anderson, “Sex, Temptation, and the Gay Christian,” https://web.archive.org/web/20231001162846/
https://mereorthodoxy.com/sex-temptation-gay-christian-chastity-demands.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 229

5; 2 Tim 1:9–10; 1 Pet 1:20). After all, Christ starts His prayer with, according to
Luke, “If you are willing” (Luke 22:42).
Plus, we have already seen that Jesus desiring God’s wrath to pass from Him is
not disobedient. Since He was not a sinner, never desired to sin, and never actually
sinned, Christ did not deserve God’s wrath. However, those who have desires of the
flesh, like all sinners, deserve God’s wrath. It would be unjust for God to permit His
wrath to pass from sinners without payment for their sin because they are in rebellion
against Him. God’s wrath is upon sinners because they deserve it. But God’s wrath
was on Christ at the cross because of His definite plan, His covenant of redemption,
and Christ’s voluntary obedience.
In other words, a person who has fleshly desires is in violation of God’s
commands in Scripture (Exod 20:17; Deut 5:21; Rom 6:12–13; 7:7–25), and is
deserving of God’s wrath, but Christ is not in violation of any command by desiring
God’s cup of wrath to pass from Him. Therefore, Anderson cannot use the instance
of Jesus asking for God’s wrath to pass from Him to justify a man’s sinful desire that
brings God’s wrath upon Him. 27
To compare Jesus’ prayer request not to have to drink God’s cup of wrath with
an inner desire for evil within us is blasphemy. Neither Scripture nor logic follows.
As a matter of fact, because Christ is God the Son Incarnate, perfectly holy, and
perfectly one with His Father, it is a holy desire for Him to not want to drink the cup
of His Father’s wrath even as He wants to do His Father’s will. Yet, it is a purely
wicked and evil desire for us to want anything that is contrary to God’s design or law
(Rom 1:26–27).

A Final Response to Swoboda and Gupta, and Anderson

Finally, for Swoboda and Gupta to argue that Jesus got “cold feet” about the
cross and for Anderson to argue that Jesus had an immoral desire when He asked for
God’s cup of wrath to pass from Him, they must argue that Jesus had various points
in His life when He was less holy and points when He was more holy. How can God
the Son Incarnate be sinless, as the Bible teaches (2 Cor 5:21; Heb 4:15; 1 John 3:5),
and simultaneously, at various points in His life, be less holy and more holy? It would
be presumptuous of any person to suggest that Jesus could have had a holier desire
or response in Gethsemane to His imminent death.
For these reasons, Jesus’ response in Gethsemane was not one of doubt or
desiring to do something against His Father’s command or immoral. Instead, as the
perfect holy human, Jesus agonizingly obeyed His Father’s will in His heart and
actions. Jesus was, desired, and did exactly what His Father required of Him,
including His prayers in Gethsemane. By Luke summarizing Jesus’ prayers as
starting with, “If you are willing,” and ending with, “Not my will, but yours, be done”
(Luke 22:42), Jesus proved His trust in His Father’s sovereign plan, even as He in
His perfect righteousness did not desire to become sin or endure His Father’s wrath
or man’s lawlessness.

27
Anderson, “Sex, Temptation, and the Gay Christian.”
230 | Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

When We Are Tempted Like Jesus Was in Gethsemane

Jesus models for each believer what agonizing obedience and submission to
God’s providence look like. Far from doubting or desiring to disobey His Father,
Jesus trusted God and sought to faithfully accomplish His will. He communicated
this desire to obey His Father as He prayed three different times (Matt 26:44). At
night and all alone, Jesus sought to please His Father by desiring His will, without
desiring 1) His wrath, 2) to become sin, and 3) man’s evil. In other words, He always
desired holy things and never desired anything unholy.
Jesus is the perfect example of obedience to God from the heart during difficult
providence. His words in Gethsemane show us how to be faithful to God when we
face difficult circumstances. For example, my mother passed away in 2022 from
Parkinson’s disease. She suffered greatly for over seventeen years. Based on the
Bible, I should want God’s will to be done, even as I should not want my mother to
suffer with Parkinson’s. Both desires are true, and both are good desires, not evil.
Similarly, I should want my mother to go to heaven, even though I should not want
her to leave us. Again, both are good desires. The next time you face difficult
providence, remember Christ’s prayers in Gethsemane.

Jesus’ Cry of Dereliction

A third passage Swoboda and Gupta believe demonstrates that Jesus doubted is
the Cry of Dereliction in Matthew 27:45–46. The text says, “Now from the sixth
hour there was darkness over all the land until the ninth hour. And about the ninth
hour Jesus cried out with a loud voice, saying, ‘Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?’ that
is, ‘My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?’” Jesus was obviously in great
pain, but did such pain cause Him to doubt His Father? Consider Swoboda and
Gupta’s claim, followed by my response.

Claim Three: Jesus Doubted on the Cross

Swoboda and Gupta write, “In that moment, Jesus does not call out to Abba,
Father. He does not feel like the superhero Son of God. He is all alone, crushed by
the weight of human sin and suffocating in doubt. There is no response from heaven,
no descending dove or clarion voice—only silence as the blood drains from his still-
warm body.” 28 For Swoboda and Gupta, when Jesus cried out, “My God, My God,
why have you forsaken me?” He was expressing that He was “suffocating in doubt.”
But is there any evidence suggesting that Jesus had any doubt in this moment?

Responding to Swoboda and Gupta’s Third Claim

Like Swoboda and Gupta’s statements before, their arguments are not from the
text but from assumptions. They assume, without any warrant from Scripture, that

28
Swoboda and Gupta, “Jesus Was the God-Man, Not the God-Superman,”
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2021/april-web-only/jesus-god-superman-doubt-temptation-holy-
week.html.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 231

Jesus must have been “suffocating in doubt” to cry out as He did. Perhaps they project
doubt upon Jesus because that is how they or others would respond in similar
circumstances. The issue is that these verses say nothing about Jesus having doubts.
After all, should Jesus have said, “Father, please pour out your wrath on Me!”?
What is the alternative to asking God why He has forsaken Him in this moment?
Should Jesus have praised God for forsaking Him? No. Jesus should not want to be
forsaken by His Father. Jesus cries out as He does because He does not want to be
forsaken by His Father, and He wants to do His Father’s will. Both are morally right
and holy. 29
Furthermore, Jesus’ cry is a quote from the beginning of Psalm 22, which ends
with triumph for the righteous sufferer. And His love and trust for His Father is
confirmed in His final statement from the cross: “Father, into Your hands I commit
My spirit” (Luke 23:46). But what does Jesus mean that He was forsaken by God?
To begin, persons do not act apart from their natures. Persons act through their
natures. 30 Church history has distinguished these divine Persons according to their
eternal relations among the Trinity: the Father eternally begets the Son; the Son is
eternally begotten of the Father; the Holy Spirit eternally proceeds from the Father
and the Son. These three divine Persons are one God, subsisting in one Nature.
In the incarnation, the second Person of the Trinity, God the Son, took on a truly
human nature, “the likeness of men” (Phil 2:7; cf. Luke 2:52; Gal 4:4; Col 1:22), into
union with His divine Person. He became the God-Man, one divine Person subsisting
in two whole, perfect, and distinct natures, united in one and the same Son, without
mixture or separation. 31
Inasmuch as the Triune God subsists in one divine Nature, 32 when Jesus cries
out, “My God, My God, Why have You forsaken Me?”—in this cry, Jesus is speaking
of being forsaken by virtue of His human Nature; He cannot be forsaken of God by
virtue of His divine Nature, because it is the identical divine Nature in which the
Father Himself subsists. It is similar to when the Bible says that Jesus learned (Luke
2:52), suffered, and died (1 Pet 3:18). These are all things that God qua God cannot
do. By virtue of His divinity, God cannot learn, suffer, or die. But, by virtue of the
Son’s human Nature, the second Person of the Trinity did all these things. His being
forsaken by the Father is similar. He is forsaken by virtue of His human Nature, not
by virtue of His divine Nature.
Therefore, it is right to say that Christ was forsaken by virtue of His humanity
even as He was not forsaken by virtue of His divinity; just as we say that Christ died
by virtue of His humanity but never died by virtue of His divinity. Christ understood

29
David L. Turner, Matthew, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, ed. Robert W.
Yarbrough and Robert H. Stein (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008), 669.
30
Wellum, God the Son Incarnate, 425–29. Also, Herman Bavinck, Sin and Salvation in Christ, vol.
3 of Reformed Dogmatics, ed. John Bolt, trans. John Vriend (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 306.
31
This is a summary of the Chalcedon definition that was forged at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
See Henry Bettenson and Chris Maunder, eds., Documents of the Christian Church, Third Edition (Oxford,
NY: Oxford University Press, 1999), 56–57. Also, R. L. Reymond argues that the Council of Chalcedon’s
creedal labors produced the Christological definition that fixed the boundaries for all future discussion; R.
L. Reymond, “Incarnation,” in the Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 2nd ed., ed. Walter A. Elwell
(Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001), 601.
32
Augustine, “On the Trinity,” in Part I, Books, vol. 5 of The Works of Saint Augustine: A Translation
for the 21st Century, ed. John E. Rotelle, trans. Edmund Hill (Brooklyn: New City, 1991), 195.
232 | Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

that He was forsaken by His Father, by virtue of His human Nature, because God the
Father treated Christ as a sinner on the cross (2 Cor 5:21). 33

We Are Not Tempted Like Jesus on the Cross

The same Greek word that Christ used that is translated “forsaken” is also used
by the author of Hebrews, in Hebrews 13:5–6, which reads, “Keep your life free from
love of money, and be content with what you have, for he has said, ‘I will never leave
you nor forsake you.’ So we can confidently say, ‘The Lord is my helper; I will not
fear; what can man do to me?’”
Through the author of Hebrews, God said, “I will never leave you nor forsake
you.” This is a quote from Joshua 1:5, “No man shall be able to stand before you all
the days of your life. Just as I was with Moses, so I will be with you. I will not leave
you or forsake you.” Just as God did not leave Moses or Joshua, He will not leave us,
since we too are people of faith in Yahweh and His promises. We have trusted in
Christ for our salvation. The Father, in a way that is incomprehensible to us, turned
His back on Christ for a temporary time on that cross so He could never forsake us
for all of time. 34
And Christ was willing to be forsaken (John 10:17–18). He submitted to His
Father’s will, trusting Him continually (Phil 2:8). Jesus never doubted God or His
word. He desired everything He was designed by God to desire: wanting His Father’s
will and not wanting His Father’s wrath. Both were holy desires for Jesus. Therefore,
Christ’s cry of dereliction is incomparable to when Christians have an inner desire
for evil, because desiring evil is never holy, nor can it be, for desiring evil is sin.

Jesus, Our Truly Human High Priest

The final verse that Swoboda and Gupta reference is Hebrews 4:15. Not only do
they believe Jesus doubted God and His Word, but they also believe that such doubt
was essential for Jesus to be our truly human High Priest. The author of Hebrews
writes, “For we do not have a high priest who is unable to sympathize with our
weaknesses, but one who in every respect has been tempted as we are, yet without
sin” (Heb 4:15). Jesus was truly tempted, and this temptation was essential for Him
to be our truly human sympathetic High Priest, but was doubt also essential for Jesus
to be our High Priest?

Claim Four: Jesus Doubted as the Truly Human High Priest

According to Swoboda and Gupta, Jesus must have had doubt if He was fully
human. They reason that Jesus could only sympathize with His people in their
weakness if He had doubt. They argue, “Is it possible to truly follow someone who

33
For a more detailed explanation of God the Son willing simultaneously through His two natures,
see Daniel David Scheiderer, Eternal Covenant: The Trinitarian Shape of an Historic Baptist Doctrine
(Ph.D. diss., The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2022), 147–53,
https://repository.sbts.edu/bitstream/handle/10392/6763/Scheiderer_sbts_0207D_10729.pdf.
34
John F. MacArthur Jr., Matthew, MacArthur New Testament Commentary (Chicago: Moody,
1985), 4:270.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 233

has not endured the human experience of doubt? We think not. Because Jesus
endured true humanity—because he ‘has been tempted in every way, just as we are—
yet he did not sin’ (Heb. 4:15)—he can be fully followed.” 35
They continue by clarifying that they understand doubt to be a temptation rather
than a sin: “Jesus was tempted. He did not sin. Therefore, temptation cannot be
understood as sin. Likewise, Jesus doubted. Yet he did not give in to unbelief or give
up on God. Likewise, doubt cannot be understood as sin.” 36 But does the author of
Hebrews intend to say that Jesus doubted God and His word, and that this qualifies
Him to be our eternal high priest?

Responding to Swoboda and Gupta’s Fourth Claim

Swoboda and Gupta’s comments miss the mark in several ways. To begin, it is
remarkable that they distinguish between doubt and unbelief, when doubt and unbelief
have the same nature. To doubt God is to not believe Him (Jas 1:5–8). But for Swoboda
and Gupta, doubt aims at unbelief and becomes unbelief if not resisted, yet it does not
have the same nature as unbelief. They say that doubt is a temptation, while unbelief is
a sin. However, the tenth commandment, Jesus, and James all tell us that to aim at sin
is coveting, adultery, or lust (Deut 5:21, Matt 5:27–30; Jas 1:13–15). 37
Swoboda and Gupta also misunderstand what Hebrews 4:15 means when it says
“in every respect [Jesus] has been tempted as we are.” This does not mean that Jesus
was tempted with every sin of man under the sun. If that is the case, then He was not
only tempted with every sin you and I are tempted with, but He was also tempted
with sins that we are not tempted with; especially heinous and evil sins, even sins we
believe are unthinkable. The author of Hebrews did not say that Jesus was tempted
by sin or by every conceivable temptation. And he certainly did not say that Jesus
ever doubted or lacked faith. 38
To understand this phrase “in every respect,” we must understand the context of
Hebrews 4:15, which is connected to Hebrews 2:14–18. 39 The author of Hebrews
writes,

Since therefore the children share in flesh and blood, he himself likewise partook
of the same things, that through death he might destroy the one who has the
power of death, that is, the devil, and deliver all those who through fear of death

35
Swoboda and Gupta, “Jesus Was the God-Man, Not the God-Superman,”
https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2021/april-web-only/jesus-god-superman-doubt-temptation-holy-
week.html.
36
Ibid.
37
Moore, A Biblical and Historical Appraisal of Concupiscence with Special Attention to Same-Sex
Attraction, 153–98.
38
Donald A. Hagner, Hebrews, New International Biblical Commentary, ed. W. Ward Gasque
(Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1990), 79.
39
William L. Lane, Hebrews 1–8, Word Biblical Commentary 47A, eds. David A. Hubbard, Glenn
W. Barker, and John D. W. Watts (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991), 114. Also, F. F. Bruce, Commentary
on The Epistle to the Hebrews, of New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1964), 84–85. As well, Thomas R. Schreiner, Commentary on Hebrews, Biblical Theology for
Christian Proclamation, eds. T. Desmond Alexander, Andreas J. Kostenberger, and Thomas R. Schreiner
(Nashville, TN: B & H, 2015), 153.
234 | Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

were subject to lifelong slavery. For surely it is not angels that he helps, but
he helps the offspring of Abraham. Therefore he had to be made like his brothers
in every respect, so that he might become a merciful and faithful high priest in
the service of God, to make propitiation for the sins of the people. For because
he himself has suffered when tempted, he is able to help those who are being
tempted (Heb 2:14–18).

The author of Hebrews says that since God’s children, human beings, are flesh
and blood, Jesus took on Himself the same things so that He might free them from
the evil one who has the power of death. The devil has the power of death because
he controls sinners through their sin, and the wages of sin is death (Rom 6:23), but
God the Son took on a human nature to free God’s children from our slavery to sin,
and thus, from the fear of death from the evil one (1 Cor 15:56–57). 40
Jesus had to be made like His brothers, like God’s children, in every respect
concerning suffering and temptation, so that He might mature into a merciful, full of
pity, and faithful, holy in trial and temptation, High Priest, to make propitiation for
the sins of God’s people. Since Jesus suffered when tempted, yet without sin, He can
help God’s children when we are tempted. 41
Now, consider Hebrews 4:14–16,

Since then we have a great high priest who has passed through the heavens,
Jesus, the Son of God, let us hold fast our confession. For we do not have a high
priest who is unable to sympathize with our weaknesses, but one who in every
respect has been tempted as we are, yet without sin. Let us then with confidence
draw near to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and find grace to
help in time of need.

The author begins by pointing to Christ passing through the heavens, referring
to Christ’s ascension into heaven (Acts 1:6–11). God the Son Incarnate, the Second
Person of the Trinity united to a human nature, passed through the heavens by
ascending to God’s throne room in heaven. He atoned for the sins of all believers and
sat down at His Father’s right hand (Heb 9:11–28, 10:11–14). 42 As a result, since our
High Priest, Jesus Christ—to whom we are united by His Holy Spirit (Eph 2:4–6)—
is in heaven, we can draw near to the throne of grace, finding mercy and grace to help
in our time of need.
Jesus can sympathize with our weaknesses because He is truly human and was
truly tempted. God cannot be tempted (Jas 1:13), but God the Son Incarnate can be
and was. This is the weakness to which the author of Hebrews refers, that God cannot
be tempted but the God Man can be, and was, and yet was without sin even in His
humanity. 43
Therefore, Jesus is like all the high priests that have come before Him in that He
is truly human. And He is also not like all the high priests who have come before

40
Lane, Hebrews 1–8, 61.
41
Hagner, Hebrews, 53–54.
42
Hagner, 78–79.
43
Lane, Hebrews 1–8, 114–15.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 235

Him in that He is without sin, and He is God (Heb 1:1–4). Jesus faithfully endured
temptation, the weakness of humanity, for us so that He could deliver us from our sin
and provide us an example.
Also, Jesus is a better covenant head of a better covenant than the old covenant
heads and the old covenants (Heb 1–4:13; 8:1–13). The author of Hebrews wrote to
persuade Jewish Christians not to return to the old covenant along with its high
priests, priesthood, and sacrifices because Christ is the best High Priest, is of a better
Priesthood, and is the ultimate sacrifice, who sympathizes with our humanity or
weakness (Heb 4:14–10:18).
Jesus is the God-Man. For, He was truly tempted like us, yet without sin. He was
tempted by good things offered through evil means and rejected the evil means
entirely. Having lived our weakness by being tempted as truly human, He can be our
sympathetic High Priest. And having passed through temptation sinless, without any
inner desire for evil, He is able to be our perfect High Priest, not having to atone for
His own sin (Heb 7:26–28), but able to atone for our sin and intercede for us. 44

When We Are Tempted Like Jesus the Great High Priest

If our doubts and inner temptations are not like Jesus’ temptations, then whose
temptations are they like? Inner doubt or evil desire is like the temptations of David
or Peter, not Jesus, because they were tempted from within by their flesh for
inherently evil things: David with selfishness, lust, deception, and murder (2 Sam 11)
and Peter with denying Christ (Luke 22:54–62). James tells us that inner temptation
occurs when our flesh desires something that is contrary to God and lures and entices
us. God cannot tempt us because it would be sin for Him to tempt us (Jas 1:13). Thus,
our inner temptation is contrary to God’s nature and God’s design and is therefore
sin.
When Christians face inner temptation, the question is not if we will sin, but how
much we will sin. For the first inclination from our hearts that is contrary to God is
the beginning of the lust of the flesh. Will we feed it and let it consume us, or will we
starve it and let it burn itself out to no effect? Our flesh tempts us with what we find
tempting. And the more we deny the flesh and walk in the Spirit, the more the flesh
is starved and killed (Rom 8:12–13).
Jesus went to the cross to take our sin away, not to send us running to the mirror.
He persevered through temptation to justify us with His righteousness being credited
to us through faith. He was not tempted so that we could look at His temptations and
justify our inner evil desires. Why are Christians trying to justify themselves by
appealing to Hebrews 4:15 when Christ has actually justified us through His precious
blood?
Christians saying, “I’m being tempted like Jesus,” does not take our sin away.
Rather, God takes our sin away through repentance and faith in Christ. If we understand
Hebrews 4:15 in context, we will run to Jesus Christ, our perfect High Priest, like the
very next verse, Hebrews 4:16, says: “Let us then with confidence draw near to the
throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need.” If

44
Bruce, Commentary on The Epistle to the Hebrews, 85–86.
236 | Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

we do not understand Hebrews 4:15 in context, we will try to justify our doubts, our
lusts of the flesh, by looking in the mirror and saying, “I’m like Jesus.” 45

Conclusion

Swoboda and Gupta, along with Anderson, are committing a serious error. The
life of Jesus cannot be used to justify Christians doubting God or “unintentionally”
desiring to disobey Him. Christ was consistently faithful in His actions and His
desires as our perfect High Priest, whether He was in the wilderness, in Gethsemane,
or on the cross. If Jesus doubted God and His Word, as Swoboda and Gupta argue,
or if He desired something contrary to God’s command, something that was immoral
for Him to desire, as Anderson argues (like Adam and Eve did), then He sinned in
His heart, and all His disciples are still in their sins.
Finally, if we follow Swoboda and Gupta’s, and Anderson’s logic that internal
desires that are contrary to God’s commands are not sin, this also means that Jesus
and the church will doubt God and desire things contrary to God’s commands for all
eternity. If not, why not? If these desires that are contrary to God are not sin, and
Jesus had them, then what will keep us from doubting God and desiring to disobey
God’s commands in eternity? This sounds more like fallen creation and hell than the
new heavens and new earth. After all, if Jesus had these doubts and desires that
Swoboda and Gupta, and Anderson claim, we must call them holy; and thus, we must
call all desires to doubt God and His Word and desires not to do what God
commands, holy.

45
Anderson writes, “The pure in heart see God within the man Jesus’ vulnerability in the Garden
because they, too, know the deep humanity of wanting to enjoy goods that they are tasked with renouncing.
The mature in the faith experience this form of temptation precisely because of their sanctity, not its
absence.” Anderson, “Sex, Temptation, and the Gay Christian,”
https://web.archive.org/web/20231001162846/https://mereorthodoxy.com/sex-temptation-gay-christian-
chastity-demands.
237
BIBLICAL RESOURCES.
TRANSFORMING TRUTH.

*****

EQUIPPING BELIEVERS WITH

TRANSFORMING TRUTH
The John MacArthur Publishing Group exists to pro-
duce biblical resources that bring the transforming
truth of God’s Word to the lives of His people.

*****

jm a c a rt h u rp u b lis h in g .c o m

To subscribe to the JMPG mailing list, write to

[email protected].

238
TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 239–241

AN INTERVIEW WITH IOSIF J. ZHAKEVICH:

THE JOHN MACARTHUR PUBLISHING GROUP
Corey Williams
M.A., California State University, Northridge
Chief Communications Officer
The Master’s Seminary

Iosif J. Zhakevich
Ph.D., Harvard University
Associate Professor of Old Testament & Managing Editor
The Master’s Seminary

*****

This conversation between Corey Williams and Iosif J. Zhakevich, director of the
John MacArthur Publishing Group, introduces the purpose and plan of this
publishing endeavor. They discuss the value of producing biblical books and the
actual projects they are currently working on. Zhakevich explains that the ultimate
goal is to expound Scripture and to help believers be conformed to the image of
Christ.

*****

Corey Williams (hereafter CW): What is the John MacArthur Publishing Group
or JMPG?
Iosif J. Zhakevich (hereafter IJZ): Our mission statement really captures the
reason JMPG exists: “The John MacArthur Publishing Group exists to produce
biblical resources that bring the transforming truth of God’s Word to the lives of His
people.” We could even condense it to a brief statement: “Equipping Believers with
Transforming Truth.” That’s our goal! To produce and distribute books that explain
Scripture and that sanctify believers.

CW: There are plenty of Christian publishers out there. Why start another one?
What unique value can this one bring to the church?
IJZ: JMPG was launched to provide trusted resources for those who want to
know Christ and to understand His Word more deeply. Sure, there are fine publishers.
But there’s a rising trend to publish works that are more superficial and less biblical.

239
240 | An Interview with Iosif J. Zhakevich

We’ve also seen publishers reject solid, biblical works even from best-selling
authors.
When Dr. MacArthur proposed his newest book, The War on Children, there
were leading Christian publishers who said no to the idea. Some of them said the
topic was too controversial, even though parents are yearning for wisdom on
protecting and raising their children in this dark generation.
So, our goal is to be bold and to proclaim the truth. In fact, the Board decided to
call this publishing platform the “John MacArthur Publishing Group” because the
Board wants this publisher to stand boldly, the same way Dr. MacArthur has for over
five decades. We want to proclaim the Word of God for those seeking to know the
truth.

CW: What kind of books and resources will this publishing group focus on in
the coming years?
IJZ: The books JMPG has already released reflect the kind of resources we want
to provide.
Dr. MacArthur’s The War on Children looks at our culture that is anti-children,
anti-family, and anti-God, and offers biblical instruction on how to be a godly family
in this godless society. We released the book in print, Kindle, and audio, so that
people could get the version that works best for them.
The MacArthur Old Testament Commentaries on Zechariah as well as on Jonah
& Nahum explain each book devotionally and expositionally. Whether you’re a
pastor, a shepherd, or a new believer, these commentaries explain God’s Word,
instruct us how to live as Christians, and draw us near to Christ.
The next commentary is on the book of Daniel. It looks at those amazing stories
of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego in the fiery furnace, Daniel in the lions’ den,
and the prophecies of the end times. The seventy weeks, the Tribulation, and the
Antichrist are all explained in this commentary. Even though Zechariah and Daniel
are difficult books, the beauty of the commentaries is that they’re written so everyone
could understand them—they feed our Christian soul.
Let me mention one more project we’re working on—a series called The Great
Chapters of the Bible. The first book is on our bodily resurrection from 1 Corinthians
15 (The Triumph of the Rising). Another work describes the love of God towards us
from Romans 8 (The Triumph of Love). We’re also working on a book about the
supreme prayer of Christ from John 17 (Our Savior Who Prays). Finally, we’re
finishing the manuscript on Daniel’s prayer for Israel and the seventy-week prophecy
from Daniel 9 (Christ Triumphs over Sin and Death). These are taken either from the
MacArthur New Testament Commentaries or the MacArthur Old Testament
Commentaries, and are done in a way that anyone can read them and delight in the
beauty of God.

CW: Why should Christians continue to write and publish books? Aren't there
enough books out there already?
IJZ: This is such a good point; even three thousand years ago Solomon said,
“The making of many books is endless” (Ecclesiastes 12:12). Millions of books are
published every year, but how many of them are truly edifying—eternally? There’s
so much godless noise around us—degenerate movies, blasphemous music, or any
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 241

form of foul entertainment. We’re constantly bombarded with the depravity of this
world. The goal of JMPG is to counter this and produce books that will nourish
believers with truth and draw them closer to Christ.
This is why we’ve launched this publishing venture: to display a high view of
Scripture and a high view of God. A. W. Tozer said: “What comes into our minds
when we think about God is the most important thing about us.” Of course, the Bible
is the most important book to read to see who God is. But when someone wants to
study the Bible, we want to provide the resources that help Christians focus on
specific portions of Scripture and dive into God’s Word.
The War on Children
Assaults against children are coming from all directions, but as par-
ents, you must train your children in the way of the Lord.

Zechariah
(MacArthur Old Testament Commentary)

Zechariah shows that the Messiah, the Lord Jesus Christ, is the
focus of God’s plan in redemptive history.

Jonah & Nahum

(MacArthur Old Testament Commentary)

God sent Jonah to Nineveh to show that God is the Savior of both
Jews and Gentiles. In the next book, Nahum, God declares judgment
on Nineveh because the people returned to their wickedness.

The Triumph of the Rising

In 1 Corinthians 15, Paul delivers the most extensive treatment of
the resurrection in all of Scripture. As Christ has been raised from
the dead, so will all who are in Christ also be raised to life.

The Triumph of Love

Focusing on Romans 8, John MacArthur shows that there is nothing
that shall ever “separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ
Jesus our Lord” (Rom 8:39).

To subscribe to the JMPG mailing list, write to

[email protected]
TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 243–255

JESUS’ LOVE FOR HIS OWN:

THE REMNANT IN JOHN 1
Mark Zhakevich
Ph.D., University of Edinburgh
Associate Professor of New Testament and New Testament Department Chair
The Master’s Seminary

*****

Remnant theology in John centers on John’s presentation of Jesus as the Good

Shepherd and His followers as His sheep. John demonstrates that Jesus declared
Himself to be the hope of the remnant—the ultimate Shepherd about whom the Old
Testament prophesied. This Good Shepherd offers the promise of eternal life to the
remnant, secured by His work of redemption for the remnant. Upon redeeming His
own, He regathers them together as one flock under one Shepherd, protecting them,
and giving them an eternal purpose—that they would know Him and glorify Him.

*****

Introduction

Remnant theology, or Jesus’ love for His own, is a profound theme weaved
throughout the Gospel of John. Akin to passages in the Old Testament 2 as well as

1
This article has been adapted from a breakout session at the 2023 Shepherd’s Conference, titled
“Jesus’ Love for His Own.” The full sermon is available online at: https://www.gracechurch.org/
sermons/20918.
2
The Old Testament theological concept of the remnant is most fully developed by the Latter
Prophets in light of the historical event of the exile. The nature of the exile for Israel, whereby a remnant
was left in the land and a remnant of the exiled remained faithful to Yahweh, demonstrated the historical
reality of a remnant. That remnant was within the ethnic nation of Israel; though there were many who
were faithless, a few remained faithful to their covenant-keeping God. This difference between the many
and the few, or the remnant preserved through judgment, builds the theology that Paul unpacks in Romans
9–11. For further discussion of the Old Testament theology of the remnant, see D. M. Morgan, “Remnant,”
in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, eds. Mark J. Boda and J. Gordan McConville (Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2012), 658–64; Gottlob Schrenk and Volkmar Herntrich, “λεῖμμα, ὑπόλειμμα,
καταλείπω (κατά-, περί-, διάλειμμα),” in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, eds. Gerhard Kittel,
Geoffrey W. Bromiley, and Gerhard Friedrich (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964), 4:196–209.
243
244 | Jesus’ Love for His Own: The Remnant in John

portions in the New Testament (e.g., Rom 9–11; Rev 12; etc.), 3 John contributes to
the picture of the remnant by depicting the remnant as a righteous people belonging
to God. In describing this remnant, John presents seven aspects of remnant theology:
the character of the remnant, the identity of the remnant, the promise to the remnant,
the regathering of the remnant, the redemption of the remnant, the protection of the
remnant, and the purpose for the remnant.

The Character of the Remnant

Of central significance in the Gospel of John is John’s declaration that the

remnant of God demonstrates continual belief in Christ: the follower of Christ
believes and continues to believe. In John 20:30–31, John conveys this message in
the purpose statement of his Gospel, writing, “Therefore many other signs Jesus also
performed in the presence of the disciples, which are not written in this book; but
these have been written so that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of
God; and that believing you may have life in His name.” Thus, John wrote his Gospel
specifically to provoke continuous faith in Jesus as Messiah. 4
In so doing, John described active faith that is anchored particularly in Christ.
Throughout the Gospel of John, the root behind “believe” (πιστεύω) is always a verb,
and of its 98 occurrences, 93 set Jesus as the object of belief. 5 This manner of faith
appears to be the thrust of the first occurrence of πιστεύω as well—Jesus as the object
of faith. The purpose statement, in effect, can be seen in two parts: 1) belief in Christ
(“so that you may believe [πιστεύ[σ]ητε] that Jesus is the Christ”); and 2) ongoing
belief (“that believing [πιστεύοντες] you may have life in His name”). The first half
is messianic, or Christological, focusing on the faith in Jesus Christ. The second half
emphasizes the nature of the faith and accentuates discipleship. This second use of

3
In Romans 9–11, the nouns for “remnant” are ὑπόλειμμα and λεῖμμα, and each occurs only once in
the New Testament in Romans 9:27 and 11:5 respectively. Regarding the book of Revelation, Lester V. Meyer
mentions allusions to the remnant in the Synoptic Gospels, and direct references to it in Revelation, however,
he avoids the Gospel of John entirely. See Lester V. Meyer, “Remnant,” in Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary, ed.
David Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 5:671. Likewise, Mark W. Elliott gives attention to its
occurrences in the Synoptic Gospels, Revelation, and Paul (Rom 9–11), but he does not expand this study to
the Gospel of John. See Mark W. Elliott, “Remnant,” in New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, eds. T.
Desmond Alexander and Brian S. Rosner (Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity, 2000), 724–25.
4
Significant scholarly debate surrounds John’s first use of πιστεύω in John 20:31, “that you may
believe.” The first occurrence of πιστεύω occurs either as a present subjunctive (πιστεύητε) or as an aorist
subjunctive (πιστεύσητε), and these two options suggest two divergent purposes. The present subjunctive
supports John exhorting believers to persevere in faith, whereas the aorist subjunctive would support the
purpose of incipient faith in Jesus as the Christ, an evangelistic aim. The textual evidence is split evenly
with regard to whether πιστεύω occurs as an aorist or a present tense, forcing the determining factor to be
apart from manuscript data. Metzger writes, “Both πιστεύητε and πιστεύσητε have notable early
support…in view of the difficulty of choosing between the readings by assessing the supposed purpose of
the evangelist (assuming that he used the tenses of the subjunctive strictly), the Committee considered it
preferable to represent both readings by enclosing σ within square brackets.” See Bruce M. Metzger, A
Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, 2nd ed. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2007),
219–20; and see discussion in Mark Zhakevich, Follow Me: The Benefits of Discipleship in the Gospel of
John (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2021), 4.
5
In contrast to the Gospel of John that has 98 cases of πιστεύω, the Synoptics use πιστεύω 34 times
cumulatively. See discussion in Zhakevich, Follow Me: The Benefits of Discipleship in the Gospel of John,
43, fn. 9.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 245

πιστεύω (πιστεύοντες), translated “believing,” is a present tense participle conveying

ongoing belief. What John is trying to accomplish through the purpose statement is
to provide a portrait of a Christological disciple, declaring that a true disciple of
Christ believes and continues believing.

The Identity of the Remnant

As the remnant demonstrates this persevering belief in Christ, John shows that
the remnant’s identity is established in Christ. In John 10, the central chapter for
remnant theology, John defines the remnant by associating them with Christ,
depicting the remnant as the sheep and Jesus as the Good Shepherd. Referring to His
sheep, Jesus calls them “His own sheep” (10:3) and later simply as “His own” (10:4;
13:1) or “My own” (10:14). This usage of “own” (ἴδιος) creates a marked contrast
with John’s first usage of the term in John 1:11 to describe those who rejected Christ
(“He came to His own [τὰ ἴδια], and His own [οἱ ἴδιοι] did not receive Him”) and
Jesus’ use of this word in John 10 to describe those who followed Christ. 6 John, in
other words, identifies two categories: “His own” whom Jesus came to but who
rejected Him (1:11, i.e., not the remnant), and truly “His own” who receive Him and
follow Him (10:3–4, 14, i.e., the remnant). This distinction between the two groups
echoes the remnant theology of the Old Testament—a group of people preserved by
God who remain faithful and are preserved in the midst of judgment.
A fundamental distinctive that defines the remnant is that they experience eternal
life in the present. 7 Life, and specifically eternal life, is offered by the Good Shepherd
(John 10:10, 28). In verse 10, Jesus refers to the sheep mentioned in 10:7–9 and
exclaims that He came so that His sheep may have (ἔχωσιν) abundant life. In verse
28, He explicitly states that He offers “eternal life.” In 17:3, Jesus defines eternal life
as follows: “This is eternal life, that they may know you, the only true God, and Jesus
Christ whom you have sent.” Eternal life, therefore, is defined as a relationship with
God the Father and God the Son. Developing this in chapters 14–16, John shows that

6
J. Ramsey Michaels, The Gospel of John, New International Commentary on the New Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010), 721. The term ἴδιος occurs 15 times in the Gospel of John, however, of
those occurrences, 5 are found without an attached noun, leaving the term undefined (1:11 [2x]; 10:4;
13:1; 15:19). Thus, the surrounding context is necessary to identify each usage: 1) in 1:11, τὰ ἴδια as neuter
likely refers to his “things” (either the world or his home; see D. A. Carson, The Gospel According to
John, Pillar New Testament Commentary (Leicester, England: Apollos, 1991), 124; Andreas J.
Köstenberger, John, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament [Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2004], 37), whereas 2) οἱ ἴδιοι demonstrates a subcategory of the world that should have
received Christ, but instead rejected Him (ethnic Israel); 3) in 10:4, τὰ ἴδια represents the sheep who belong
to the Shepherd, given its occurrence in 10:3, but not those to whom Jesus was directly speaking, given
His words in 10:26; 4) in 13:1, τὰ ἴδια represents either the faithful disciples in the Upper Room
(Köstenberger, John, 402) or the full body of disciples whom Jesus loves (Michaels, The Gospel of John,
721); 5) in 15:19, τὸ ἴδιον refers to the ones who belong to the world and whom the world loves. When
ἴδιος is used by itself in John, it differentiates between the remnant and a group of those outside the remnant
(the world and its disciples).
7
As J. G. van der Watt notes, ζωή occurs 36 times in John’s Gospel. However, over half of these
references are void of the qualifier αἰώνιος. Yet van der Watt argues that even when αἰώνιος is absent,
“eternal life” is still in view in the mind of John. See the appendix in J. G. van der Watt, “The Use of
αἰώνιος in the concept of ζωή αἰώνιος in John’s Gospel,” Novum Testamentum 31, no. 3 (July 1989): 227–
28, for a full breakdown of the uses of ζωή.
246 | Jesus’ Love for His Own: The Remnant in John

this relationship is empowered by the Holy Spirit within the believer (e.g., 14:15–
24). In the Synoptics, eternal life is a future reality; but in the Gospel of John, eternal
life is a present reality—a relationship with God that the believer experiences today.
John carefully distinguishes between eternal life and resurrection. While eternal
life is the present reality of a relationship with God and Jesus Christ, the resurrection
is an extension of that life into eternity. 8 In John 6:54, Jesus states: “He who eats My
flesh and drinks My blood has eternal life, and I will raise him up on the last day.”
The verb ἔχει (“has”) is present tense, indicating a current reality. In contrast,
ἀναστήσω (“I will raise”) assures the reader of a future resurrection, indicating a
difference between the eternal life that believers enjoy in the present and the
resurrection that awaits the believers in the future. 9 In this way, John provides both a
qualitative and a quantitative aspect to the concept of eternal life. As John describes
the identity of the remnant, he demonstrates that they experience eternal life—or a
relationship with God—even in their life on earth.

The Promise to the Remnant

With the remnant’s belief and identity in Christ, the remnant receives the
promise of adoption as children of God. In John 1:11, John writes, “He [Jesus] came
to His own” (τὰ ἴδια; “His own”), but part of “His own” rejected Him. Stating that
some of Christ’s “own” rejected Christ, John then specifies a subset of “His own,”
declaring, “But as many as received Him, to them He gave the right to become
children of God, even to those who believe in His name, who were born, not of blood
nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God” (vv. 12–13). 10 The
remnant, therefore, who does obtain the promise of becoming the children of God
consists of those who accept Christ.

8
As Richard Bauckham states, “Eternal life in John is much more than the goods of earthly, mortal
life, but it is certainly not less than them. It surpasses them by including them, not leaving them behind…it
is the renewal of the whole of life through participation in the divine life.” Consequently, eternal life begins
in the present and extends into the future. As one abides in Christ, he comes to participate in the divine
life, possessing eternal life even now. See Richard Bauckham, Gospel of Glory: Major Themes in
Johannine Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2015), 71.
9
This difference between the present and the future is often referred to by scholars as realized
eschatology (present) and unrealized or final eschatology (future). Though the eating and drinking should not
be understood to be a reference to the Eucharist, the present tense verb suggests that eternal life includes the
present, extending into the future. See Raymond Brown, The Gospel According to John: I–XII, Anchor Bible
Commentary (New York: Doubleday, 1966), 292, and Carson, The Gospel According to John, 295–97, for a
refutation of the Eucharist view of this passage. However, contra Brown, the present eternal life is not the
reality of the kingdom of God but rather the “featured benefit that is derived from membership in the divine
family. Eternal life can be defined as the ability and quality of relating within the divine family.” See
Zhakevich, Follow Me: The Benefits of Discipleship in the Gospel of John, 58–59, 71.
10
Morris and Klink note the difficulty of translating ὅσοι δὲ ἔλαβον αὐτόν (“But as many as received
Him”), yet both conclude that its function and unique structure highlight the identity of the ones who
receive Christ in contrast to the disbelieving people to whom Jesus came. See Edward W. Klink III, John,
Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2016), 103–04;
Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John, New International Commentary on the New Testament
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 86–87.
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The chiastic structure of John’s prologue emphasizes this promise all the more
(1:1–18), with the focal point spotlighting the concept of adoption as children of
God. 11

A Word with God (1:1–2)

B What came to be through the Word: Creation (1:3)
C What we have received from the Word: Life (1:4–5)
D John sent to testify (1:6–8)
E Incarnation and response of the World (1:9–10)
F The Word and His own (1:11)
G Those who accepted the Word (1:12a)
H Those who became children of God (1:12b)
G’ Those who believed in the Word (1:12c)
F’ The Word and His own (1:13)
E’ Incarnation and Response of the Community (1:14)
D’ John’s Testimony (1:15)
C’ What we have received from the Word: Grace (1:16)
B’ What came to be through the Word: Grace and Truth (1:17)
A’ Word with God (1: 18)

Within this chiasm, John 1:11–13 is at the apex, and 1:12b is the centerpiece. 12 This
verse reads, “But as many as received Him, to them He gave the right to become
children of God, even to those who believe in His name.” As the chiastic structure
above shows, the central statement within this chiasm is the clause: “to them He gave
the right to become children of God.” This is God’s promise to the remnant—that
they would become children of God. This promise of adoption and sonship is the
same promise Paul demonstrates in his remnant theology in Romans 9 (e.g., Rom
9:6–8). 13 Paul writes, “But it is not as though the word of God has failed. For they
are not all Israel who are descended from Israel; nor are they children because they
are Abraham’s descendants, but through Isaac, your descendants will be named. That
is, it is not the children of the flesh who are children of God, but the children of the
promise are regarded as descendants.” As John, Paul uses “the children” image and

11
Compare to Köstenberger’s chiasm and see his defense of a chiastic structure in the prologue in
John, 20–21.
12
In his criteria for discerning an extended chiasm in the text, Blomberg writes, “The center of the
chiasmus, which forms its climax, should be a passage worthy of that position in light of its theological or
ethical significance.” See Craig Blomberg, “The Structure of 2 Corinthians 1–7,” Criswell Theological
Review 4, no. 1 (1989): 7. This, along with several of the other features of a chiasm, is true of John 1:1–
18, with the emphasis being on the unique statement “to them He gave the right to become children of
God,” a statement that bears significant family language in the whole of John’s Gospel.
13
Scholars are divided on whether υἱοθεσία in Romans 9:4 bears the same theological significance
as it does in Romans 8:15 and 23 as it refers to the adoption of believers. Moo argues for a difference in
meaning, given that adoption is “the Spirit-conferred status of all those who have been justified by faith
in Christ.” He argues that Paul would not use this language in reference to Israel, given the significant
number of unbelievers within the nation. See Douglas J. Moo, The Epistle to the Romans, New
International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 562. However,
Schreiner objects, stating that the adoption of Israel may demonstrate a spiritual reality without requiring
“that every single individual will be saved.” See Thomas R. Schreiner, Romans, Baker Exegetical
Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1998), 483–84.
248 | Jesus’ Love for His Own: The Remnant in John

links it to remnant theology. 14 In that way, Paul and John are aligned in their
understanding that to become a child of God, to be adopted and become a son of God,
is to be part of the remnant.
In addition to this chiastic structure, John also focuses on this promise of
adoption or sonship for the remnant through an inclusio. 15 John’s inclusio features
adoption language at both the beginning of the book (1:12) and at its conclusion
(20:17; 21:5). 16 At John 1:12, John depicts the followers of Christ as “children of
God,” and then at 20:17 and 21:5, respectively, John refers to God as the Father of
His followers, and to the disciples as children. At 20:17, at the end of Jesus’ time on
earth, Jesus gives an imperative to Mary, “Go to My brethren and say to them, ‘I
ascend to My Father and your Father, and My God and your God.’” This is the first
time in John that Jesus calls his disciples “brothers” and God as their “Father,”
because the cross had established a relationship between the disciples and God as
their Father. Then, at 21:5, Jesus addresses his disciples as “children,” thereby
implicitly associating them with a father, and in this context, God the Father, since
they would commit their lives to glorifying God (cf. v. 19).
Significantly, this image also appears at the transition in Jesus’ ministry—from
Jesus’ public ministry (John 1–12) to His private ministry (13–21). At 12:36, at the
end of Jesus’ public ministry, Jesus exclaims to the crowd, “While you have the
Light, believe in the Light, so that you may become sons of Light.” Though the
language is slightly different (“son of Light” compared to “child of God”), the
imagery is consistent, bringing out the importance of the theme of adoption in the
Gospel of John and in the ministry of Jesus. Thus, John emphasizes that those who
believe in the Light will receive the promise of adoption, know God, and participate
in eternal life (cf. John 1:4–5, 9–10). Then, at 13:1, at the beginning of Jesus’ private
ministry, John writes, “Having loved His own [τοὺς ἰδίους] who were in the world,
He loved them to the end.” Even beyond the reference to “His own,” the statement
“who were in the world” suggests that they are no longer in the world, thus indicating
their identity as the remnant (cf. 17:6, 16).
But in this transition of John’s Gospel, between John discussing the promise of
adoption (12:36) and the remnant who receives that promise (13:1), John incorporates

14
Just as John uses a single term ἴδιος (His own) to refer to two groups (His own who rejected Him
[John 1:11] and His own who were His sheep [10:3–4]), Paul uses children and seed, with each of these
terms having two distinct groups (children of the flesh [Rom 9:8] and children of God [9:8]; seed that is
not of God [9:7] and seed that is of God [9:8]). This distinction echoes remnant theology in that, of the
larger group who is judged by God, there is a smaller remnant preserved through judgment. Furthermore,
in Paul’s theology, being called “children of God” is closely associated with the work of adoption as sons
(Rom 8:16, 17, 21), further connecting adoption as a blessing the remnant experiences. See Moo, The
Epistle to the Romans, 577.
15
John prefers familial language, rather than the language of sonship throughout his Gospel. As is
noted, John uses the word for “son” (υἱός) only in reference to Jesus: “the believers are not called children
of the Father or born of the Father, but rather children of God and born of God.” See Zhakevich, Follow
Me: The Benefits of Discipleship in the Gospel of John, 30 (emphasis original).
16
The Greek word used in John 1:12 is τέκνον, different from the word used in 21:5, παιδίον.
However, Brown suggests that these two words be viewed as interchangeable within Johannine writings,
given the evidence of 1 John 2:12–14. See Raymond Brown, The Gospel According to John: XIII–XXI,
Anchor Bible Commentary (New York: Doubleday, 1970), 1070.
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a key Old Testament text depicting remnant theology: Isaiah 6. 17 Beginning first with
Isaiah 53:1 and then proceeding to Isaiah 6:10, John writes in John 12:37–40:

This was to fulfill the word of Isaiah the prophet which he spoke: “Lord, who
has believed our report? And to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?”
For this reason they could not believe, for Isaiah said again, “He has blinded
their eyes and hardened their heart, so that they would not see with their eyes
and perceive with their heart, and be converted and I heal them.”

John uses this text to explain the difference between the remnant who received the
promise and the larger group who rejected it. Though Jesus had worked many signs
in front of the people, they would not believe in Him. At the shift from Jesus’ public
ministry to His private ministry, John uses this text from Isaiah to distinguish the
believing remnant from those who rejected the truth. The broader context of Isaiah 6
alludes to the future remnant who would believe upon hearing the preaching of the
truth, and Isaiah refers to this remnant as “the holy seed” (Isa 6:13). Thus, though
many refuse the Light of the world, there will be a remnant who would believe in the
Light and receive the promise of adoption.
The promise of adoption is also carried along in John’s Gospel by language
pertaining to Jesus’ love and choosing of the disciples. In John 13:1, John focuses on
Jesus’ love for the remnant, saying: “Now before the Feast of the Passover, Jesus
knowing that His hour had come that He would depart out of this world to the Father,
having loved His own who were in the world, He loved them to the end.” 18 Jesus’
love for the disciples results in their separation from the unbelieving world, because
Jesus loved and chose the disciples as the believing remnant. In John 15:19, Jesus
states, “If you were of the world, the world would love its own; but because you are
not of the world, but I chose you out of the world, because of this the world hates
you.” While the world loves its own, Jesus loved His own and chose His own from
the world. Because Christ loved and chose His own to be the believing remnant, the
world hated the remnant, as 17:14 reiterates: “I have given them Your word; and the
world has hated them, because they are not of the world, even as I am not of the
world.” 19 This love that separates the disciples is the result of Christ’s choosing His
followers. In John 6:70, Jesus exclaims, “Did I myself not choose you?” In 13:18, He

17
For a discussion of this passage in light of the remnant motif, see Gerhard F. Hasel, The Remnant:
The History and Theology of the Remnant Idea from Genesis to Isaiah, Andrews University Monographs
5 (Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 1974), 238–50.
18
Analysis of ἀγαπάω and φιλέω in John suggests that the two verbs operate interchangeably. For
example, John speaks of the disciple whom Jesus loved, using both verbs as qualifiers (20:2 uses φιλέω,
while 13:23; 19:26; and 21:7 use ἀγαπάω). Though Bauckham limits the interchangeability of these two
terms to the love of friends, some texts suggest otherwise. For example, John uses both verbs on different
occasions to state that God loves the Son (3:35 uses ἀγαπάω while 5:20 uses φιλέω). Or, John uses both
verbs to state the Father loves His own (his disciples) (14:23 has ἀγαπάω while 16:27 has φιλέω). See
Bauckham, Gospel of Glory: Major Themes in Johannine Theology, 64–65.
19
Dodd observes that the theme of love (ἀγαπάω and αγαπη) saturates the Farewell Discourse (John
13–17) in a manner altogether different than the first half of the Gospel (John 1–12). He observes that
whereas ἀγαπάω and αγαπη occur only 6 times in the first 12 chapters, they occur 31 times in the Farewell
Discourse. See C. H. Dodd, The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1968), 398.
250 | Jesus’ Love for His Own: The Remnant in John

says, “I know the ones I have chosen.” In 15:16, He states, “You did not choose Me
but I chose you, and appointed you that you would go and bear fruit…” This element
of choosing is introduced specific to His disciples, thus accentuating this theme of
the remnant theology in John. There is a selection by Jesus connected to His love that
gives to His disciples the promise of adoption.

The Regathering of the Remnant

Furthermore, John’s remnant theology develops the theme of the regathering of

the remnant. This regathering is the logical extension of the promise of adoption.
Though the believing remnant would be scattered, they would one day be regathered
by Christ. In John 11, John remarks on Caiaphas’ prophecy about the death of Jesus
and explains “that Jesus was going to die for the nation, and not for the nation only,
but in order that He might also gather together into one the children of God who are
scattered abroad” (11:51–52). Certainly, when Caiaphas mentions “the nation” in
11:50, he is referring to the ethnic people of Israel in the land of Israel. However, at
the time of John’s writing, the Diaspora had already occurred and the Jewish people
had already been scattered throughout the Roman Empire. 20 Therefore, when John
comments upon Caiaphas’ prophecy, he applies the statement to all the believers of
Israel—those within the land and those scattered abroad—declaring that God would
gather them all into one fold.
Indeed, this dispersion and regathering of Israel was also prophesied by Ezekiel
in Ezekiel 34, which John depends upon and alludes to throughout John 10. 21 In
Ezekiel 34, Ezekiel deploys four different words that describe the scattering of the
sheep. 22 In 34:4 and 16, Ezekiel employs the term “scatter” (‫)נדח‬, emphasizing the
dispersion of a flock. 23 In 34:6, he uses “wander” (‫)שׁגה‬, which carries the nuance of
straying from the place of habitation. 24 In 34:5, 12, and 21, Ezekiel uses “dispersed”
(‫ ;פוץ‬also translated “scattered” at times). Finally, in 34:12, he uses “spread out”
(‫)פרש‬, which denotes the idea of separation. 25 Thus Ezekiel communicates a central
284F

point that the Lord’s sheep will one day be scattered. However, while prophesying
this message of doom, Ezekiel also records in the midst of this prophecy God’s
promise of hope for the people of Israel. In 34:15, God says, “I will feed my flock

20
Karen H. Jobes, John through Old Testament Eyes (Grand Rapids: Kregel Academic, 2021), 195.
21
For a study on the relationship between John and Ezekiel, see William G. Fowler and Michael
Strickland, The Influence of Ezekiel in the Fourth Gospel: Intertextuality and Interpretation (Leiden: Brill,
2018).
22
For a list of Ancient Near Eastern documents using shepherding and regathering language, see
Daniel I. Block, The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 25–48, New International Commentary on the Old
Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 290–91.
23
See T. Kronholm, “‫נָדַ ח‬,” in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, ed. G. Johannes
Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry, trans. John T. Willis, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, David
E. Green, and Douglas W. Stott (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 9:236.
24
The parallel position of ‫“( שׁגה‬wander”) with ‫“( פוץ‬disperse, scatter”) may suggest the involvement
of the wicked shepherds of Israel in the dispersion of the people (cf. 34:21). See T. Seidl, “‫שָׁ גָה‬/‫שָׁ גַג‬,” in
Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, ed. G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-
Josef Fabry, trans. John T. Willis, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, David E. Green, and Douglas W. Stott (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 14:400.
25
For text critical questions concerning ‫ פרשׁ‬/ ‫ פרשׂ‬in Ezekiel 34:12, see Block, The Book of Ezekiel
25–48, 286, fn. 71; Leslie C. Allen, Ezekiel 20–48 (Dallas: Word Books, 1990), 157.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 251

and I will lead them to rest.” God will not allow this dispersion to perpetuate but He
will Himself bring it to an end. He declares in 34:11, “Behold, I Myself will seek My
sheep and care for them.” God will regather His people into one unified flock.
This image of regathering is the very image John uses in developing his remnant
theology as well. Just as God refers to His remnant as “My sheep” in Ezekiel 34:11,
12, and 31 (cf. “My flock” in 34:6, 8, 10, 15, 17, 19, 22), so also Jesus refers to His
followers as “My sheep” in John 10:26 and 27 (cf. 21:16, 17; and “My own,” “His
own” in 10:3–4, 14). Jesus indicates that His sheep are the remnant who hear His
voice, who follow God, and who receive the blessing of adoption and eternal life. In
other words, John takes the shepherding and regathering theology of Ezekiel 34 and
applies it to the remnant theology he develops in John 10. In this way, he reminds his
readers of the hope Israel has in the future Shepherd (John 10:16; cf. Ezek 34:23–
24). The remnant will be regathered under the staff and rod of their one Shepherd,
the Good Shepherd (John 10:14; cf. Ezek 34:23). This Shepherd will express care for
the one flock of God, as John demonstrates in John 10:16 and throughout his Gospel
(see 11:52; 17:11, 21, 22, 23).
Examining this theme of regathering in John, Karen Jobes notes that this
regathering includes not only Israel but all those who believe in Jesus’ name (cf. John
1:12). 26 The remnant is a global reality in the theology of John. As John alludes to
this global and scattered remnant in John 10:16, he records Jesus stating, “I have
other sheep, which are not of this fold; I must bring them also, and they will hear My
voice; and they will become one flock with one shepherd.” The implication is that
Gentiles who believe will also enter the fold and join the flock of the Shepherd,
thereby also becoming children of God (cf. Rev 1:7).
This raises an important question for the theology of the remnant: How is it
possible that the remnant will be regathered?

The Redemption of the Remnant

In order for the remnant to be regathered, the remnant will need to be delivered
from sin, which is yet another aspect of John’s remnant theology—the redemption of
the remnant. In the Gospel of John, the regathering of the remnant is at times paired
with the redemption of the remnant. At John 11:39–52, for example, Caiaphas’
prophecy implies the substitutionary nature of Jesus’ death, and John then affirms
this and states that Caiaphas “prophesied that Jesus was going to die for the nation”
and for “the children of God who are scattered abroad” (vv. 51–52). Moreover, Jesus
Himself declared that His death would be sacrificial and substitutionary. In John
10:15, Jesus says, “I lay down My life for the sheep…” and then in 10:17, He
reiterates, “I lay down My life…” (cf. 10:11, 18; 15:13; 1 John 3:16). Significantly,
between these two statements, in 10:16 Jesus declares His determination to gather
His sheep, stating, “I have other sheep, which are not of this fold; I must bring them
also, and they will hear My voice; and they will become one flock with one

26
Jobes, John through Old Testament Eyes, 195. Jesus dying for “the nation” (11:51) should not
cause issue regarding the nature or application of Jesus’ death. It is acceptable to read Caiaphas’ statement,
not primarily as a remark about the extent of the atonement, but as a political prophecy about the state of
the nation in the context of the Roman Empire. See Carson, The Gospel According to John, 522.
252 | Jesus’ Love for His Own: The Remnant in John

shepherd.” With the hope of regathering the remnant, Jesus demonstrates the
importance of the work of redemption to securing the remnant’s future regathering. 27
The regathering of the remnant, therefore, cannot be separated from the death of Jesus
Christ.
John’s Gospel nuances the redemption of the remnant further by suggesting yet
again that the Gentiles will also be included in this redeemed remnant. When a group
of Greeks came to see Jesus (John 12:20–22), Jesus responded by turning His
attention to His coming death and saying, “The hour has come for the Son of Man to
be glorified” (John 12:23, 27; 13:1). Whereas the hour had been delayed throughout
the Gospel (2:4; 7:6, 8, 30; 8:20), Jesus declared that the hour had arrived particularly
when the Greeks came to see Him. After stating that His death will bear much fruit
(12:23–31), Jesus referred to the remnant in an inclusive sense and explained that “I,
if I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all men to Myself” (12:32). Commenting
on this pericope, Andreas Köstenberger explains that after His death, “Jesus will draw
‘all people,’ including Gentiles, to himself (cf. 10:16; 11:51–52).” 28 These Greeks
are the other sheep who are Jesus’ own but who are not of the fold. Yet, when they
come to Him, Jesus speaks of His death and then indicates that they too will become
part of one flock under one Shepherd. However, for this to occur, Jesus needed to
complete the work His Father had given Him, to secure His own by His work of
redemption.
This leads to another question concerning John’s remnant theology: Is the
redeemed remnant secure in being regathered unto Christ?

The Protection of the Remnant

Jesus’ work of redemption for the remnant secures their regathering because He
is the protector of the remnant. The imagery of protection is found in John 10—the
central chapter on John’s remnant theology. In portraying Jesus as the Good
Shepherd, John shows that one of the blessings of Christ’s shepherding is His
protection of His flock. John 10:27–30 reads, “My sheep hear My voice, and I know
them, and they follow Me; and I give eternal life to them, and they will never perish;
and no one will snatch them out of My hand. My Father, who has given them to Me,
is greater than all; and no one is able to snatch them out of the Father’s hand. I and
the Father are one.” The language of sheep hearing the voice of the Shepherd evokes
similar imagery that appears in Old Testament remnant theology. Psalm 95:7 states,
“We are the people of His pasture and the sheep of His hand. Today, if you would
hear His voice…” Using this imagery, the psalmist describes the people, or sheep,
listening to the voice of the shepherd and being kept in the shepherd’s hand. Being
in the hand of the shepherd affords great surety to the sheep, indicating that their
redemption is firm. Nobody slips through His fingers (cf. John 6:37–40). The promise
is that God and Christ, the Father and the Son, will protect the flock. They offer
eternal life—a life, in the words of John 10:10, that is abundant. This eternal life
promised to the remnant is fully satisfying.

27
Cf. Brown, The Gospel According to John: I–XII, 398; Timothy S. Laniak, Shepherds After My
Own Heart, New Studies in Biblical Theology (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2006), 216.
28
Köstenberger, John, 384–85, 388.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 253

This idea of abundance also hearkens back to the imagery present in Old
Testament promises of fullness for His sheep. In Ezekiel 34:14 and 26, God promises
to feed His sheep with good pasture. 29 Undoubtedly, this promise is ultimately
fulfilled in the Millennial Kingdom when the flock of God is one and when it has one
shepherd under the reign of King Jesus (Ezek 34:23–24). Additionally, this
abundance is described in Jeremiah 23 as a particular blessing for the remnant
shepherded by the Lord. God says, “Then I Myself will gather the remnant of my
flock out of all the countries where I have driven them and bring them back to their
pasture, and they will be fruitful and multiply” (Jer 23:3). This promised prosperity
will coincide with the coming of the Davidic Branch, a king who reigns wisely and
justly in the land (23:5). His rule will result in the security of the sheep (23:6). These
realities attend the sheep of the Good Shepherd, who protects the sheep from the thief
that seeks only to kill and destroy (John 10:10). Though the remnant was scattered,
they will one day be redeemed and regathered, and upon being brought together by
Christ, they will be afforded a secure abundance.
Beyond this description of the protective role of the Shepherd, John also
indicates that the protection of the remnant becomes a task entrusted to under-
shepherds serving the Chief Shepherd (1 Pet 5:2–4). At the conclusion of John’s
Gospel, Jesus commissions Peter with the charge of taking care of the sheep (John
21:15–17). 30 Yet even in this commission, as Jesus entrusts the sheep to Peter, He
reminds Peter of the security that these sheep possess because they are “My sheep”
(21:16–17; cf. 21:15, “My lambs”). The sheep are given by the Father to the Son
(10:29) and are secure in Him (cf. 6:37, 39; 17:2, 9, 24; 18:9). The remnant cannot
miss out on the protection of which they are assured. Rather, they have eternal life
and are given this unwavering confidence in their future resurrection.
With their safety guaranteed, the climactic question remains: What is the purpose
for which God acquires a remnant for Himself?

The Purpose for the Remnant

The purpose for the remnant in the Gospel of John is for the sheep to know the
Shepherd, which results in glorifying Him. The language of knowing the Lord is
essential to the theology of this book, as manifested in John’s use of οἶδα 84 times
and γινώσκω 63 times, both of which convey the experience of knowing. 31 Just
before John announces that Jesus came to His own, he says in 1:10, “And the world
did not know Him.” Bringing resolution to this problem of not knowing Christ, John
states in 1:18, “No one has seen God at any time; the only begotten God who is in
the bosom of the Father, He has explained Him.” To explain God is to make Him
known, as Jesus says in John 17:3: “This is eternal life, that they may know You, the
only true God, and Jesus Christ whom You have sent.” This then is the purpose of
the remnant—to know God and to experience eternal life.

29
Köstenberger, John, 304.
30
Aside from John 2:14–15 which describe the presence of literal sheep being sold in the temple,
John uses “sheep” (πρόβατον) only in John 10 and 21, both occurrences serving as a metaphor to describe
those whom the Father has given Him (John 10:29).
31
These two terms in Greek are interchangeable in the Gospel of John. See Table 2.1 in Zhakevich,
Follow Me: The Benefits of Discipleship in the Gospel of John, 55.
254 | Jesus’ Love for His Own: The Remnant in John

John’s emphasis on the knowledge of God is a theme that is also embedded in

the theology of Ezekiel. Ezekiel writes, “And they [the sheep] will be secure on their
land. Then they will know that I am the Lord, when I have broken the bars of their
yoke and have delivered them from the hand of those who enslaved them” (Ezek
34:27). God will redeem His sheep and keep them secure so that they will come to
know Him. Just as Ezekiel indicates that the knowledge of God is the ultimate
purpose of the remnant, so also John develops this theme in his Gospel. 32
Expounding this theme of knowing the Shepherd, John first indicates that the
sheep hear the Shepherd’s voice (10:4–5, 14). John, in fact, explains that this is the
fundamental distinction between the remnant and the unbelieving ones—that the
remnant recognizes and responds to the Shepherd’s voice (10:24–27).
Secondly, John shows that the sheep understand the true identity of the
Shepherd—that He is God. John quotes Jesus saying: “Believe the works, so that you
may know and understand [lit. continue knowing] that the Father is in Me, and I in
the Father” (10:38). Accurate knowledge of the Shepherd amounts to understanding
that the Shepherd is the Anointed One who is God and who is one with the Father
(cf. 10:30–36). The remnant knows that Christ has a unique, abiding relationship with
the Father. John explains that this is the ultimate purpose for this remnant—ongoing
knowledge of the relationship between the Father and the Son.
Thirdly, John shows that the true remnant recognizes the Shepherd as King. The
shepherd-king imagery in John is also the continuation of Ezekiel’s imagery. In
Ezekiel 34, Ezekiel uses Davidic language to describe the coming Shepherd who will
compassionately rule over His people. However, in Ezekiel 37, this language
becomes more pronounced with royal overtones, as God states: “My servant David
will be king over them, and they will all have one shepherd…” (37:24). This
Shepherd is a royal figure. Jesus declares that His sheep, the remnant, will have one
Shepherd, a King who is coming.
This theme of the royal Shepherd who is recognized and acknowledged as such
by the remnant is developed throughout the Gospel of John. 33 Nathaniel encounters
Jesus and proclaims that He is the “King of Israel” (1:49). This language
demonstrates His deity and displays His righteous acting on behalf of the righteous
remnant (Zeph 3:15). 34 As John continues his narrative, Jesus encounters Nicodemus,
with whom He converses about the kingdom of God (John 3). The crowds later

32
The statement in Ezekiel 34:27, “Then they will know that I am Yahweh” (‫)וי ְָד ֞עוּ כִּ י־אֲנִ ֣י יְה ֗ ָוה‬,
ֽ ְ and
others like it occur more than 70 times in the book of Ezekiel and are foundational to Ezekiel’s theology.
See John F. Evans, You Shall Know that I Am Yahweh: An Inner-Biblical Interpretation of Ezekiel’s
Recognition Formula, Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplements 25 (University Park, PA: Eisenbrauns,
2019), 1. This theology factors into Ezekiel’s shepherding imagery, in turn influencing John’s discussion
of the Good Shepherd.
33
See full discussion in Zhakevich, Follow Me: The Benefits of Discipleship in the Gospel of John,
129–53.
34
In Zephaniah, the title “King of Israel” is found at the conclusion of the book, detailing Zephaniah’s
proclamation for the remnant of Israel. Notably, in that context Zephaniah describes the hope for the
remnant by using the imagery of pasturing and stating that the people are shepherded by their Shepherd-
King (Zeph 3:13–15). See O. Palmer Robertson, The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, New
International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 331–32; Kenneth L.
Barker and Waylon Bailey, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, New American Commentary
(Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1999), 491–95.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 255

recognize Jesus’ right to kingly authority and attempt, though unsuccessfully, to

make Him king by force (6:15). Jesus then enters into Jerusalem in kingly fashion on
a donkey, further referencing Old Testament messianic theology (John 12:12–16; cf.
Zech 9:9). 35 At the end of His life, in His interaction with Pilate, Jesus shifts from
speaking of the “kingdom of God” to “My kingdom” (John 18:36). In fact, standing
before Pilate, Jesus says plainly, “You say correctly that I am a king” (John 18:37).
Thus, when Pilate delivers Jesus over to be crucified, he states, “Behold, your King!”
(19:14).
However, this King operates differently than any other king before Him. Unlike
every other king in human history, this Good Shepherd-King lays down His life for
His sheep. The remnant experiences the blessing of Jesus’ kingship being distinct in
the whole of human history. 36 No other king sacrificed Himself to redeem a remnant
in the past, the present, and the future. As John presents this theme of the royal
Shepherd, he shows that the remnant will know and confess this reality about the
Shepherd (John 17:3). In effect, the royal Shepherd is glorified in His remnant
(17:10). In the end, the reign of this King will culminate in the remnant worshipping
Him and thus fulfilling the purpose for which they are redeemed and regathered (Rev
7:9–17).

Conclusion

John’s remnant theology is centered on the image of Jesus as the Good Shepherd
who shepherds His sheep (John 10). He shepherds His sheep, that is, His remnant,
specifically for the purpose that they would know Him and glorify Him. In the present
time, the Chief Shepherd has entrusted this task to the under-shepherds, or pastor-
teachers, who are to take up the mantle of shepherding the remnant, under the
authority of the Good Shepherd, who laid down His life for His own.

35
Jobes, John Through Old Testament Eyes, 200.
36
Cassius Dio, Roman History: Books 56–60, Loeb Classical Library 157, trans. Earnest Cary
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1924), 137 (57.10.5); Suetonius, The Life of Tiberius, in
Suetonius: Volume 1, Loeb Classical Library 31, trans. J. C. Rolffe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 1998), 359 (32.2); and see Zhakevich, Follow Me: The Benefits of Discipleship in the Gospel of
John, 111–27.
READING THE PSALMS WITH
THE AUTHOR OF HEBREWS

The Psalms are the songs of the Son. But how can these songs point to Je-
sus if they were transcribed centuries before His life and death on the
cross? Songs of the Son explores nine psalms cited in Hebrews and helps
readers understand how the Psalter reveals the preincarnate glory of
Christ.

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256
TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 257–272

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIVINE NAME

IN PETER’S PENTECOST SERMON
Aaron Valdizan
Ph.D., The Master’s Seminary
Assistant Professor of Missions and Biblical Languages
Shepherds Theological Seminary

*****

One of the reasons that the personal name of God is usually left out of translations
of the Old Testament is its absence in the New Testament. However, the New
Testament authors’ application to Jesus of the traditional Greek substitute for the
Tetragrammaton (κύριος) reveals that they had a unique theological reason for doing
so that is less clear when the divine name is missing from Old Testament translations.
Peter’s use of OT Yahweh texts in Acts 2:14–36 exemplifies this unique application
of texts about Yahweh to Jesus. This study of Yahweh texts in Peter’s Pentecost
sermon reveals that the NT writers used κύριος to refer to two concepts at once in
order to emphasize that Jesus is both Yahweh and the Master (κύριος, ‫ )אדני‬who must
be obeyed.

*****

Introduction

Exodus 3:15 records God telling Moses that His name is Yahweh (‫ )יהוה‬and that
He wants His people to remember His name forever. 1 Yet that name is surprisingly
296F

absent from the New Testament (NT). This is true even when the NT quotes Old
Testament (OT) texts containing the divine name in the Hebrew. Bowman and
Komoszewski explain:

The New Testament, written in Greek, also uses the Greek words for Lord and
God and never the tetragram, not even in direct quotations from the Old
Testament. We have over 5,700 Greek manuscripts of the New Testament
varying in length from scraps containing a couple of verses or so to codices

1
For an explanation of the significance and meaning of the divine name, see Aaron Valdizan,
“The Significance of the Divine Name: An Analysis of Exodus 3:14–15,” TMSJ 35, no. 1 (Spring 2024):
53–74.
257
258 | The Significance of the Divine Name

containing the entire New Testament. These manuscripts include papyri dating
from at least the second century—possibly even the late first century—that have
“Lord” (kurios) in direct quotations of Old Testament texts that use the name
YHWH. 2

This replacement of the divine name with “Lord” can be traced back to the translators
of the oldest Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible (the Septuagint or LXX). They
used the Greek word κύριος (meaning “lord” or “master”) as their primary substitute
for the divine name as early as the 3rd century bc. This practice reflects the Jewish
tradition of pronouncing the Hebrew word for “lord,” Adonai (‫)אדני‬, instead of the
divine name when reading the Hebrew Scriptures. The adoption of this
substitutionary practice by the NT writers is one of the primary reasons why most
English Bible translators replace the divine name in the Old Testament with “the
LORD.” Translators often assume that the NT’s use of κύριος in place of the divine
name when quoting OT Yahweh texts 3 set a precedent for future OT translations. 4
298F 29F

However, it will be seen that the NT writers had a unique theological purpose
for not using the divine name in their writings that is diminished when God’s name
is missing from OT translations. The NT writers not only retained the LXX practice
of using κύριος as a replacement for the Tetragrammaton, even in quotations of
Yahweh texts, but also frequently used the term to refer to Jesus. Through numerous
quotations, allusions, and echoes to Yahweh texts, 5 the NT writers equated God the
Father, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit with Yahweh. 6 The use of Yahweh texts with
reference to Jesus is particularly common. Porter and Dyer remark,

2
Robert Bowman, Jr., and J. Ed Komoszewski, Putting Jesus in His Place: The Case for the Deity
of Christ (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2007), 159.
3
Capes defines a “Yahweh text” as “a New Testament quotation of, or an allusion to, an OT text in
which the tetragrammaton occurs” (David B. Capes, “Jesus’ Unique Relationship with Yhwh in Biblical
Exegesis,” in Monotheism and Christology in Greco-Roman Antiquity [Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill,
2020], 86).
4
For example, Schreiner writes, “when quoting Old Testament texts that include an occurrence of
YHWH, the New Testament renders YHWH with the word kurios, which is a title (Lord) rather than a
personal name. With this precedent in hand, most English translators have chosen to render YHWH as
‘LORD’ rather than ‘Yahweh’” (Thomas Schreiner, “Q&A: Translation Decisions for the Christian
Standard Bible,” January 2017, https://csbible.com/wpcontent/uploads/2017/01/Translation-Decisions-
QA.pdf).
5
Capes defines these three terms as follows: “A quotation is often introduced by a citation formula
(e.g., ‘for it is written,’ Gal 3:10; ‘for the scripture says to Pharaoh,’ Rom 9:17) and contains a high degree
of verbal correspondence with the source text. An allusion does not typically begin with a citation formula
and is characterized by a slighter degree of verbal correspondence. In fact, allusion may consist primarily
of just a few key words from a text that, to the insider, conjure up some sort of prior scriptural story,
character, or insight. An echo is the least distinct of the three. It may consist of only a word or a phrase
that signals the alert hearer to form a connection with a prior text” (David B. Capes, The Divine Christ:
Paul, the Lord Jesus, and the Scriptures of Israel [Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018], 85–86).
6
Paul cites a Yahweh text (Exod 34:34) in 2 Cor 3:15–18 in order to equate Yahweh with both Jesus
and the Holy Spirit. Hurtado states, “Paul’s statement “when one turns to the Lord the veil is lifted” (2 Cor
3:16) adapts phrasing from Exodus 34:34, where the kyrios is Yahweh, to refer to Christ. This application
of kyrios to Christ is not simply wordplay but indicates that Paul sees Christ as the kyrios in divine terms.
The following verses confirm this, where Christ the kyrios is linked with the (divine) Spirit (see Holy
Spirit) and is referred to as the source of transforming “glory” (Gk doxa = Heb kāḇôḏ), one of the most
important attributes of Yahweh in the OT and here borne by Christ” (Larry W. Hurtado, “Lord,”
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 259

In the New Testament, we can see that the affirmation that Jesus is Lord means
much more than simply that he is one to be respected. Of course Jesus is to be
respected, but this is because he is exercising the divine prerogatives of the God
of the Old Testament. This occurs to the point that what is said about the God of
the Old Testament can be said of Jesus Christ in the New Testament. The biblical
authors cite passages in the Old Testament that refer to the Lord God acting, but
they indicate that they believe that Jesus Christ is that figure in his own actions
and even person. The connection of Jesus to God is therefore made implicitly by
applying the title κύριος to Jesus in contexts in which it had previously been
applied to God. This divine status is reinforced by the combination of other titles
or traditions with κύριος, especially when the New Testament authors combine
κύριος with another designation of divinity, such as “Son of God” or “God.” 7

For example, the writings of Luke emphasize that Jesus is κύριος. Indeed, “The
term kyrios is the most frequently used Christological title in all of Luke-Acts, used
almost twice as frequently as the term Christ. Of 717 occurrences of kyrios in the NT
the vast majority are to be found either in Luke-Acts (210) or in the Pauline letters
(275).” 8 The Gospel of Luke contains much use of κύριος to refer to Jesus. 9 For
example, as early as in the first chapter Elizabeth calls Mary, “the mother of my
Lord” (ἡ μήτηρ τοῦ κυρίου μου, Luke 1:43). The angels also call Jesus “Lord” when
announcing His birth to the shepherds in Luke 2:11. Hurtado states that “much more
frequently than in other canonical Gospels Luke refers to the earthly Jesus as ‘the
Lord.’” 10 Luke freely speaks of Jesus as κύριος (cf. Luke 7:13, 19; 10:1, 39, 41;
11:39; 12:42; 13:15; 16:8; 17:5–6; 18:6; 19:8; 22:61; 24:3, 34).
Luke continues his preference for calling Jesus κύριος in his second volume.
Witherington notes 104 occurrences of κύριος in Acts, “with at least eighteen of these
occurrences referring to God, forty-seven referring to Jesus, four referring to secular
masters, owners or rulers, and the remainder referring to either Jesus or God, though
in these instances it is not clear who is meant.” 11 It is also in Acts that the expression
“the Lord Jesus” (ὁ κύριος Ἰησοῦς) first appears (Acts 1:21). 12 Acts also contains the
record of Peter’s first sermon (Acts 2:14–36), which cites several OT texts with
κύριος in place of Yahweh and applies them to Jesus. As such, it is a prime example
of the apostolic practice of applying OT Yahweh texts to Jesus while substituting
κύριος for the divine name.

Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid
[Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993)], 564).
7
Stanley E. Porter and Bryan R. Dyer, Origins of New Testament Christology: An Introduction to
the Traditions and Titles Applied to Jesus (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2023), 19.
8
Ben Witherington, III, “Lord,” Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments, ed.
Ralph P. Martin and Peter H. Davids (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997), 669.
9
Ben Witherington, III, and K. Yamazaki-Ransom, “Lord,” Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, ed.
Joel B. Green, Jeannine K. Brown, and Nicholas Perrin. 2nd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic,
2013), 531.
10
Larry W. Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005), 345.
11
Witherington, “Lord,” 668.
12
Witherington and Yamazaki-Ransom, “Lord,” 533.
260 | The Significance of the Divine Name

The fact remains that the Tetragrammaton is wholly absent from the NT. If God
wanted His name to be remembered, can the NT be contradicting His expressed will
in Exodus 3:15? The following discussion of Peter’s Pentecost sermon in Acts 2
reveals this not to be the case. The NT writers had a specific theological reason for
not using God’s name in their writings, even when quoting the OT, and that reason
becomes clearer when the divine name is retained in OT translations.

Context and Overview of Acts 2

Peter’s sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:14–36) is a superbly strung necklace of OT

pearls that includes Yahweh texts and culminates in the declaration that Jesus is both
Lord and Messiah. Peter spoke these words in response to the crowd’s reaction to the
Holy Spirit filling the apostles. Vlach explains,

The stimulus for Peter’s first speech in Jerusalem after Jesus’ ascension involved
Jesus’ followers being filled with the Holy Spirit (see Acts 2:4) and speaking
various languages (see Acts 2:5–12). Many in the crowd were amazed, but others
mocked the apostles, claiming they were drunk with sweet wine (Acts 2:13).
Peter explained that they were not drunk; instead, what occurred was predicted
by the prophet Joel (Acts 2:16). 13

Peter began his sermon by quoting Joel 2:28–32 in order to explain the phenomenon
that had just taken place (Acts 2:1–13). 14 Thus the first theme of his sermon is about
the coming of the Holy Spirit being an indicator that the day of the Lord is near. By
beginning the Joel quotation with “in the last days” (ἐν ταῖς ἐσχάταις ἡμέραις) instead
of the LXX’s “after these things” (μετὰ ταῦτα), Peter interprets the prophecy to
indicate that the arrival of the Holy Spirit was a sign that “the last days” before the
day of the Lord had begun. 15 He then ends the quotation with Joel’s reference to
calling on the name of the Lord (Joel 2:32), thereby introducing the second and main
theme of Peter’s sermon: an explanation of Jesus. 16 Marshall notes, “This second
theme becomes in fact the dominant one in Peter’s speech with his identification of
the risen and exalted Jesus as the Lord and Messiah through whom salvation is
offered to his audience.” 17
In the rest of the sermon, Peter quotes Psalms 16:8–11 (Acts 2:25–28, 31),
132:11 (Acts 2:30), and 110:1 (Acts 2:34–35) in order to show that the resurrection

13
Michael J. Vlach, The Old in the New: Understanding How the New Testament Authors Quoted
the Old Testament (The Woodlands, TX: Kress, 2021), 85.
14
John Mark Tittsworth, “Luke’s Use of the Minor Prophets in Luke-Acts” (Ph.D. diss.,
Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2017), 93.
15
Ibid., 102.
16
Carl Judson Davis, The Name and the Way of the Lord: Old Testament Themes, New Testament
Christology, JSNTSup 129 (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), 124.
17
I. Howard Marshall, “Acts,” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed.
G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 533.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 261

of Jesus proved that He is both Lord and Messiah, 18 and that Peter’s audience must
call upon that Lord to be saved (Acts 2:21, 34, 36). 19 Marshall summarizes,

The sermon thus becomes essentially an explanation of who this “Lord” is.
Having noted that Jesus was attested by God through mighty works (echoing
Joel 2:30, cited in v. 19), and having mitigated the opposing impression given
by his death by insisting that it fell within the plan of God, Peter describes how
God raised Jesus from the dead because he could not be held by it. What
happened is interpreted by reference to Ps. 16 which, it is argued, cannot apply
to David himself because he died (and did not rise); but God had promised a
future ruler as a descendant of David (Ps. 132), and so Ps. 16 applies to this ruler.
Now Jesus had been raised from the dead, and the Spirit had been poured out by
him. It follows that he has been exalted to God’s right hand, as prophesied in
another psalm (Ps. 110), which again could not be applied to David himself. It
follows also that Jesus is now the Lord who grants salvation to all who call upon
him. 20

Peter’s Use of Joel 2:31–32 in Acts 2:20–21

The first significant Yahweh text quoted in Peter’s sermon is Joel 2:31–32
(MT/LXX 3:4–5). It is not only part of the first and longest OT quotation in Acts
(Joel 2:28–32 in Acts 2:17–21), 21 but Joel 2:32 also plays a key role in Paul’s
argument for the availability of salvation to all peoples (Rom 10:12–13). 22

Original Context of Joel 2:31–32

Joel first recounted the recent devastation caused by a locust swarm and called
Israel to repent before the even more destructive “day of Yahweh” (Joel 1:15). He
then followed this up with additional warnings of impending doom (Joel 2:1–11) and
God’s gracious offer to spare those who repent (Joel 2:12–17). Marshall summarizes
the content of Joel 1–2 as follows:

The context of the prophecy is Joel’s summons to the people to true repentance
after they have been subjected to an invasion of locusts, a harbinger of worse
things to come on “the day of the Lord.” Yet the Lord promises to take pity on
his people and to restore the land to its former prosperity. Then comes the
prophecy of the outpouring of the Spirit as part of the events preceding the
coming of the day of judgment. In the prophecy the coming of the Spirit is only
a part of the event; it is accompanied by wonders in the sky and on the earth.

18
Bowman and Komoszewski, Putting Jesus in His Place, 160–61.
19
G. V. Trull, “Peter’s Interpretation of Psalm 16:8–11 in Acts 2:25–32,” BSac 161, no. 644 (2004):
433–34; Tittsworth, “Luke’s Use of the Minor Prophets in Luke-Acts,” 95.
20
Marshall, “Acts,” 532.
21
Tittsworth, “Luke’s Use of the Minor Prophets in Luke-Acts,” 90.
22
Marshall, “Acts,” 536.
262 | The Significance of the Divine Name

And there will be the opportunity of deliverance for all who call on the name of
the Lord before the judgment falls upon them. 23

The latter part of Joel 2, containing the text under discussion, describes God’s
gracious acts for the repentant people. Davis summarizes the rest of the book as
follows:

God further promises restoration of the land in 2.19b-27 and that he will pour
out his Spirit on all flesh transcending age, sex and class distinctions (2.28–
29[3.1–2]). Joel 2.30–31 [3.3–4] points to heavenly harbingers of doom which
will proceed the day of the LORD. Yet in the midst of these portents, Joel
promises that those who ‘call on the name of the LORD’ will be saved. Joel 3.1–
8[4.1–8] promises the restoration of Judah and Jerusalem while 3.9–11a[4.9–
11a] pledges judgment on Tyre and Sidon. 24

The promise of escape from the destruction of the day of Yahweh for “everyone who
calls upon the name of Yahweh” appears “at the tail end of an apocalyptic vision
containing God’s declaration that he will restore his people ([MT/LXX] 2:13–3:5).” 25

Meaning and New Testament Application of Joel 2 Expressions

The NT writers quote two important expressions that occur in this part of Joel:
(1) “the day of Yahweh” (i.e., “the great and awesome day of Yahweh” in 2:31) and
(2) “call on the name of Yahweh” (2:32). Regarding the former expression, Fee
states,

One of the ways the prophetic tradition spoke of God’s eschatological future was
with the expression “the Day of the Lord,” a “day” that included both divine
judgment and salvation. Indeed, in this tradition a day of the Lord that held
promise for a bright future was seen first as a day of impending doom. 26

Although the OT prophets consistently used “the day of Yahweh” to refer to “a time
of God’s own special action of deliverance or judgment,” 27 the NT authors applied
the phrase specifically to the future return of Jesus. When Peter quotes Joel 2:31 in
Acts 2:20, he makes “the day of the Lord” an expression of “Jesus’ eschatological
appearance in glory.” 28 Although Peter quotes all of Joel 2:28–32 in his Pentecost
sermon with the introduction, “this is what was spoken through the prophet Joel”
(2:16), he later speaks of “the day of the Lord” as a future event (2 Pet 3:10). This

23
Marshall, “Acts,” 533.
24
Davis, The Name and the Way of the Lord, 108.
25
C. Kavin Rowe, “Romans 10:13: What Is the Name of the Lord?” Horizons in Biblical
Theology 22, no. 1 (2000): 153.
26
Gordon D. Fee, Pauline Christology: An Exegetical-Theological Study (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2013), 568–69.
27
Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ, 181.
28
Hurtado, 179.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 263

indicates that he considered that day to be yet future and thus not all of the Joel text
he quotes in Acts 2 was fulfilled at that time. 29
Paul also considered “the day of the Lord” to refer to the eschatological return
of Jesus. This can be seen in how he also calls that day “the day of Christ” (Phil 1:10;
2:16), “the day of Christ Jesus” (Phil 1:6), and “the day of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1
Cor 1:8). 30 Even when using the original phrase, “the context makes it clear that the
kyrios whose ‘day’ is coming is Christ” (cf. 1 Cor 5:5; 1 Thess 5:2; 2 Thess 2:2). 31
As for the expression “call on the name of Yahweh,” Hurtado considers it to be
“a frequent biblical expression for worship of Yahweh, and it usually involved
sacrifice in the sacred precincts of a sanctuary/temple.” 32 The phrase basically means
“to invoke God by his name Yahweh” 33 and is especially associated with prayer, so
much so that the LXX renders this phrase using the verb ἐπικαλέω, which was “well
entrenched in Greek thought for invoking God in prayer.” 34 This expression also
“involves cultic activity such as altar building and sacrifice, prayer and petitions,
worship and praise.” 35 Davis cites the association of this phrase with altar building
in Genesis 12:8, 13:4, and 26:5 to posit that “the biblical narrative associates this
phrase with the heart of Israel’s religion.” 36 Passages like Isaiah 41:25, Jeremiah
10:25, and Psalm 79:6 further suggest that calling on the name of Yahweh was “an
activity indicative of one’s inclusion in the people of God.” 37 God’s people are
distinguished as those people who call on His name. 38
Drawing on this OT tradition, the NT writers used this expression with reference
to Jesus as the Lord whom one calls on. In Acts 2, Luke records Peter associating
“calling on the name of the Lord” with knowing that Jesus “is both Lord and Christ”
(2:36) and repenting of one’s sins (2:38). As “calling on the name of Yahweh” had
indicated that someone was a member of God’s people in the OT, calling on the name
of Jesus became distinctive of Christians. For example, Ananias refers to Christians
as “all who call on your name” when speaking to Jesus about Paul (Acts 9:14, cf.
9:17). Paul also mentions calling on Jesus’ name when recounting his own
conversion (Acts 22:16). 39 Paul even refers to the Christian community as “all who
in every place call on the name of our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor 1:2).
Regarding the invocation of Jesus in Acts, Hurtado states, “There can be no
doubt that this phrase was adopted to refer to the specific invocation of the name of
Jesus, both in corporate worship and in the wider devotional pattern of Christian

29
Vlach, The Old in the New, 86.
30
Fee, Pauline Christology, 46; Capes, The Divine Christ, 65–66.
31
Hurtado, “Lord,” 564.
32
Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ, 142.
33
Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the God of Israel: God Crucified and Other Studies on the New
Testament’s Christology of Divine Identity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008), 25.
34
David B. Capes, “Yhwh and His Messiah: Pauline Exegesis and the Divine Christ,” Horizons in
Biblical Theology 16, 1 (1994): 133.
35
Capes, The Divine Christ, 116. For examples of worship acts associated with this expression,
Capes cites Gen 12:8; 13:4; 26:25; 1 Kings 18:24–26; Isa 12:4–6; Psalms 105:1; 116:4, 13, 17. See also
Davis, The Name and the Way of the Lord, 105–106.
36
Davis, The Name and the Way of the Lord, 104.
37
Davis, 106.
38
Capes, The Divine Christ, 116.
39
Davis, The Name and the Way of the Lord, 128–29.
264 | The Significance of the Divine Name

believers (e.g., baptism, exorcism, healing), as the subsequent chapters of Acts

show.” 40 Yeago summarizes the Christian application of “calling on the name” as
follows:

The Trinitarian faith was embraced in the practice of the church already in the
very earliest days of the Christian movement when Christians—and Jewish
Christians at that—began to call on the name of Jesus in worship—an
astonishing thing for any group of Jews to do. There is every reason to believe
that the earliest Christians were vigorous Jewish monotheists determined to
worship no God but YHWH. Nevertheless, they began to focus their worship of
the God of Israel on the figure of Jesus from a very early date—indeed, so far as
anyone can tell, from the very beginning. They solemnly invoked Jesus’ name,
addressed praise and petition and acclamation to him, and appealed to him as
mareh or kurios, thus associating him with the holy name of YHWH. 41

Peter’s Application of Joel 2:32

In Peter’s quotation of Joel 2:32, as well as in the LXX and Paul’s use of the text
in Romans 10:13, the phrase “the name of the Lord” (τὸ ὄνομα κυρίου) is an
exception to the rules of Greek grammar. The lack of an article with κυρίου indicates
that the word is functioning as a name—a substitute for the Tetragrammaton in the
LXX. Bauckham explains:

When kurios was written in manuscripts as the substitute for YHWH, it was
usually differentiated from other uses of kurios by its lack of the article,
indicating that it was being used as a proper name. In a phrase such as ‘the name
of the Lord,’ this is particularly clear, since its Greek form in the Septuagint (to
onoma kuriou) breaks the normal rule that in such a construction either both
nouns should have the article or both nouns should lack it. 42

This special use of κύριος without the definite article to replace the divine name is
remarkably consistent in the LXX, especially in the Pentateuch. Hurtado states:

This clear dominance of the anarthrous kyrios as Greek equivalent of YHWH, a

dominance exhibited already in the Pentateuch (which were the earliest Hebrew
Scriptures translated), suggests strongly that it had become a widely-used oral
substitute for YHWH among Greek-speaking Jews. I.e., the anarthrous kyrios
served as virtually a proper name for God, a reverential substitute for YHWH. 43

40
Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ, 182.
41
David. S. Yeago, “The New Testament and the Nicene Dogma: A Contribution to the Recovery
of Theological Exegesis,” STRev 45, no. 4 (Michaelmas 2002): 373. Emphasis in original.
42
Bauckham, Jesus and the God of Israel, 190.
43
Larry Hurtado, “YHWH in the Septuagint,” Larry Hurtado's Blog: Comments on the New
Testament and Early Christianity (and related matters), August 22, 2014, accessed December 6, 2023,
https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2014/08/22/yhwh-in-the-septuagint/
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 265

Since many among the first audience to hear or read the NT were either Jewish
or had been exposed to the Jewish Scriptures, they would have recognized that the
divine name was being referred to with anarthrous κύριος even though κύριος itself
is not technically a name. 44 Davis states with regard to the NT use of Isaiah 40:3 and
Joel 2:32, “Jews of the day would understand it as the spoken replacement of God’s
proper name.” 45 By quoting this Yahweh text and emphasizing that Jesus is Lord at
the end of his sermon, “Peter makes the explicit connection between YHWH and
Jesus when he juxtaposed the name of YHWH and the name of Jesus in whose name
alone there is salvation.” 46 Unlike the Jews of Peter’s day, who would easily have
heard this connection, it is not so clear today with the modern English usage of “the
LORD” in Bible translations, especially when read aloud, which leaves no audible
difference between “the Lord” and “the LORD.” The presence of the English definite
article also makes the expression read like a title instead of a name.
Peter, and later Paul, quoted the reference to calling on the name of Yahweh in
Joel 2:32 and equated it with calling on Jesus for salvation. This means that, “Jesus
is integral to and shares in the identity of the one and only God, who identified
himself by name to Israel as YHWH.” 47 Bauckham further states, “Jesus himself is
the eschatological manifestation of YHWH’s unique identity to the whole world, so
that those who call on Jesus’ name and confess Jesus as Lord are acknowledging
YHWH the God of Israel to be the one and only true God.” 48 The fact that Peter used
the end of his Joel 2 quotation to transition to an explanation of Jesus that began in
the next verse makes clear that he was equating both occurrences of “Lord” in Joel
2:31–32 with Jesus.

Peter’s Use of Psalms 16:8–11 and 132:11 in Acts 2:22–32

After transitioning from talking about the arrival of the Holy Spirit to explaining
who Jesus is, Peter applied parts of Psalms 16 and 132 to Jesus. Although the
passages he quoted are not technically Yahweh texts because the Hebrew for those
verses lacks the Tetragrammaton, Yahweh is clearly the one being addressed in
Psalm 16:8–11 and the one speaking in Psalm 132:11.
Peter recognized that when David wrote Psalm 16, he was speaking
prophetically of the Messiah (Acts 2:25). 49 Therefore, all first-person references and

44
The Jews even made a distinction in Hebrew pronunciation when reading ‫ אדני‬in place of the divine
name and when reading an original occurrence of the title ‫אדני‬. Moule explains, “When it appears that the
first person singular suffix in the form ‘my lords’, then the Massoretic pointing always indicates the sacred
Name by using the pausal form with a long ‘a’ (qāmeṣ) [‫ ]אֲדֹ נָי‬instead of the normal short ‘a’ (pathaḥ)
[‫]אֲדֹ נַי‬. Thus ‘my lords’, when a human lord is meant will be ͐adōnăy, but when the word represents the
sacred Name it will be ͐adōnāy” (C. F. D. Moule, The Origin of Christology [Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1977], 38–39).
45
Davis, The Name and the Way of the Lord, 135.
46
Kolakunnail Alias Eldhose, “Trinitarian Interpretation in Light of the Identity of YHWH as the
Triune God” (Ph.D. diss., Dallas Theological Seminary, 2017), 133.
47
Daniel Block, “Who do Commentators say ‘the Lord’ is? The Scandalous Rock of Romans 10:13,”
in On the Writing of New Testament Commentaries: Festschrift for Grant R. Osborne on the Occasion of
his 70th Birthday (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013), 190n59.
48
Bauckham, Jesus and the God of Israel, 193. Emphasis in original.
49
Vlach, The Old in the New, 192; Davis, The Name and the Way of the Lord, 124.
266 | The Significance of the Divine Name

the phrase “Holy One” in Peter’s quotation of Psalm 16 refer to Messiah Jesus, but
all second-person references and “the Lord” (‫ יהוה‬translated as τὸν κύριον in the LXX
and Acts 2:25) refer to Yahweh. In contrast to Peter’s earlier quotation from Joel 2,
which designated Jesus as Yahweh, here Peter quotes a passage that makes Jesus
distinct from Yahweh. Peter then implied in Acts 2:29 that David must have been
speaking of the Messiah because David’s body decayed, as evidenced by the
existence of his tomb centuries after his death. 50 What Peter implies in verse 29 he
345F

states explicitly in verses 30–32: Jesus is Yahweh’s Holy One whom Yahweh raised
from the dead before his body had time to decay in the grave. 51 Yahweh did not allow
346F

him to remain dead (“abandon…in Hades”), but brought him back to life.
Peter’s allusion to Psalm 132:11 in Acts 2:30 further distinguished Jesus from
Yahweh by designating him as the descendant of David whom God had promised to
set on David’s throne. This passage refers to the Davidic Covenant and Peter
recognized that Jesus is the promised Davidic king who fulfills it.

Peter’s Use of Psalm 110:1 in Acts 2:34–35

After stating in Acts 2:33 that Jesus’ resurrection resulted in both His exaltation
to God’s right hand and His receiving and giving of the Holy Spirit to His people,
which took place earlier in Acts 2, Peter then applies Psalm 110:1 to Jesus. This
psalm stands out as the most quoted or alluded to OT text in the NT and its first verse
is the most quoted OT verse. 52 Edwards finds this text referred to thirty-three times
in the NT, 53 twenty-one of which are the first verse. 54 Bauckham notes that “the
participation of Jesus in the unique divine sovereignty was understood primarily by
reference to one key Old Testament text (Ps 110:1) and other texts brought into
exegetical relationship with it.” 55 Only four of those quotations contain the first part
of the verse, which is the part that originally contained the Tetragrammaton and
qualifies this text as a Yahweh text. 56 This part of Psalm 110:1 is quoted by Jesus in
the Synoptic Gospels (Matt 22:44; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:42) and later used by Peter
in his sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:34), making it an important text about Jesus for
the Gospel writers and early church. 57 Capes notes,

In particular, Jesus’s quotation of Ps 110:1 proves instructive.… The question

posed and explanation offered by Jesus imply an indirect messianic claim. The
frequent Christological use of Ps 110 by NT writers demonstrates they interpret

50
F. F. Bruce, The Book of the Acts, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 260.
51
Marshall, “Acts,” 539.
52
Vlach, The Old in the New, 87.
53
James R. Edwards, The Gospel according to Mark, PNTC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002),
376n58.
54
Bauckham, Jesus and the God of Israel, 22.
55
Ibid.
56
Although the author of Hebrews quotes Psalm 110:1 several times, those quotations do not contain
the part of the verse that has the Tetragrammaton in the Hebrew. Therefore, those quotations in Hebrews
are not Yahweh texts and will not be addressed here.
57
Vlach, The Old in the New, 176; Donald A. Hagner, Matthew 14–28, WBC 33B (Dallas: Word
Incorporated, 1993), 650; Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ, 500.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 267

this psalm as describing something of Jesus’s messianic and transcendent

significance (e.g., Acts 2:34; 1 Cor 15:25; Heb 1:3). 58

Original Context of Psalm 110

The superscription of Psalm 110 designates David as its author and Jesus
confirmed this when he introduced the quotation (Matt 22:43; Mark 12:36; Luke
20:42). 59 This psalm has been classified as a “royal psalm” that describes the
coronation of a Davidic king or even David specifically crowning his son Solomon. 60
However, the lofty language of the psalm has strong messianic implications. For
example, David calls this future king his “master” (‫)אדני‬, thereby designating this
individual to be his superior. 61 Lane notes, “The point made is that David himself
356F

distinguished between his earthly, political sovereignty and the higher level of
sovereignty assigned to the Messiah. The Messiah is not only ‘son of David;’ he is
also, and especially, his Lord.” 62 In the same verse, David then records Yahweh
357F

telling this king to sit in the authoritative position at His right hand. Regarding the
messianic nature of this psalm, Blomberg writes,

No king of Israel was ever so close to God that he could normally be described,
even metaphorically, as sitting at God’s right hand. … This “king” embodies an
eternal priesthood (110:4), whereas legitimate Israelite kings in the line of David
came from the tribe of Judah, not the tribe of Levi, from whom priests had to
descend. And in 110:5 Yahweh is said to be at this king’s right hand, rather than
vice versa, as if God and king were interchangeable! Finally, this monarch will
do what God alone is described elsewhere as doing: judging the nations and
crushing the rulers of the whole earth (110:6). 63

Vlach summarizes Psalm 110 as follows:

In Psalm 110, David is given a glimpse into the encounter between the LORD
(Yahweh) and David’s Lord (Adonai). The LORD summons David’s Lord, the
Messiah, to a session at the LORD’s right hand in heaven. This session is to occur
from a time “until” the LORD makes the enemies of David’s Lord (the Messiah)
a footstool for His (the Messiah’s) feet. This involved a reign from Zion (i.e.,
Jerusalem) on earth as verse 2 indicates. … According to verse 4, this King is
also a priest according to the order of Melchizedek. In sum, David’s Lord (the
Messiah) will have a session at the right hand of Yahweh in heaven for a time
until David’s Lord reigns from Jerusalem on earth. 64

58
Capes, The Divine Christ, 11.
59
Grant R. Osborne, Matthew, ZECNT (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010), 829.
60
Mark L. Strauss, Mark, ed. Clinton E. Arnold, ZECNT (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014), 550–51.
61
R. T. France, The Gospel of Matthew, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 487.
62
William L. Lane, The Gospel of Mark, NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 1974), 437–38.
63
Craig L. Blomberg, “Matthew,” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament,
ed. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 83.
64
Vlach, The Old in the New, 175–76.
268 | The Significance of the Divine Name

The Synoptic Gospels record Jesus drawing upon such language to imply that He is
its messianic fulfillment.
Relating to the topic at hand, the key issue is the opening statement, “An
announcement of Yahweh to my master” (‫) ְנאֻם יְהוָה לַאדֹ נִי‬, which the LXX and NT
translate with forms of κύριος for both “Yahweh” (‫ )יְהוָה‬and “my lord/master” (‫)לַאדֹ נִי‬.
Here Yahweh is distinguished from the Messiah, whom David calls his master.
Morris explains,

“The Lord” refers to God himself (the Hebrew is ‫ ;)יהוה‬the psalm is proceeding
to give a divine utterance. When David says that God spoke “to my Lord,” he is
clearly referring to someone greater than himself (Knox translates, “the Lord
said to my Master”), and this is surely the Messiah. David is recording a
prophecy of the greatness of his descendant, whom he recognizes as greater than
he. 65
360F

The clear distinction in the Hebrew between the Tetragrammaton and the title
“lord/master” became less clear with the Jewish practice of divine name avoidance.
Nevertheless, some early NT manuscripts differentiate between the two uses of
κύριος by making the first anarthrous to mark it as a proper name, and this is the
reading adopted in the standard critical text (NA28). As mentioned earlier, this use
of anarthrous κύριος was the primary means the Septuagint translators employed to
indicate when they were using κύριος as a substitute for the divine name.
As for the early Jewish interpretation of this text, the association of the Messiah
with the line of David was not only rooted in the Hebrew Bible (2 Sam 7:14–17;
23:1–7; Psalms 89:29–37; Isa 9:6–7; 11:1–10; Jer 23:5–8; 30:9; 33:14–18; Ezek
34:23–24; Dan 9:25; Mic 5:2), but can also be found in some Second Temple period
Jewish literature (Ps. Sol. 17:23, 36; 18:6, 8; 4QFlor 1:11–13; 1QS 9:11; 4 Ezra
12:32). 66 “Son of David” is also the standard title for the Messiah in rabbinic texts. 67
Lane notes, “The Davidic sonship of the Messiah was a scribal tenet firmly grounded
in the old prophetic literature.” 68 Furthermore, the fact that Jesus referred to Psalm
110 to imply His messianic status to the Pharisees indicates that it must have been
considered a messianic text at that time. Edwards states, “That Son of David and
Messiah were correlated in the first century is strongly suggested by the fact that
every early Christian writer who mentions Psalm 110 interprets it messianically.
Jesus’ question in [Mark 12:]36 indeed rests on such an assumption.” 69

65
Leon Morris, The Gospel according to Matthew, PNTC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992), 566.
66
David W. Pao and Eckhard J. Schnabel, “Luke,” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the
Old Testament, ed. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007), 372; David E.
Garland, Luke, ZECNT (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 815; Strauss, Mark, 549; France, The Gospel
of Mark, 485–86.
67
Garland, Luke, 816; I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text,
NIGTC (Exeter, England: Paternoster Press, 1978), 747.
68
Lane, The Gospel of Mark, 435.
69
Edwards, The Gospel according to Mark, 375–76.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 269

New Testament Application of Psalm 110:1

As mentioned earlier, the Synoptic Gospels quote Jesus using Psalm 110:1 to
teach the Pharisees. The issue that stumped them was not the Davidic lineage of the
Messiah, but His heavenly status as the divine Messiah. 70 Porter and Dyer note that
Jesus’ use of this Psalm text had three implications that kept the Pharisees from
answering His question:

The first is that this quotation from the Psalms depicts the Lord, God in the Old
Testament, saying to another Lord that he is to sit as his fellow judge while he
conquers and subjects the second Lord’s enemies. In other words, the second
Lord is depicted as God’s equal, sitting at the right hand (the place of judgment)
while God exercises his divine prerogatives. The second implication is that,
because the Messiah is the Son of David, and this messianic figure of the psalm
is placed in the position of equality with God, the Messiah is to be seen as a
divine figure. The third implication … is that Jesus clarifies that the Son of David
is not an inferior to David (which is indicated by his messianic status as well)
but is in fact Lord. What once may have been simply a form of address is now
clearly a title of one equal with God—the second Lord equal with the Lord
God. 71

The answer that Jesus implied in questioning the Pharisees about this passage is
that “the Messiah is not simply David’s son; he is God’s Son.” 72 Hagner states, “The
point of the question addressed to the Pharisees is apparently to elevate the concept
of Messiah from that of a special human being to one who uniquely manifests the
presence of God—and thus one whom David has also to address as his lord.” 73 This
connection between the second κύριος and the concept of ruling authority is
emphasized by the rest of the quotation. To sit at Yahweh’s right hand means that
this second κύριος is “the one who participates in the cosmic rule of YHWH.” 74
Furthermore, Yahweh putting this individual’s enemies under His feet emphasizes
their utter subjection to that authority. Morris states,

The prophecy refers to the Messiah as sitting on the right hand of God, that is,
in the highest place of all, in the place where it counts above all. And while he
sits there, God himself will defeat all his enemies; that they are to be put under
his feet indicates that they are to be thoroughly subjugated to him. 75

70
Blomberg, “Matthew,” 83.
71
Porter and Dyer, Origins of New Testament Christology, 9.
72
Edwards, The Gospel according to Mark, 377.
73
Hagner, Matthew 14–28, 651.
74
Jang Ryul Lee, Christological Re-reading of the Shema (Deut 6.4) in Mark’s Gospel (PhD diss.,
University of Edinburgh, 2011), 113.
75
Morris, The Gospel according to Matthew, 566.
270 | The Significance of the Divine Name

Osborne concurs,

If David is indeed the author of the psalm (as the superscription states, and there
is no reason to doubt it), then “to my Lord” (τῷ κυρίῳ μου) cannot be David
himself but must refer to the Messiah. So the quote establishes two things: the
royal glory and power of the Messiah (“sit at my right hand”) and the victory of
the Messiah over his enemies (as demonstrated in Jesus’ victory in the
controversy narratives of [Matthew] 21:23–22:46). 76

Thus Jesus and later Peter cite Psalm 110:1 to declare that Messiah Jesus is the Master
(‫אדני‬, κύριος), the Sovereign Lord.

Peter’s Application of Psalm 110:1

When Peter quotes Psalm 110:1 in his Pentecost sermon (Acts 2:34–35), he uses
it with a different emphasis than Jesus did in the Synoptics. While Jesus quoted the
text to teach that the Messiah is superior to David and has divine authority, “Peter
quoted Psalm 110:1 to show his Jewish audience that Jesus is the resurrected Messiah
now at the right hand of God.” 77 Peter uses the text to explain “the significance of
the resurrection and the exaltation of Jesus as the Lord of all.” 78 By connecting the
Messiah’s authority with Jesus’ resurrection, Peter shows that “the resurrection
stands as the climactic event that inaugurated Jesus’ sovereign reign as the kyrios.” 79
Peter’s climactic declaration of Jesus being both Lord and Christ in the next verse
(Acts 2:36) further emphasizes Jesus’ status as the resurrected Master.
Being the most frequently quoted OT verse in the NT, Psalm 110:1 is “the main
scripture which communicates Jesus’ exaltation and participation in the divine
cosmic sovereignty.” 80 Jesus and Peter use Psalm 110:1 to designate Him as David’s
master (‫אדני‬, κύριος) who sits at the right hand of Yahweh. This text functions as
Jesus’ self-attestation to being the ultimate Master of all. Osborne concludes,

Jesus is the Messiah and more; he is the royal Messiah, the Son of David, but he
is also the Son of God, David’s Lord. This is high Christology and climaxes the
section with the nature of this Jesus who has so decimated his opponents on
points of law. It constitutes the second time in which he overcomes his
“messianic secret” and reveals himself to the public as “Lord” of all. 81

To summarize, in the second part of Peter’s sermon (Acts 2:22–36) he has argued
that God raised Jesus from the dead in fulfillment of Psalm 16. In doing so, God
exalted Jesus as the promised descendant of David who would fulfill the Davidic

76
Osborne, Matthew, 829.
77
Vlach, The Old in the New, 176.
78
Walter L. Liefeld and David W. Pao, “Luke,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Luke–Acts
(Revised Edition), ed. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007), 302.
79
Capes, The Divine Christ, 49.
80
Lee, Christological Re-reading of the Shema (Deut 6.4) in Mark’s Gospel, 113. Emphasis in
original.
81
Osborne, Matthew, 826.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 271

Covenant mentioned in Psalm 132:11. Indeed, God exalted Jesus to the point that
even the great King David called him “lord/master” in Psalm 110:1. God also gave
Jesus authority to send the Holy Spirit to his people at Pentecost. Therefore, Peter
concludes, all Israel must know that “God has made Him both Lord and Christ” (Acts
2:36).
Throughout his sermon Peter followed the Septuagint practice of using forms of
the same term, κύριος, to refer to two concepts: the divine name and the title “the
lord/master” (‫)אדני‬. In the first half of his sermon he designated Jesus as Yahweh, but
in the second half he designated Jesus as the Master who is distinct from Yahweh.
This ability to use one term to express both truths about Christ may be the primary
reason why the NT writers substituted κύριος for the divine name in their writings.

Theological Significance of Peter’s Use of κύριος for ‫ יהוה‬in Acts 2

The preceding examination of Peter’s use of OT Yahweh texts in his Pentecost

sermon has evidenced that the NT writers not only retained the traditional practice of
using κύριος for both the divine name and the title “lord/master” when quoting OT
Yahweh passages, but also used κύριος in an innovative manner for theological
reasons unique to the purposes of the NT—they applied both uses of the term to Jesus.
Peter used a chain of OT quotations in his Pentecost sermon to indicate that
through Jesus’ incarnation, death, and resurrection, God the Father had designated
Jesus as both Lord and Messiah (Acts 2:36). By quoting Yahweh texts, Peter
indicated that “Lord” here is Yahweh. However, Peter’s follow-up command to the
crowd implies that this “Lord” is also the Master to whom one must submit by
repenting and being baptized in his name in order to be saved (Acts 2:38). Peter’s
sermon shows that Jesus is not only the promised Messiah, but also Yahweh and
Master.
Peter’s sermon shows that the NT writers used the single word κύριος to indicate
that Jesus is both Yahweh and Master/Lord/‫אדני‬. He is both the Creator Yahweh of
texts like Isaiah 40:3 and Joel 2:23, and the Sovereign Messiah whom David calls his
“master” in Psalm 110:1. Case explains,

The LXX’s use of kurios was paving the way for a seamless, convenient,
intelligible way to connect Jesus with Yahweh. … The ability to use the same
word seamlessly for Yahweh and Jesus throughout the NT made the overlap
natural and more apparent. It facilitated a high Christology, and effortlessly
infused the statement “Jesus is Lord” (Rom 10:9) with a double meaning. This
double meaning is made possible because kurios was doing double-duty as Lord
and Yahweh. The lack of distinction ironically made it easier to distinguish Jesus
as the one true God, Yahweh himself. 82

The Hebrew Bible itself gives precedence for this lexical development. The title-
name combination “Lord Yahweh” (‫ )אדני יהוה‬occurs 292 times in the Hebrew Bible
with the vast majority of occurrences in prophetic texts (272 times, including 217 in

82
Andrew Case, Pronouncing & Translating the Divine Name: History & Practice (Independently
Published, 2022), 44–45.
272 | The Significance of the Divine Name

Ezekiel). Oswalt notes, “With this use of the term ʾădōnāy in conjunction with the
divine name, these prophets are witnessing to their conviction that Yahweh is
characterized by sovereignty. The “I Am” is indeed lord of the universe.” 83 Although
God is referred to as “Lord” and Yahweh in different contexts in order to emphasize
different aspects of His character, the 292 times the words are paired together give
precedent for the NT writers to use κύριος to refer to both at once. There are also
passages in which “Lord” is equated with Yahweh (Psalm 110:5).
Peter and the NT writers did not just affirm the historical shift from Yahweh to
κύριος in the LXX by retaining it in their OT quotations. They actually capitalized
on the dual use of κύριος for Yahweh and “Lord” in order to show that Jesus is both
Yahweh and Master. The NT writers could affirm this historical shift from Yahweh
to κύριος because of the OT precedent mentioned above. I have shown elsewhere
that this dual meaning for κύριος can be seen in various places throughout the NT. 84
It is important to note that this Christological reason for the NT writers to use
κύριος for the divine name does not apply when translating the OT on its own. Just
as the Holy Spirit inspired the NT authors to use κύριος for the divine name in the
NT, so also did He inspire the OT authors to use Yahweh and “Lord” as separate
terms within the OT. If the divine name is retained and made distinct from “Lord” in
an OT translation, then readers will more easily be able to see the connection between
the name and the title. God ordained for the NT writers to retain the LXX tradition
of using κύριος for Yahweh in order to show that Jesus is both the manifestation of
Yahweh and the Lord of lords.

83
John N. Oswalt, “God,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, ed. Mark J. Boda and
Gordon J. McConville (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2012), 289.
84
Aaron Valdizan, “‘His Name Is Yahweh’: The Importance of Using the Divine Name” (PhD diss.,
The Master’s Seminary, 2024).
TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 273–283

CONVERSATIONS WITH JESUS:

JESUS AND SAUL
Austin T. Duncan
D.Min., The Master’s Seminary
Director of the MacArthur Center for Expository Preaching
Director of D.Min. Studies & Department Chair of Pastoral Ministries
The Master’s Seminary

*****

Though Jesus has ascended to heaven, Acts makes it clear that He is continuing to
build His Church. One narrative that depicts this clearly is Saul’s theophanic vision
on the road to Damascus. Saul, a murderer, is stopped in his tracks by the Lord of
those Saul was seeking to persecute. Saul’s encounter with the resurrected Christ
puts Saul on his face, so that Jesus may then put Saul on His mission. This arresting
narrative teaches the reader that Jesus is sovereign over His Church, that His grace
transforms the vilest of sinners, and that His saints belong to Him.

*****

Introduction 1

The naming of the book of Acts comes directly from the early church. 2 Praxis
apostolon is the traditional Greek name found in numerous manuscripts for the book
of Acts. 3 But in Acts 1:1–2, there is no listed title in the text; Luke rather offers the
following introduction:

The first account I composed, Theophilus, about all that Jesus began to do and
teach, until the day when He was taken up to heaven, after he had by the Holy
Spirit given orders to the apostles whom he had chosen.

1
This article is a revised version of the sermon “Jesus and Saul” (www.gracechurch.org/sermons/22308).
For more on God’s sovereignty over the Church, see Alan J. Thompson, The Acts of the Risen Lord Jesus: Luke's
Account of God's Unfolding Plan (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2011).
2
D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 2005), 285.
3
Darrell Bock, Acts, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2007), 1.
273
274 | Conversations with Jesus: Jesus and Saul

“Acts” is not a self-given title, as if from the text itself. Rather, the reader must fill in
the gap: whose acts are these? In answering this question, the first verse tells its reader
that the book of Acts is Luke’s second volume, an extension of his Gospel. 4 The book
of Acts informs its audience exactly what Luke intended to do when he wrote his
Gospel. Luke essentially writes, “In the former account, I made a few lists of all that
Jesus began to do and teach.” Luke’s Gospel was just the first stage of Jesus’ works
and teachings. Therefore, the implication is that the book of Acts is the second stage
of Jesus’ works—describing the acts of the risen Lord Jesus and what He continues
to do and teach. Naming the book “The Acts of the Apostles” is actually insufficient
in a significant way. These acts are the acts of the Apostles of the resurrected Lord
Jesus, the acts of the followers of Jesus Christ. For as the book opens, Jesus ascends
to heaven having commissioned His followers to turn the world upside down with
the message of the gospel concerning the Lord Jesus Christ.
This opening reveals that the book of Acts is a distinctly Christ-centered book.
This is not a book where the reader learns what happens to the Church now that Jesus
is gone. Rather, it is exactly the opposite. This book chronicles the unfolding plan of
God, the outworking of God’s saving purposes. 5 These purposes began with his
calling of Israel, and are now centered on the life and ministry of Christ which
continues as the Lord builds His Church from above, directs His Church, and enables
His people by His Spirit to serve Him and reflect Him in the world. As His death and
resurrection are shown with all their glorious implications, local churches are planted
and established and built up through the apostolic preaching of the cross. John came
baptizing with water for repentance to restore Israel. And now the Spirit of Christ is
baptizing to restore humanity and usher in a new chapter of God’s kingdom, made
visible in the Church. The earliest followers of Jesus take His message in this glorious
book around the world, and they promise everyone they encounter the forgiveness of
sins for all who would believe in the Messiah and repent of their sins. They proclaim
Christ as the Savior of the world. They proclaim His death and His resurrection and
the forgiveness of sins, and they see God bless their efforts as he adds to the Church.
This book challenges its readers and reminds them that the earliest Christians
were not without their difficulties. It is a book full of conflict between Christians and
the world. It shows what Christianity would look like in the world as it works its way
around the world. It shows what happens when believers obey Christ’s directives as
they await His return. It shows Jesus’ power to transform lives through His Word,
and few encounters evidence that transforming power more than Jesus’ conversation
with Saul on the road to Damascus.

4
Bock notes five links between the Gospel of Luke and the book of Acts found in Luke’s opening
few verses. These links are Luke’s reference to a “former account,” Theophilus, John the Baptist, the
ascension narrative, and the direction given pertaining to the Holy Spirit. See Bock, Acts, 51–52.
5
Three Greek terms unveil this purpose throughout their repetition in the book of Acts:
βουλή/βουλεύω, δεῖ, and ὁρίζω. This plan is presented being worked out geographically through both
Luke’s Gospel and the book of Acts. The Gospel centers on Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem (Luke 9:51) and
the events Jesus accomplishes there. From Luke, the book of Acts takes the gospel from Jerusalem to
Judaea, then to Samaria, and to the uttermost parts of the earth (Acts 1:8). See Joel B. Green, “Acts of the
Apostles,” in Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments, eds. Ralph P. Martin and Peter
H. Davids (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1997), 17.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 275

This conversation with Jesus is not the same as many of the face-to-face
encounters with Jesus in the Gospels, but it still features the voice of Jesus and the
response of a man. Jesus speaks directly from heaven to an individual on earth. And
like so many of Jesus’ other conversations, this rebellious sinner is saved. He is
converted and commissioned because of the power of Jesus. 6 The book of Acts is the
story of Jesus’ power as it unfolds in God’s plan that began as a rescue mission in
creation. And so, I want to highlight the power of Jesus in His conversation with Saul
of Tarsus, by examining three segments of this encounter: Saul on his way, Saul on
his face, and Saul on his mission.

Saul on His Way

Luke introduces the encounter by setting the context of Saul’s ambitions to

persecute the followers of Christ, stating, “Now Saul, still breathing threats and
murder against the disciples of the Lord” (Acts 9:1). This is a continuation of the
narrative, a narrative that is centered not merely on human activity as the Church
grows and spreads. Instead, this is a book that is truly centered on the resurrected
Christ’s activity in His people as His body. This activity even opens the book, as Acts
1:2 remarks, “until the day when He was taken up to heaven, after He had by the
Holy Spirit, given orders to the apostles, whom He had chosen.” The Christocentric
nature of this book shows us at the outset that Jesus is the one who is still in command
of His army. He is the one who is guiding and directing the affairs of His people, all
the more so as He has now ascended. He is not less involved in the ministry of His
emissaries. He is still fully involved, and He is wholly sovereign. 7 The reign of God
in the story of the entire Bible is continuing in the ministry of Jesus, as He builds His
Church from heaven.
Christ’s power from heaven is depicted at the outset of the book. Acts 1:22 says,
“Beginning with the baptism of John until the day that He was taken up from us—
one of these must become a witness with us of His resurrection.” The first chapter
that introduces the book is framed with the ascension of Christ, reminding the reader
that Jesus is at the right hand of God the Father. 8 Then when the reader arrives at
2:24, it says, “But God raised Him up again, putting an end to the agony of death,
since it was impossible for Him to be held in its power,” later quoting David, “I saw
the Lord always in my presence, for He is at my right hand so that I will not be

6
While some suggest that Paul is commissioned rather than converted (e.g., Krister Stendahl, “Call
Rather than Conversion,” in Paul Among Jews and Gentiles [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976], 7–10),
Witherup shows that this account possesses features of both conversion to worship Jesus as Lord, and a
commission to bring the gospel unto the Gentiles. See Ronald D. Witherup, “Functional Redundancy in
the Acts of the Apostles: A Case Study,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 15, no. 48 (Oct 1992),
67; and Philip H. Kern, “Paul’s Conversion and Luke’s portrayal of character in Acts 8–10,” Tyndale
Bulletin 54, no. 2 (2003): 63–80; Graham H. Twelftree, Paul and the Miraculous: A Historical
Reconstruction (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2013), 166–70.
7
Thompson, The Acts of the Risen Lord Jesus, 29–37.
8
As is frequently noted, only Luke’s Gospel includes an ascension narrative, which is recapitulated
in the opening of Acts. Beyond providing a bridge between Luke’s Gospel and the book of Acts, this
repeated narrative emphasizes to Theophilus and any reader that Jesus, though not physically present on
earth, is still sovereignly carrying out His plan through the Holy Spirit. See John F. Maile, “The Ascension
in Luke-Acts,” Tyndale Bulletin 37 (1986): 29–30, 45.
276 | Conversations with Jesus: Jesus and Saul

shaken.” The whole paradigm of the book of Acts is that Christ is the Davidic
Messiah. 9 He is at the right hand of God “and upholds all things by the word of His
power” (Heb 1:3; 8:1). Christ is at the center of this narrative. His voice speaks from
the clouds like God’s voice did so many times in the Old Testament. He is fully
present and the story is fully centered on the work, activity, and will of Jesus.
Not only is Jesus commanding His power from heaven to build His church; He
is also pouring out His Spirit on His people. Peter preaches from the book of Joel
stating, “‘It shall be in the last days,’ God says, ‘that I will pour forth my Spirit on
all mankind, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy’” (Acts 2:17). Then in
verse 33, he says, “Therefore having been exalted to the right hand of God, and
having received from the Father the promise of the Holy Spirit, He has poured forth
this which you both see and hear.” It is for this reason, that later in the book of Acts,
the Holy Spirit is called the Spirit of Christ (Acts 16:7). So in Peter’s preaching about
the death and resurrection of Jesus, and the culpability of all those who have yet to
confess Him by faith, Luke shows both the early Christians and their enemies that
Jesus’ Spirit is what is moving this whole narrative along. The Holy Spirit is Christ’s
Spirit. The Holy Spirit is the Spirit of Jesus, and the Church of Jesus is being built as
Jesus pours out His Spirit and fills His people and empowers them for service.
However, Jesus is on display not only in His power at God’s right hand or in His
giving of the Spirit, but also in His adding to the church. 10 Acts 2:47 declares that
“the Lord was adding to their number day by day those who were being saved.” Luke
is not merely telling us that God was adding Christians to the Church. He
intentionally says that “the Lord” was adding to the Church. This is the title that Peter
has just preached about in verse 39: “As many as the Lord our God will call to
Himself,” making the title “the Lord” synonymous with Jesus Christ (cf. 2:36). 11
When the apostles are baptizing in His name, the earliest Christians are being
reminded that it is Jesus who is driving every activity with His people. It is Jesus who
is in control of His body, His messengers, the Church. It is Jesus who pours out His
Spirit. It is Jesus who is adding to the Church. Thus Peter and the apostles exclaim in
Acts 5:32, “And we are witnesses of these things, and so is the Holy Spirit, whom
God has given to those who obey Him.” This witness that they are attesting to is the
same witness that is granting forgiveness in verse 31, “He is the one whom God
exalted to His right hand, as a Prince and a Savior to grant repentance to Israel, and
forgiveness of sins.”
The ministry and work of Jesus is at the forefront of this entire book. And the
earliest Christians are beginning to grow in numbers because of the power of the

9
The apostles frequently emphasized that Jesus is the promised Messiah of the Old Testament. See
Michael Bird, “Jesus is the ‘Messiah of God’: Messianic Proclamation in Luke-Acts,” The Reformed
Theological Review 66, no. 2 (Aug 2007): 76–80.
10
See Craig S. Keener, “The Spirit and the Mission of the Church in Acts 1–2,” Journal of the
Evangelical Theological Society 62, no. 1 (2019): 38–42.
11
Three times prior to Acts 2, Jesus’ name is paired with κύριος (Acts 1:6, 21, 22). In 2:17–21, Luke
records Peter’s sermon on Pentecost and quotes Joel 2:28–32, in which the divine name Yahweh appears
in Joel 2:31 and 32 and is then translated as κύριος in Acts 2:20–21. Then, when Peter concludes his
sermon, he proclaims Jesus’ Lordship by virtue of the resurrection (2:36), assuring those who repent and
are baptized “in the name of Jesus Christ” that they will receive the forgiveness of sins. The shift from
Lord (Yahweh) to Jesus Christ asserts not only Christ’s Lordship but also His deity. See Eckhard Schnabel,
Acts, Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 166.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 277

Spirit and the ministry of the Word being preached by the apostles. God raises up
bold men like Stephen, and Stephen becomes a preacher and the first martyr of the
church. Yet at the end of chapter seven, we first meet this young man named Saul:
“When they had driven [Stephen] out of the city, they began stoning him, and the
witnesses laid aside their robes at the feet of a young man named Saul” (7:58). Saul
was a Roman citizen, educated in the finest institutions in a secular sense. But he was
also a Jewish man, a Pharisee, one of the fastidious religious leaders of his day, and
he was educated by the Pharisee of Pharisees, Gamaliel (Acts 22:3; 23:6; 26:5; Phil
3:4–6). He was taught both in great secular learning, and he was taught in deep
religious devotion. God was raising up this young man, giving him a premier
education, preparing him to be one who would be able to accomplish things that
others would be unable to accomplish, to go to places where others would be unable
to go. However, at this time, because of his exacting devotion to Judaism, he was
equally devoted to the destruction of this new sect of Judaism that were the followers
of this so-called Messiah, Jesus of Nazareth. Acts 8:1 says, “Saul was in hearty
agreement with putting him [Stephen] to death. And on that day a great persecution
began against the church in Jerusalem, and they were all scattered through the regions
of Judea and Samaria, except the apostles.” Saul was not only supporting but also
orchestrating this wave of persecution against the early church (cf. Acts 9:1–2). As
some devout men buried Stephen and made loud lamentation over him, Saul was
ravaging the church, entering house after house, dragging off men and women to
imprisonment. The earliest Christians—with their small movement on the massive
sea that was Rome, set against the ancient historic religion that was Judaism—
immediately encountered intense religious persecution. It is in the midst of this
onslaught of persecution, led by Saul, that we find Saul in Acts 9:1.
Describing this context of persecution and its leader, Luke writes: “Now Saul,
still breathing threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord went to the high
priest. And he asked for letters from him to the synagogues at Damascus, so that if
he found any belonging to the Way, both men and women, he might bring them down
to Jerusalem” (Acts 9:1–2). Saul’s murderous threats continue after his participation
in the stoning of Stephen, after his persecution of these Christians and their arrest (cf.
7:54–8:1). Saul was discontent with the partial elimination of the disciples of the
Lord. He was so zealous, so devoted to Judaism, and so serious about the error that
he perceived these followers of Jesus to be involved in that he asked for a special
mission from the high priest. He requested letters from the high priest to go to the
synagogues of Damascus as a stamp of approval to take his efforts in persecution on
the road and continue the work he had already begun in arresting followers of Jesus.
He believed they were following a lie, that they were a false religion. Because of his
devotion to Yahweh (from his perspective; cf. Rom 10:2), he wanted to be fastidious
in his commitment to stamping this sect of Judaism out, to ensure no more Jews
would be deceived. 12 As hundreds upon hundreds were converted to become
disciples of Christ (e.g., Acts 2:41), Saul’s zeal became all the more resolute.

12
Early Christianity was perceived to be a sect of Judaism, not a separate religion. First, several
times in the book of Acts a dispute arises between Paul and the Jews, and the dispute is perceived to take
place within one group (e.g., Acts 18:15). Second, history suggests that Claudius’s expulsion of both Jews
278 | Conversations with Jesus: Jesus and Saul

Though the believers were following Christ, they were not yet identified as
Christians. Rather, Acts 9:2 reads, “If he [Paul] found any belonging to the Way.”
This phrase, “the Way,” occurs five times in the book of Acts describing the group
of followers of Christ, and this was their self-given designation. 13 Though most today
refer to themselves as “Christians,” in the New Testament this was not the ordinary
term. The word “Christian” is used in the New Testament only three times. 14 It was
likely a pejorative term, a slur or an insult that they were “little Christ people.”
However, this was not the name Christians took on for themselves. Instead, they
called themselves as those belonging to the Way. This was what Saul was looking
for—people devoted to the Way.
It seems that Saul would have known what the Christians meant by this
identification. He would have been a contemporary of Jesus, as Jesus was just a few
years older than him. Though this is conjecture, Saul’s religious training would likely
have acquainted him with Jesus’ ministry when it was at the swell of its popularity.
Certainly, many people in Israel had heard about the miracles and teachings of Jesus.
Though we do not have any evidence of Saul ever encountering Jesus in His earthly
ministry, it is nevertheless reasonable to surmise that he would have known of Jesus’
ministry before the church was launched, as recorded in the book of Acts. He
presumably would have known that Jesus said to His followers and to the crowds in
John 14:6, “I am the Way, the Truth, and the Life.” Arguably, Jesus’ statement in this
verse contributed to the Christians calling themselves followers of the Way, the
exclusive claims of Jesus to be the way to God. When Apollos appears on the scene
in Acts 18:23–28, Aquila and Priscilla pull him aside to accurately explain the way
to him individually. In 2 Peter 2:2, Peter says that there is “the way of truth,” a
synonymous way of talking about following Jesus. In Hebrews 10, referring to the
cross, the author says there is “a new and living way” (10:20). So the early Christians
used this kind of verbiage to identify themselves as followers of Jesus, followers of
His way. 15 Such nomenclature would have been infuriating to Saul because of his
religious devotion to the Old Covenant, the Torah, the teaching of Moses, the
prophets.
Saul could not stand it and found it to be blasphemous. The Way of Jesus was
not the way of Paul. It was not the way of his training and his religious devotion. It
was not the way in his mind of the prophets of old. So, he sought to go to Damascus
to stop the way of these believers. As Saul was on his way, he followed in the
footsteps of some other biblical characters who thought they were serving God.
Consider Balaam who intended to go and curse God’s people, but he blessed them

and Jewish-Christians from Rome made no distinction between the two groups. See F. F. Bruce, New
Testament History (New York: Doubleday, 1969), 297; and Acts 18:2.
13
See also Acts 19:9, 23; 24:14, 22; and Bruce, New Testament History, 213.
14
See Acts 11:26; 26:28; 1 Pet 4:16. Josephus uses the term as a descriptor of the followers of Jesus,
writing “Now, there was about this time Jesus, a wise man…He was [the] Christ…those that loved him at
the first did not forsake him, for he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had
foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him; and the tribe of Christians, so
named from him, are not extinct at this day.” Josephus, Antiquities 18.3.3, in The Works of Josephus:
Complete and Unabridged, trans. William Whiston (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1987), 480.
15
See Wilhelm Michaelis, “Ὁδός, Ὁδηγός, Ὁδηγέω, Μεθοδία, Εἵσοδος, Ἔξοδος, Διέξοδος,
Εὐοδόω,” in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, eds. Gerhard Kittel, Geoffrey W. Bromiley,
and Gerhard Friedrich (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964), 5:88–89.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 279

instead (Num 22–24). Likewise, Saul journeyed to Damascus, intending to arrest and
to bind the followers of the Way. Bind (δέω) is the word used in Acts 9:2 to tie them
up and drag them to Jerusalem. 16 He would not complain if some of them were killed
because in his view they were blasphemers, worthy of capital punishment.
After joining the Way to serve Christ, Paul describes his former devotion to
Pharisaical Judaism as sheer loss. He writes, “More than that, I count all things to be
loss in view of the surpassing value of knowing Christ” (Phil 3:8). Reflecting on his
life before he was a follower of the Way, and right before he pens that famous line
about the surpassing value of knowing Christ, Paul writes, “we are the true
circumcision, who worship in the Spirit of God and glory in Christ Jesus and put no
confidence in the flesh, although I myself might have confidence even in the flesh. If
anyone else has a mind to put confidence in the flesh, I far more: circumcised the
eighth day, of the nation of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews, as
to the Law, a Pharisee, as to zeal, a persecutor of the church; as to the righteousness
which is in the Law, found blameless” (Phil 3:3–6).
Paul devoted his former strength to religious zeal, which he expressed in the
persecution of the church. Having been highly educated both in the Roman world and
in the Jewish world, having risen the ranks, and having been taught and mentored by
some of the greatest teachers in Judaism, Saul was now given authority by the
synagogues to stamp out this false teaching, and he was on his way. As he makes his
journey with passion and fervor, he is suddenly interrupted. Luke writes in 9:3: “As
he was traveling, it happened that he was approaching Damascus. And suddenly a
light from heaven flashed around him.”
The religious Jews often meditated on theophanies, the appearances of God, in
the Old Testament. Perhaps the most studied of all the theophanies, and the most
intense, is Ezekiel’s vision of God in Ezekiel 1. Ezekiel’s vision of God with a throne,
and angelic creatures moving in all directions is brilliant and dazzling. It is one of the
lengthiest and most descriptive of all the visions of God, except for the scenes we
find in the book of Revelation. But in the Old Testament, there is none on the same
level as Ezekiel.
Several scholars suggest that Ezekiel’s vision was almost a paradigm among the
most fastidious Jews. 17 Such Jews likely longed for a similar experience to Ezekiel,
because the Jews at this time were in a very similar situation to him. Deprived of their
national sovereignty like the Jews in exile under Babylon, they were under the thumb
of Rome. They longed for Yahweh to free them and to restore them to their rightful
place. The reader can only speculate what Saul was thinking as he was on a long
journey on the back of a horse, with the bright sunlight before him. Maybe he was
praying that God would reveal Himself to Israel once again. Then, as he was
approaching Damascus, “suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him” (Acts
9:3). As Saul is on his way to carry out persecution, he experiences a blinding light

16
That δέω is often associated with imprisonment likely hints at Saul’s ultimate goal in this
persecution. Friedrich Büchsel, “δέω” in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, eds. Gerhard
Kittel, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, and Gerhard Friedrich (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964), 2:60–61.
17
Joseph Dan, Jewish Mysticism: Late Antiquity (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1998), xvii–xviii,
33–36; Ben Zion Bokser, The Jewish Mystical Tradition (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1993), 48–49;
Dale C. Allison, Jr., “Acts 9:1–9, 22:6–11, 26:12–18: Paul and Ezekiel,” Journal of Biblical Literature
135, no. 4 (2016): 825, fn. 81.
280 | Conversations with Jesus: Jesus and Saul

that evidently accompanied the visions of God in the Old Testament. Imagine what
his initial thoughts would have been. Euphoria? Fear? Vindication? However, what
Saul was about to experience was far different than what he would have ever
expected. Saul on his way quickly becomes Saul on his face.

Saul on His Face

Describing Saul’s response to this bright light, Luke states in Acts 9:4–7 that
Saul falls to the ground, undergoing a similar response to others who also experienced
such divine visions. 18 In almost every theophanic vision, the first instinct of the
person who encounters God is to fall on the ground. This is also the same response
of many who recognize the deity of Christ in the Gospels. Falling on the ground is
precisely what Saul does when this light blinds him from heaven and flashes around
him. He falls on the ground, and he hears a voice saying to him, “Saul, Saul” (Acts
9:4). This repetition of his name would have also been familiar to a man thoroughly
trained in the Old Testament. Often, in God’s direct address to his servants, He
repeated their name. When the Angel of Yahweh spoke to Abraham, he said
“Abraham, Abraham” (Gen 22:11). When God addressed Moses at the burning bush,
He called out “Moses, Moses” (Exod 3:4). When Samuel was in the priest’s house,
God called, “Samuel, Samuel” (1 Sam 3:10). 19 As Saul was on his way to Damascus,
the voice of God thundered, “Saul, Saul,” underlining his name and captivating his
attention. This is not just a bright and blinding light. This is truly a theophanic vision.
This is the voice of God Himself, revealed from heaven above. He hears his name,
“Saul, Saul,” as he is personally being called by Yahweh. This murderer who was on
his way to persecute the Christians of Damascus is now on his face in the middle of
the desert.
Yet this vision is far from what Saul had expected. Immediately, Saul is asked,
“Why are you persecuting Me?” (Acts 9:4). The Christian reader, who is a
beneficiary of Paul’s writings, may miss the jarring nature of this question. Saul was
persecuting “cultish” followers of this offshoot of Judaism. He knew exactly whom
he was going after and esteemed himself righteous in doing so. But what God says to
him is, “Why are you persecuting Me?” Saul had no intention of persecuting God.
He would not dare. He was persecuting Christians. So he has one question in
response, as he lies face down in the sand: “Who are you, Lord?” (9:5) Saul’s usage
of “Lord” in this question is the right thing to say. Jesus’ Lordship appears all
throughout the book of Acts as Christ’s disciples go throughout the world

18
This response further connects Paul’s sight of Christ to Ezekiel’s sight of the glory of God in
Ezekiel 1. For a fuller treatment of the similarities between these two visions, see Abner Chou, I Saw the
Lord: A Biblical Theology of Vision (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2013), 150–51.
19
Each of these visions includes a clear demonstration of another person in the Godhead, often
referred to as the pre-incarnate Son. Genesis 22 depicts the Angel of Yahweh as the one speaking to
Abraham, a figure often associated with Yahweh Himself (cf. Lev 11:45; Judg 2:1). Exodus 3 depicts both
the Angel of Yahweh and Yahweh Himself as present (Exod 3:2, 4). And 1 Samuel clearly states that
Yahweh has manifested Himself physically as “He came and stood” (1 Sam 3:10). It seems as if in each
case, the Second Person of the Godhead is directly involved in these divine communications to man, and
in Paul’s situation, the divine word is delivered by the incarnate Word, the resurrected Christ; Stephen J.
Wellum, God the Son Incarnate, Foundations of Evangelical Theology (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2016),
202–203.
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proclaiming Jesus as Lord. 20 But Saul does not know the Lord at this point. He is
asking this divine voice to identify himself to Saul. The answer he hears in response
bears the words that would make him shake and shudder: “I am Jesus” (9:5). Consider
the significance of “I AM” (cf. Exod 3:14–15). Paul must have thought he could be
consumed at any moment, because this is the very presence of Yahweh (cf. Judg
13:22). But God says, “I am Jesus whom you are persecuting.” The followers of the
way whom Paul persecuted were the true followers of Yahweh, and surely now Paul
began to realize just what he had been doing.
The murderer is stopped cold in his tracks by the murdered one. Everything is
recalibrated in Saul’s mind in this moment as he realizes that this divine vision is
indeed a divine vision of the I AM, the self-existent one (cf. John 12:41 and Isa 6:5). 21
This divine God identifies himself as Jesus. With this vision, Paul realizes he is not
being ministered to or encouraged in his work. He is being opposed by God (cf. Num
22:22ff; Jas 4:6). Possibly Saul’s biggest concern with the Christian movement was
their blasphemy because they insisted that Jesus was God. But now he is on his face,
halted by the One he thought was dead.
The question Jesus then asks Saul is distinctly appropriate: “Why are you
persecuting me?” Who has likely uttered the same question thus far in the book of
Acts? Who has cried out that question in biblical revelation? Likely, that question
would have been on the lips of all the persecuted who were God’s people. Israel
would have asked that kind of question to their Egyptian task masters: “Why are you
persecuting me?” This question, “Why are you persecuting me,” would have fueled
their cries as they were removed forcibly 500 miles from their homes during the
Babylonian invasion and captivity. As children, women, and families were murdered
or forced into exile, they would have constantly been asking this question: “Why are
you persecuting me?”
In their more recent history, the Jewish people would have wailed along with the
bereft mothers when Herod killed their innocent babies trying to stamp out the
Messiah on behalf of Rome. Even in the early church, the Christians cried out under
persecution to God. In Acts 4:29, the followers of Christ pray to God to deliver them
from the threats of their persecutors. Surely, these Christians contemplated the threats
of Paul, which Saul was breathing out against them regularly (cf. Acts 9:1). After
Saul encountered Christ and was blinded, the Lord appeared to Ananias and
instructed him to find Saul and lay his hands on him so that he could once again see,
but Ananias resisted and said: “Lord, I have heard from many about this man, how
much harm he did to Your saints at Jerusalem; and here he has authority from the
chief priests to bind all who call on Your name” (cf. 9:13–14). Thus, as the disciples
gathered together in prayer, no doubt they thought of Saul as they lamented, “why is
he persecuting me?” But now this question finds a place in the mouth of the Lord.
Jesus inquires of Saul why he is persecuting Him.
However, Saul still does not know the Lord, as he replies with his own query
exposing his confusion: “Who are You Lord?” (9:5). So Jesus responds definitively:

20
David G. Peterson, The Acts of the Apostles, Pillar New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 2009), 58.
21
See Timothy J. Ralston, “The Theological Significance of Paul’s Conversion,” Bibliotheca Sacra
147, no. 586 (Apr–Jun 1990): 210–12.
282 | Conversations with Jesus: Jesus and Saul

“I am Jesus whom you are persecuting.” This encounter with Jesus affects Saul
immensely, so much so that he repeats the account two additional times in the book
of Acts (Acts 22, 26). 22 Thus, from Saul on his way, we witness Saul on his face. But
after the dust of the Damascus Road, we see a third segment: Saul on His mission.

Saul on His Mission

At this point, Saul is converted and commissioned. At the beginning of Acts 9,

he was a man under authority with letters from the synagogues to persecute believers
in Jesus. But immediately upon his conversion, he sought not the murder of Jesus’
followers but their instruction. He is commanded to rise up and proceed to the city,
and rather than carrying out his original mission against Jesus’ followers, he would
be given a new mission by Jesus’ followers to preach the name of Christ. Thus Christ
commands him: “Get up and enter the city, and it will be told you what you must do”
(Acts 9:6). The word “get up” is used in other passages in the Gospels by Jesus
speaking to those who could not walk. When Jesus commands someone to get up,
they do not have other options. They get up. That is exactly what Saul does.
On account of this encounter with Christ, Saul’s life had been radically
transformed. He began on one mission, that of the Pharisees, but he was compelled
to continue on another mission, that of the Lord Jesus. He had been on his way to
arrest the followers of Jesus, but he was himself arrested by Jesus. He had intended
to bind Jesus’ followers and lead them by the hand to Jerusalem. Instead, being
blinded by the vision of Christ, he was led by the hand to Jesus’ followers to restore
his sight. In capturing the captor, Jesus demonstrated His absolute authority over the
hearts of men, even the worst of sinners (cf. Matt 9:12; Luke 19:10).
Saul of Tarsus, the biggest threat the early church had faced, was now on a
mission to proclaim the faith he once determined to destroy. The greatest human
adversary the early Christians had faced was going to become their most prolific
advocate, all because of the grace of God that is in Jesus. This grace of God that Saul
encountered on the road to Damascus would become the theme of his ministry for
the duration of his life. But at the end of his life, this same man, a missionary called
the Apostle Paul, would stand to await his trial (cf. Acts 25:12). While he had
previously sought to put to death the followers of Christ, he himself would be put to
death, at the edge of a Roman sword, for following Christ. But he would not die until
he would fulfill God’s purpose for his life, as he declared in 2 Timothy 4:6–8:

For I am already being poured out as a drink offering, and the time of my
departure has come. I have fought the good fight, I have finished the course, I
have kept the faith. In the future there is laid up for me the crown of
righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, will award to me on that day,
and not only to me, but also to all who have loved His appearing.

22
For comparative studies of the different accounts, see David Michael Stanley, “Paul’s Conversion
in Acts,” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 15, no. 3 (Jul 1953): 315–38; Charles W. Hedrick, “Paul’s
Conversion/Call: A Comparative Analysis of the Three Reports,” Journal of Biblical Literature 100, no.
3 (Sep 1981): 415–32; Dennis Hamm, “Paul’s Blindness and Its Healing: Clues to Symbolic Intent (Acts
9, 22, and 26),” Biblica 71, no. 1 (1990): 63–72; Witherup, “Functional Redundancy in the Acts of the
Apostles,” 67–86.
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Application

While Paul’s life is worth studying and sharing, the question is: What do we do
with this story in our life? Three lessons emerge.
First, Jesus is sovereign over His Church. The Church, growing and being built
around the world, is not a human invention. It depends not on good marketing or
management but on the sovereign work of Christ in and through the lives of His
followers. Christ promised that He would build His Church and He is continually
doing so (Matt 16:18). One of the greatest threats to the early church became one of
Christ’s greatest instruments to build His Church.
Second, God’s grace transforms sinners. Saul never sought Jesus. He never
searched for salvation. In fact, he was convinced he had salvation even though He
was directly opposing the Savior. Nevertheless, God intervened in Saul’s rebellion
and rescued him solely by His grace—sola gratia.
Finally, to be part of the Church is to belong to Christ. Christians were fond of
being called followers of “the Way,” but such nomenclature did not remain. Instead,
Paul referred to the followers of Christ as those who are “in Christ” (e.g., Rom 6:11;
12:5; 16:7, 9, 10). That is what we are inviting people to when we proclaim the gospel
to our friends, neighbors, and family. We are calling them not only to follow Jesus
but to belong to Him and to identify with Him who will forever identify with us.
As Christ demonstrated His sovereign grace in the conversion of His opponent
Saul, so He also put His grace on display in the conversion of an additional opponent
in the 18th century—Lord Lyttleton. Lord Lyttleton determined to refute the truth of
the Christian faith, and he approached his endeavor by seeking to discredit the
conversion of the Apostle Paul. However, as a result of studying Paul’s life, Lyttleton
not only affirmed the truth of Paul’s conversion but also himself committed his life
to Christ. Concerning Paul, Lyttleton wrote:

I shall then take it for granted that he was not deceived by the fraud of others,
and that what he said of himself cannot be imputed to the power of the deceit,
no more than to willful imposture or to enthusiasm; and then it follows that what
he related to have been the cause of his conversion, and to have happened in
consequence of it, did all really happen, and therefore the Christian religion is a
divine revelation…. It must therefore be accounted for by the power of God.
That God should work miracles for the establishment of a most holy religion,
which, from the insuperable difficulties that stood in the way of it, could not
have established itself without such an assistance, in no way repugnant to human
reason: but that without any miracle such things should have happened, as no
adequate natural causes can be assigned for, is what human reason cannot
believe. 23

Saul’s conversion is an emphatic testimony that no matter the way that a rebellious
sinner is on, God can put that sinner on his face and then put him on His mission.

23
Lord Lyttleton, Observations on the Conversion and Apostleship of Saint Paul (London: R. Clay,
Bread-Street Hill, 1838), 61–62.
284
TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 285–298

COLOSSIANS 1:16–17 AND THE

THEOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF CHRIST AS
CREATOR AND SUSTAINER
Jeffrey P. Tomkins
Ph.D., Clemson University
Research Scientist
Institute for Creation Research, Dallas, TX

*****

One of the key passages in the New Testament that proclaims Christ to be both
Creator and Sustainer is Colossians 1:16–17. While most published works have
treated Colossians 1:15–20 as a complete whole looking at its structure and content
as a possible hymn, this present effort focuses on the Creator-Sustainer formula
contained within verses 16 and 17. This text articulates this formula by its usage of
prepositions combined with variations of πᾶς, its choice and usage of verbs, and the
prevailing historical-cultural context. After demonstrating Christ’s role as Creator
and Sustainer from Colossians 1:16–17, this paper will explore the theological
implications of Christ as Creator and Sustainer that are applicable to the Christian’s
daily life and fellowship with the Triune God.

*****

Introduction

One of the key New Testament passages that sets forth Christ’s transcendent
relation to the creation as its Creator and Sustainer is the profound text of Colossians
1:16–17. This passage immediately follows a declaration of Christ as Redeemer (Col
1:13–14), as the God-Man who is “the image of the invisible God” (1:15a), and as
the exalted eternally begotten Son of God who is supreme over all creation [“firstborn
of all creation”] (1:15b). This last line, πρωτότοκος πάσης κτίσεως (1:15b), launches
Paul into defending Christ’s preeminence, evidenced by the usage of the verb κτίζω
and πᾶς in the following verses. In so doing, Paul covers the biblical doctrine of

285
286 | Christ as Creator and Sustainer

Christ as Creator and Sustainer. 1 This essential doctrine is not only important to the
creation science movement, but also it provides a fuller and more robust
understanding of Christ as Redeemer and Head of His Church.
Before focusing on verses 16 and 17 in Colossians 1, it is important to note at
the outset that most exegetes and theologians engaging in these verses do so in the
context of interpreting Colossians 1:15–20 as a hymnic unit. In this regard, much
debate has gone forth as to whether this section of the epistle is an early church hymn
that Paul has inserted and reworked. In fact, the ideas concerning the various aspects
(wording, strophic structure, etc.) of this section of Scripture and its grammatical
nuances are diverse and form a large body of publications with one suggestion even
claiming that Colossians 1:15–20 was a social protest hymn against the ideals of the
Roman empire. 2 Most scholars do consider Colossians 1:15–20 to have a hymnic
structure although a few have dissented and considered this to be a diversion from
the key theological points that Paul is making or that the section is a form of poetry
with Hebrew origins. 3 The approach of this paper will focus more on the content of

1
While this present paper is a focus on Christ as Creator within the context of Colossians 1:16,
properly understood, creation in the full theological picture was a work wrought by all persons of the
Godhead. Though the standard orthodox expression of the agency of the three persons with respect to
divine acts has been “from the Father, through the Son, in the Spirit,” the Leiden Synopsis from the early
17th century in the Dutch Further Reformation diverges slightly and describes this doctrine as follows:
“We assign this work of creation jointly to God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, because all the
workings of God that are called ‘outward workings’ are indivisible – although, as in other works, so too
in the work of creation a different mode and order of operation may be noted. For the Father created the
world by himself through the Son and the Holy Spirit, the Son created the world by the Father through the
Spirit, and the Spirit created the world by the Father and the Son, as is well known from these passages of
Holy Scripture: Gen 1, Job 33:4, John 1:2, 3, 1 Cor 8:6, Col 1:15, etc. Hence this creation of the world is
attributed sometimes separately to God the Father (1 Cor 8:6), to the Son (John 1:3, Col 1:16; Heb 1:2,10),
and to the Holy Spirit (Job 33:4); sometimes jointly, either to the Father and the Son (as 1 Cor 8:6) or the
three persons together (as Gen 1; Ps 33:6).” See Johannes Polyander and Henricus Hamers, “Disputation
10” in Synopsis of a Purer Theology Vol 1, William Den Boer and Riemer A. Faber, eds. (Oxfordshire:
Davenant Press, 2023), 96–97. Thus, 17th century Puritan Thomas Manton declared in distinctly trinitarian
terms, “All things were created for him—that is, for the honour of the Son, as well as for the honour of the
Father and the Holy Ghost.” See Thomas Manton, The Complete Works of Thomas Manton Vol. 1
(London: James Nisbet & Co., 1870), 438. However, in a more recent synopsis, MacArthur and Mayhue
echo the historic position on the workings of the Trinity saying, “God the Father is seen as the source; God
the Son is seen as the Mediator of the acts of creation; and the Holy Spirit is seen as the agent of these
acts. Each person worked fully and in concert with one another in the creation acts.” See John MacArthur
and Richard Mayhue, Biblical Doctrine: A Systematic Summary of Biblical Truth (Wheaton, IL: Crossway,
2017), 214. Therefore, Christ’s role in creation within the Trinity is often seen to be that of agency, in that
God created through the person of Jesus Christ.
2
Mark S. Medley, “Subversive Song: Imagining Colossians 1:15–20 as a Social Protest Hymn in the
Context of the Roman Empire,” Review and Expositor 116, no. 4 (2019): 421–35. For other analyses, see
James M. Robinson, “A Formal Analysis of Colossians 1:15–20,” Journal of Biblical Literature 76, no. 4
(1957) 270–80; Wayne McGowan, “The Hymnic Structure of Colossians 1:15–20,” The Evangelical
Quarterly 51, no. 3 (1979): 156–62; Frederick F. Bruce, “The “Christ Hymn” of Colossians 1:15–20,”
Bibliotheca Sacra 141 (1984): 99–110; Eduard Schweitzer, “Colossians 1:15–20,” Review and Expositor
87 (1990): 97–104; N. T. Wright, “Poetry and Theology in Colossians 1.15–20,” New Testament Studies
36 (1990): 444–68.
3
John F. Balchin, “Colossians 1:15–20: An Early Hymn? The Arguments from Style,” Vox
Evangelica 15 (1985): 65–94. In regard to the beginning of the alleged hymn in verse 15 (ὅς ἐστιν εἰκὼν
τοῦ Θεοῦ τοῦ ἀοράτου, πρωτότοκος πάσης κτίσεως), Daniel Wallace notes, “Most scholars now see hymn
fragments here and there in the NT, such as Phil 2:6–11; Col 1:15–20; 1 Tim 3:16; Heb 1:3–4; etc.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 287

verses 16 and 17, rather than emphasizing their contribution to the structuring of
Colossians 1:15–20. As such, these verses unveil Christ in the Creator-Sustainer
formula found elsewhere in Scripture which in the New Testament brings forth a
fuller revelation of Christ and the Trinity. 4
Significantly, Colossians 1:16 begins with a ὅτι conjunction that assigns the
reason for the preceding statement: “He is the image of the invisible God, the
firstborn of all creation” (Col 1:15). Louw and Nida express the use of ὅτι as a marker
of cause or reason that is based on a previously given evident fact expressing
“because, since, for, in view of the fact that.” 5 Used here, Paul demonstrates that
Christ is the image of God and the firstborn of all creation, because He is the Creator,
further expressing the glory of the Godhead. Douglas Moo notes, “Christ’s supreme
role in creation is now cited as evidence (for; hoti) that he is, indeed, the firstborn
over all creation.” 6 G. K. Beale notes that the lead in with the ὅτι from verse 15 to
verse 16, “now explains the reason for Christ’s preceding titles of divine
preexistence, which underscore his sovereignty over the cosmos: Christ is the divine
image and ruler over all things because he is the agent of all creation and as such he
existed before the creation.” 7 The high Christology that Paul espouses is grounded in
Christ’s work of creation and His sustaining of that creation each moment.
Paul defends Christ’s work in creation and the daily providence of sustaining it
by employing a variety of prepositions adjoined to some form of πᾶς. Furthermore,
he intentionally chooses and then varies the form of his verbs to emphasize Christ’s
creative and sustaining work. Finally, he does all this within a historical-cultural
context that was particularly opposed to the supremacy of Christ. These three
components of Paul’s argument for Christ as Creator and Sustainer will be examined
with application to follow.

Paul’s Usage of Prepositions

The extent of Christ’s supremacy as Creator is emphasized by the use and

development of three key prepositions. Each preposition is paired with a form of πᾶς,
attached to κτίζω, and has a form of αὐτός as its object. In this construction, the major
variance is the preposition, which significantly influences the meaning of the phrase,
building Paul’s Christology.

Frequently, such texts begin with a relative clause that has been woven into the syntax of the surrounding
prose discourse. Indeed, one of the standard features of Greek poetry is the introductory use of the relative
pronoun.”; Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996),
340–41; Jeffrey S. Lamp, “Wisdom in Col 1:15–20: Contribution and Significance,” Journal of the
Evangelical Theological Society 41, no. 1 (1998): 45–53.
4
One of the most clear and succinct passages in the OT that gives the Creator-Sustainer formula is
Jeremiah 51:15–16; “It is He who made the earth by His power, who established the world by His wisdom,
and by His understanding He stretched out the heavens. When He utters His voice, there is a tumult of
waters in the heavens, and He causes the clouds to ascend from the end of the earth; He makes lightning
for the rain and brings forth the wind from His storehouses.”
5
Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on
Sematic Domains (New York: United Bible Societies, 1989), 89.33.
6
Douglas J. Moo, The Letters to the Colossians and Philemon: The Pillar New Testament
Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 2008), 120.
7
G. K. Beale, Colossians and Philemon: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament, eds.
Robert W. Yarbrough and Robert H. Stein (Grand Rapids: Baker Publishing Group, 2019), 91.
288 | Christ as Creator and Sustainer

The first preposition after the introductory ‘ὅτι’ is ‘ἐν’ for the initial clause ‘ἐν
αὐτῷ ἐκτίσθη τὰ πάντα.’ Translating the preposition ‘ἐν’ may be difficult in a variety
of places throughout the New Testament, and this occurrence is one of them. 8 As
Moo points out, the majority of prominent English translations (e.g., KJV, NIV, ESV,
NASB, HCSB; etc.) understand ‘ἐν’ with the usage of instrument: “by him all things
were created.” 9 This closely aligns with Old Testament passages pertaining to God’s
work of creation by means of verbal utterance (e.g., His Word; Ps 33:6), or other
passages describing God’s wisdom in creation (Prov 3:19; 8:27–30). Similar
language about creation is used in the New Testament of Jesus Christ (e.g., John 1:3;
1 Cor 8:6; Heb 1:2). 10 However, Moo disagrees with the instrumental usage of ἐν on
several grounds. First, understanding ἐν in the instrumental sense would create some
redundancy given its overlap with διά (διʼ αὐτοῦ καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν ἔκτισται). 11 Second,
other New Testament creation passages written by Paul use διά rather than ἐν (1 Cor
8:6). 12 Third, the formula ἐν αὐτῷ in Colossians often signifies the sphere of action. 13
Therefore, Moo, and others, suggest that ἐν be understood in this manner, “in Christ,”
a conclusion supported by the surrounding context. 14 Gordon Fee concurs,
summarizing this passage, “Everything that exists came through the agency of the
beloved (eternal) Son, who is expressly identified as the sphere, agent, and goal of
the whole created order.” 15
This preposition, ἐν, is paired with τὰ πάντα, expressing the content of Christ’s
work of creation. This content is spelled out in the following phrase, “that are in
heaven and that are in earth” (τὰ πάντα, τὰ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς καὶ τὰ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς). The
usage of ἐν in relation to heaven extends the argument of the previous phrase, that all
things in heaven and upon earth, originated in Christ. The merism in this phrase refers
back to Genesis 1:1: “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth” with
the Hebrew phrase “the heavens and the earth” (‫ )הַ שָּׁ מַ יִם וְ אֵ ת הָ אָ ֶרץ‬being equivalent to
this statement for the entirety of the created order in Greek. Interestingly, ἐν τοῖς
οὐρανοῖς occurs approximately 26 times in the NT but only in this case is it used with
a comprehensive scope of everything which is in heaven. And as it is used in this
clause in juxtaposition to “upon the earth” (ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς), BDAG aptly defines the NT
usage for οὐρανός as “the portion or portions of the universe generally distinguished

8
Moo, The Letters to the Colossians and Philemon, 120.
9
Bortone commented, “the most frequent non-spatial sense of ἐν in Biblical Greek is
instrumental/causal”; Pietro Bortone, Greek Prepositions from Antiquity to the Present (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2010). Harris helpfully explains how the frequency of the instrumental use of ἐν in
Biblical Greek is comparable to the extensive and varied usage of the Hebrew beth in the Old Testament;
Murray J. Harris, Prepositions and Theology in the Greek New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
2012), 119.
10
Moo, The Letters to the Colossians and Philemon, 120.
11
Ibid.
12
Ibid.
13
Ibid.
14
David W. Pao, Colossians & Philemon, Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2012), 96.
15
Gordon D. Fee, Pauline Christology: An Exegetical-Theological Study (Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson Publishers, 2007), 538.
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from planet earth, heaven.” 16 Additionally, Robertson and Davis note that ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς
in this instance employs the use of a preposition like ἐπὶ, “to make plainer the precise
aspect of the genitive case involved in [τῆς γῆς].” 17 Heinrich von Siebenthal points
out that ἐπὶ + genitive is used mostly of position with other examples involving γῆς
being Luke 2:14 (ἐπὶ γῆς εἰρήνη; peace upon earth) and Mark 4:26 (ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς; upon
the ground/earth). 18 Blass, Debrunner, and Funk note that the use of the article with
γῆ and καὶ ἐπί, as done here in Colossians 1:16 (καὶ ἐπί τῆς γῆς), is also meant as a
grammatical form of contrast between that which is on the earth and that which is in
the heavens. 19
The extent of creation is further taken to include that which is visible and that
which is invisible (τὰ ὁρατὰ καὶ τὰ ἀόρατα). The word ὁρατός is a verbal adjective
of the verb ὁράω (to see or behold) pertaining to the capability of being seen or
visible 20 with τὰ ὁρατά being the visible world. 21 Clearly the language of this text is
setting the stage for the following statement concerning angelic powers also being
created by Christ in addition to the visible cosmos. This comprehensive claim to the
totality of the created order is affirmed elsewhere in the New Testament such as John
1:3, “All things came into being through Him, and apart from Him nothing came into
being that has come into being”; John 1:9, “and the world was made through Him”;
and Hebrews 1:2, “through whom also He made the world.” Bruce, in his
commentary on Colossians, provides a succinct integrated synopsis of Christ the
Creator in light of the preceding verse (Col 1:15) and says, “What is meant is that the
Son of God, existing as he did ‘before all things,’ exercises the privilege of
primogeniture as Lord of creation, the divinely appointed ‘heir of all things,’ and ‘He
was there when creation’s work began, and it was for him as well as through him that
it was completed.’” 22
The extent of the totality of the creation by Christ is further elaborated with
“whether they be thrones, or dominions, or principalities, or powers” (εἴτε θρόνοι,
εἴτε κυριότητες, εἴτε ἀρχαί, εἴτε ἐξουσίαι). Louw and Nida conclude that, “the series
of terms θρόνοι, κυριότητες, ἀρχαί, and ἐξουσίαι in Colossians 1:16 (as well as in
Eph 1:21) are understood as being supernatural cosmic powers, whether angelic or

16
Frederick W. Danker, Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, Greek-English
Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2000), 737.
17
A. T. Robertson and W. Hersey Davis, A New Short Grammar of the Greek New Testament (New
York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1933), 230.
18
Heinrich von Siebenthal, Ancient Greek Grammar for the Study of the New Testament (New York:
International Academic Publishers, 2011), 273. Notably, the New Testament when seeking to describe
sphere pertaining to γῆ, γῆ is almost always paired with ἐπὶ, rather than ἐν. In fact, ἐν with γῆ only occurs
3 times in the New Testament (Matt 5:35; 25:25; Luke 12:51), and only one of those occurrences (Matt
25:25) may suggest that the prepositional usage of sphere is in play. Thus the parallelism in meaning of ἐν
and ἐπὶ support the contextual usage of sphere for ἐν.
19
Friedrich Blass, Albert Debrunner, and Robert W. Funk, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament
and Other Early Christian Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 132.
20
Frederick W. Danker, Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, Greek-English
Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature 3rd ed., 719.
21
Franco Mantanari, Ivan Garofalo, and Daniela Manetti, The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek
(Leiden: Brill, 2018), 1478.
22
Frederick F. Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020), 74.
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demonic.” 23 Zerwick and Grosvenor note that this series of plural nouns (θρόνοι,
κυριότητες, ἀρχαί, and ἐξουσίαι) preceded by εἴτε (whether/or) also denote
“hierarchies of spiritual powers.” 24 Thus, this addendum to all things in heaven and
earth takes the totality of creation by Christ to entail everything including unseen
creatures and powers.
In the conclusion of verse 16 we are further told, “all things were created through
Him and for Him” (τὰ πάντα δι’ αὐτοῦ καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν ἔκτισται). This phrase includes
the other two prepositions joined to a form of πᾶς and linked to the verb κτίζω (διά
and εἰς). The switch from ἐν (by) at the start of the verse to διά (through) in the same
sentence helps to express more fully the theme of Christ’s deity and supremacy in
relation to creation and His person in the Godhead. Whereas ἐν previously expressed
the sphere of the work of creation (it was wrought in Christ), now διά expresses the
agent of creation (it was wrought by Christ Himself). In my assessment, the use of
both ἐν (by) and διά (through) in the same sentence helps to express more fully the
larger Pauline theme of Christ’s deity and supremacy in relation to creation and His
person in the Godhead.
In addition to the emphatic repetition of “all things were created by Him” using
διά, we also have the addition of “and for Him” (καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν). Robertson helpfully
notes that, “Once more, the variation of the preposition is a skillful way of condensing
thought, each preposition adding a new idea.” 25 In support, he cites a related verse
from Romans 11:36: ἐξ αὐτοῦ καὶ δι’ αὐτοῦ καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν τὰ πάντα (“For from Him
and through Him and to Him are all things”). 26 Here in Colossians 1:16, Christ is not
only affirmed as the one through whom the creation came into existence, but He also
stands at its end as the goal of the universe. This connects to Ephesians 1:9–10 which
asserts that God ordains “according to His kind intention which He purposed in Him
[Christ] with a view to an administration suitable to the fullness of the times, that is,
the summing up of all things in Christ, things in the heavens and things on the earth.”
It also fits with Christ’s statement in Revelation 22:13 in which he claimed, “I am
the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end.”
All created things are not only by Him as their first cause, but they are also for
Him as their last end. God is often represented in Scripture as the first and the last:
“Who has performed and accomplished it, calling forth the generations from the
beginning? ‘I, the Lord, am the first, and with the last, I am He’” (Isa 41:4); and
“Thus says the Lord, the King of Israel and his Redeemer, the Lord of hosts: ‘I am
the first and I am the last, and there is no God besides Me’” (44:6). And as noted
previously, similar statements are applied to the resurrected Christ in the New
Testament: “Do not be afraid; I am the first and the last, and the living One; and I
was dead, and behold, I am alive forevermore” (Rev 1:17); or, “The first and the last,
who was dead, and has come to life” (2:8); and “I am the Alpha and the Omega, the
first and the last, the beginning and the end” (22:13). These expressions tell us of

23
Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on
Sematic Domains, 478.
24
Maximilian Zerwick and Mary Grosvenor, A Grammatical Analysis of the Greek New Testament
(Rome: Gregorian and Biblical Press, 1996), 604.
25
Archibald T. Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in Light of Historical Research, 567.
26
Ibid., 567. It is noteworthy that Romans 11:36 directly follows a previous statement on the self-
sufficiency of God; “Or who has first given to him that it might be paid back to him again?” (Rom 11:35).
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Christ’s eternal power and deity because He has been before all creation and shall be
when all things in the present world are ended. He is the first sovereign being from
whom all things are, and the last end in whom all things are to be fulfilled and
consummated.
Thus, this statement of Christ’s relationship to creation by Paul is comprehensive
in that we can only understand the beginning and purpose of creation in Christ Jesus.
These three prepositions, ἐν, διά, and εἰς, demonstrate the supremacy of Christ in
creation, and build the Creator-Sustainer formula.

Usage and Forms of Verbs

The Creator-Sustainer formula of Colossians 1:16–17 utilizes two main verbs:

κτίζω and συνίστημι. The first verb, κτίζω, occurs twice, bookending verse 16 (ὅτι
ἐν αὐτῷ ἐκτίσθη τὰ πάντα…καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν ἔκτισται). Its first occurrence as an aorist,
passive, indicative indicates not only that the subject (“all things”; τὰ πάντα) was
acted upon or created by Christ, but that this creation was a completed and finished
work, referring to the six days of creation in Genesis 1. 27
Another interesting aspect of this final clause in verse 16 is that κτίζω is used
again but in a different form. Its second usage occurs as a perfect, middle, indicative
as ἔκτισται. The first use of κτίζω as noted above in verse 16, was in the aorist
(ἐκτίσθη) indicating a completed past event (e.g., Gen 1) while this usage is in the
perfect tense indicating a completed event with ongoing effect and implication. 28
Rogers and Rogers helpfully note that this “emphasizes the duration and persistence
of the act of creation.” 29 The continuing results in view of the act of creation likely
are expressed by the third prepositional phrase (εἰς αὐτὸν). Because every part of
creation was completed in and through Christ, everything in both heaven and on earth
exists for His glory.
However, the chain of Paul’s logic issuing forth from Christ’s creative work does
not stop with the moment of creation. In the next verse, the act of Christ’s sustaining
His creation is directly linked to the act of creation. In similar fashion to how he
started his exposition of Christ’s work in creation, Paul writes, καὶ τὰ πάντα ἐν αὐτῷ
συνέστηκεν. By utilizing τὰ πάντα ἐν αὐτῷ, Paul closely associates the work of
sustaining to the work of creating. Furthermore, the tense of συνέστηκεν is perfect,
akin to ἔκτισται. Therefore, the perfect tense of κτίζω transitions the discussion of
Christ’s role in creation to His present work of sustaining it.
Taking the perfect tense into consideration, we can see that συνέστηκεν is an
astute description of Christ’s sustaining and upholding activity of what He created in
Genesis 1. Barnes aptly notes that this is also “the ascription to Christ of infinite
power – for nothing less could be sufficient to uphold the universe.” 30

27
Another Genesis creation-based example of the aorist-passive of κτίζω is 1 Corinthians 11:9; “οὐκ
ἐκτίσθη ἀνῆρ διὰ τὴν γυναῖκα [neither was the man created for the woman, KJV].”
28
Friedrich Blass, Albert Debrunner, and Robert W. Funk, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament
and Other Early Christian Literature, 176.
29
Cleon L. Rogers, Jr. and Cleon L. Rogers III, The New Linguistic And Exegetical Key To The
Greek New Testament (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing, 1998), 461.
30
Albert Barnes, Notes on the New Testament Vol. 12 Ephesians to Philemon (London: Blackie and
Son, 1847), 250.
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Parallel Old Testament passages echo this same truth: that the one who creates
is the one who sustains. We are told: “You are the Lord, you alone. You have made
heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host, the earth and all that is on it, the
seas and all that is in them; and you preserve all of them” (Neh 9:6, ESV). 31 Hebrews
1:3 repeats this providential doctrine concerning Christ saying that He “upholds all
things by the word of His power,” using the verb φέρων for “upholds.” Interestingly,
φέρων is a present active participle from the verb φέρω meaning “to bring along” or
“to carry.” Thus, Christ is not only Creator, but He sustains and gives life and carries
along the creation through His providential goodness. Christ’s work of creation is
intimately connected to His work of sustaining His creation.

Historical-Cultural Context

Articulating the role of the Son in creation may seem like an accessory detail for
Paul’s Christology in Colossians 1; however, this element of Paul’s theology was
essential for the Colossian church. The theological error at Colossae had permeated
the church and so Paul writes to expand their understanding of Christology in a way
that was directly applicable to their situation. 32
While the Phrygian city of Colossae was largely Greek, there was also a Jewish
community present which dated from the times of Antiochus the Great (223–187
bc). 33 It is believed that heresies were developing in the Colossian church over
elements emanating from both pagan Greek culture and Jewish legalism which
included features of Gnosticism, an unhealthy mysticism with speculative views of
spirits and angels, and elements of Jewish myths. Frank L. Cross noted that these
were certain features “of the Hellenistic and Judaic religion of the period, such as the
‘rudiments of elements’ (τὰ στοιχεῖα) of the world, angelic mediators, law-keeping,
and asceticism, which later filled a prominent place in Gnosticism.” 34
One of the problems with many Jewish writers at the time, including Philo and
a few Judean sources, was that they gave higher level angels subordinate divine
powers in the role of creation. 35 It is not hard to see how this would have been enticing
to Greeks who were prone to mysticism. In this respect, Keener believes that Paul
was attempting to combat this view by giving Christ His rightful place as the eternal
Creator. Keener helpfully notes that by “using different prepositions, ancient

31
The Hebrew verb mechayyeh for “preserve” (‫)מחַ יֶּ ֣ה‬
ְ from chayah (‫ )חָ יָה‬is a participle in the piel stem
(causative) and means to keep alive and to preserve. The NASB 1995 opts for “give life,” and similar to
the ESV, the KJV uses “preservest.”
32
The nature of the error that was present in Colossae is debated and such discussion presents a wide
variety of perspectives on what comprised the issue at stake in Colossae. For an overview, see Andreas
Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum, and Charles L. Quarles, The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An
Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2017), 684–88.
33
James D. Douglass (general ed.), The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church Second
Edition (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1978), 240–41; James D. Douglass (general editor), The Illustrated
Bible Dictionary Vol. 1 (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1980), 304–5.; Merrill F. Unger, Unger’s Bible
Dictionary (Chicago: Moody Press, 1985), 214.
34
Frank L. Cross, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (London: Oxford University Press,
1958), 313.
35
Craig S. Keener, IVP New Testament Background Commentary, 2nd Edition (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press, 2014), 571.
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intellectuals often distinguished kinds of causation, including material (‘from’),

instrumental (‘through’), modal (‘in’ or ‘by’) and purpose (‘for’); Paul employs three
of these for Jesus here.” 36
Bruce further notes in a lengthy discourse on the “Colossian Heresy” that this
declaration of the preexistence of Christ was necessary due to the heretical confusion
having its possible roots and origins as coming from these Jewish sects, Greek pagan
philosophies, and even Christian gnostic sources. 37 That the “Colossian Heresy”
directly influenced the statement of Christology in Colossians 1:16 may be evidenced
by the usage of κυριότητες in Colossians 1:16. In three of the four places where
κυριότητες, a derivative of κύριος, appears (Eph 1:21; Col 1:16; 2 Pet 2:10), it seems
to be directly related to angelic authorities. 38 Thus, when Paul demonstrates Christ’s
supremacy as Creator over all things, this statement is not limited to the physical
realm. Christ’s supremacy is over all created entities in the unseen spiritual realm as
well. In this regard, Bruce says,

Probably with special reference to the “Colossian heresy” it is now emphasized

that, if all things were created by Christ, then those spiritual powers which
received such prominence in that heresy must have been created by him. The
denizens of the upper realms as well as the inhabitants of earth owe their being
to his creative power—the invisible forces of the spirit world as well as the
visible and material order. Whether invisible or visible, all had Christ as their
original creator, and all have him as their final disposer. 39

Indeed, not only are these fallen angelic powers created entities, but we have the
victorious declaration concerning these creatures in Colossians 2:15 that, “When He
had disarmed the rulers and authorities, He made a public display of them, having
triumphed over them through Him.”
Concerning religious legalism and angelic powers, Colossians 2 provides the
reader clarity on circumcision (vv. 11–14), Christ’s defeat of principalities and
powers (v.15), food, drink, new moons, sabbaths (vv.16–17), false humility and the
worship of angels (v.18), and ascetic measures causing a neglect of the body (vv.19–
23). Yet, the reader should note that the clarification on the issues of doctrine and
practice occurs after Paul writes the high Christology of chapter 1. Paul’s Christology
lays the groundwork for his discussion on the false teaching and the practical issues
it posed for the Colossian church. Christ’s work of creation and sustaining His
creation is part of the counter to such issues. Thomas Manton notes,

The design of God was that the whole creation should be put in subjection to the
Word incarnate—not only this lower world, wherein man is concerned, but the

36
Keener, IVP New Testament Background Commentary, 571.
37
Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, 81.
38
TDNT states regarding κυριότης, that it denotes “Power or position as lord” and “In the NT its
first use is for the members of a class of angels.” See Werner Foerster and Gottfried Quell, “Κύριος, Κυρία,
Κυριακός, Κυριότης, Κυριεύω, Κατακυριεύω,” in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, edited
by Gerhard Kittle, Geoffrey W. Bromiley, and Gerhard Friedrich (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing
Co., 1964), 3:1039.
39
Bruce, The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, 74.
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upper world also. Our Redeemer, who hath bought us, hath an interest in all
things that may concern us, that they may be disposed of to his own glory and
our good and advantage. All are at the making and at the disposal of our Lord
Jesus Christ. 40

Christ’s work of creation gives Him sovereignty over all creation and is the perfect
antidote to a heresy that elevates creation beyond its appropriate place.

Theological and Practical Application of Christ as Creator and Sustainer

What are some of the consequences of Christ as Creator and Sustainer? There
are four primary applications that develop directly from Colossians 1:16–17 and its
teaching on this doctrine. First, because Christ created all things and sustains all
things, all things are subject to Him. Second, because all things are subject to Christ,
all things must worship Christ. Third, the pinnacle of Christ’s creation work is the
creation of new life in the dead sinner in the work of regeneration, and His sustaining
that sinner for him to grow in the joy that is in eternal life. Fourth, Christ’s work as
Creator-Sustainer demonstrates His Providence in relation to all things.

All Things Subordinate to Christ

First, because Christ created all things, all things are put in subjection to the
Word incarnate, for His own glory and for our ultimate good. We are told in Hebrews
2:8, “You have put all things in subjection under his feet, for in subjecting all things
to him, He left nothing that is not subject to him…” Notably, this passage emphasizes
the preeminence of Christ over angels by opening with the question, “For He did not
subject to angels the world to come, concerning which we are speaking” (Heb 2:5).
The author of Hebrews extends the flow of the previous chapter that concerns
Christ’s supremacy over angels, an argument that begins with the work of Christ as
Creator and Sustainer (1:2–3).
In contrast to pagan or open-theist versions of merely the reworking of
preexistent materials or the reduction of a primeval chaos to order, the amazing
beauty and life of the original creation ex nihilo (“out of nothing”) is here ascribed to
Jesus Christ. What had no existence before the creation and space-time-mass
continuum was brought into being through the eternal Son of God. The universe did
not exist until God commanded it to be: “He spoke and it was done” (Ps 33:9–11).
Every form of matter and life owes its origin to the Son of God.
Paul’s words in Colossians 2:18, “Let no one keep defrauding you of your prize
by delighting in self-abasement and the worship of the angels, taking his stand on
visions he has seen, inflated without cause by his fleshly mind,” are directly
applicable today. The inclination of humans to want to worship angels because of
their might and power is both illustrated and rebuked by the testimony of John toward
the end of his revelatory experience: “And when I heard and saw, I fell down to
worship at the feet of the angel who showed me these things. But he said to me, ‘Do

40
Thomas Manton, The Complete Works of Thomas Manton, Vol. 1 (Birmingham, AL: Solid Ground
Christian Books, 2008), 438.
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not do that. I am a fellow servant of yours and of your brethren the prophets and of
those who heed the words of this book. Worship God’” (Rev 22:9). While angels are
noble, powerful, and spiritual creatures, we must also keep in mind that they are the
work of Christ’s hands. And when Hebrews 1:3 says that Christ “upholds all things
by the word of His power,” we should take note that the sustaining cause of all,
including angels, is Christ. As with all visible creation, the angels also live in a
continual dependence upon Christ as their Creator and Sustainer, and without His
upholding influence, they would soon be annihilated. Indeed, angels are dependently
and constantly in God’s worshipful service: “Bless the Lord, you His angels, mighty
in strength, who perform His word, obeying the voice of His word!” (Ps 103:20).
Every created entity, including angels, is subject to Christ because of His work as
Creator-Sustainer.

Worship

A second implication of Christ’s supremacy as Creator-Sustainer builds upon

the first. Because all things are subject to the one who created them and sustains
them, all things must worship that same person. Christ deserves the worship of all
creation because of His role as Creator and Sustainer. One must consider the words
of John when in Revelation 4:11 he writes, “Worthy are You, our Lord and our God,
to receive glory and honor and power; for You created all things, and because of Your
will they existed, and were created.” The elders before the heavenly throne who
proclaimed Christ’s worthiness, began with His work in creating the universe. This
act exhibits His glory in the seemingly infinite complexity of all the systems of the
universe in both the biological and physical aspects of creation. Paul said, “His
invisible attributes, His eternal power and divine nature, have been clearly seen,
being understood through what has been made” (Rom 1:20).
Honor is rightly due to Christ from His elect who ascribe and acknowledge His
perfections and power displayed in the creation because in performing it, He
demonstrated His omnipotence and awe-inspiring creativity. And thirdly, we have
the reason: “of Your will they existed, and were created” (Rev 4:11). In other words,
all things were created for His own good pleasure and according to His own will, not
out of necessity, because He is completely self-sufficient (aseity). In fact, the chief
verse often cited for God’s self-sufficiency also follows the Creator-Sustainer
formula: “The God who made the world and all things in it, since He is Lord of
heaven and earth, does not dwell in temples made with hands; nor is He served by
human hands, as though He needed anything, since He Himself gives to all people
life and breath and all things” (Acts 17:24–25). All that exists is of His good pleasure
and is done solely according to the counsel of His own will.
Since Christ is above all things, then we should prefer Him above all things. This
admonition is of great use to draw our hearts and minds away from all temporal and
earthly things that so easily distract and discourage us. We should fix our eyes upon
Christ and after Him we should diligently seek, because He is the first and the last,
the beginning and the end. It is for an everlasting blessedness and for the enjoyment
of an eternal God that our souls were made. Thus, we have the great statement of
faith in the Westminster Larger Catechism, “Man’s chief and highest end is to glorify
296 | Christ as Creator and Sustainer

God, and to fully enjoy him forever.” 41 And concerning the benefits received through
Christ’s creation and sustaining of all things, it is imperative upon humanity, created
in God’s image, to respond in thankfulness. We are the only earthly creatures that
verbally can give thanks to Christ. Unfortunately, great swaths of humanity including
many professing Christians have few thoughts or care of praise and thanksgiving to
God who has numbered the hairs of their heads. For many in this world, God is
removed from their sight, because they look for all their perceived needs from the
creation and not the Creator. However, a right view of Christ and His care for us will
cause praise and thanksgiving to God, who determines the strength of our lives and
the length of our days. And we will also acknowledge that every good gift comes
from Him who hears our prayers and causes our lives to continue to exist every
moment.

Christ as Creator-Sustainer in Regeneration and Sanctification

Third, in addition to Christ’s work of creation of the universe and all it contains,
Christ’s work of creation is evidenced in the work of regeneration and sanctification.
The work of regeneration by the power of Christ is fundamentally a new creation,
which carries scriptural allegory with God’s handiwork in the Genesis 1 account
towards His own ends and purposes. Ephesians 2:10 says, “For we are His
workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared
beforehand so that we would walk in them.” Also note the usage of Genesis 1:1
language in 2 Corinthians 4:6, “For God, who said, ‘Light shall shine out of
darkness,’ is the One who has shone in our hearts to give the Light of the knowledge
of the glory of God in the face of Christ.” Describing regeneration in terms similar to
Genesis 1, Paul argues that God’s creative power creates life in the dead sinner’s
heart. In the next chapter of 2 Corinthians, Paul relates the believer’s union with
Christ to the work of new creation: “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new
creature…” (2 Cor 5:17). The Scriptures present Christ’s work in salvation as a
creative work. What a profound thought to contemplate our regeneration in this light
since such an effect comes from Christ who is of infinite power, wisdom, and
goodness, so that a depraved and fallen man may be recreated with a capacity to love,
please, and serve God. What was lost in the first created man, Adam, can only be
recovered by Christ our Creator and Redeemer: “For as in Adam all die, so also in
Christ all will be made alive” (1 Cor 15:22).
Furthermore, if the fear and reverence of this awesome Creator is the essence
and first place of true wisdom, to whom should we seek for more power and wisdom
in our ongoing sanctification but from the all-wise Creator Christ? The Scriptures
employ the creative work of God as one of the grounds for continued growth in
holiness. The parallel letter to Colossians, that is Ephesians, depicts the work of
salvation as a creative work that results in sanctification. Paul writes, “For we are His
workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works…” (Eph 2:10). This text
parallels the words of Colossians 1:16 by employing the passive form of κτίζω and
the phrase “in Christ” (κτισθέντες ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ). Being created in Christ in

41
Westminster Confession of Faith, The Larger Catechism (Glasgow: Free Presbyterian
Publications, 1985), 129.
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salvation results in the work of sanctification to good works. Later, Paul continues,
“and put on the new self, which in the likeness of God has been created in
righteousness and holiness of the truth” (Eph 4:24). Again, Paul uses κτίζω to refer
to the state of a new believer. That person is created in the image of Christ, and
continues to grow into that image until glorification.

Christ and Providence

Finally, Colossians 1:16–17 demonstrates Christ’s activity in working out His

Providence. The Scripture is clear, God is the Creator and Sustainer of all things. In
this respect, Daniel rebukes Belshazzar, king of Babylon, for his blasphemous
idolatry, saying, “But the God in whose hand are your life-breath and all your ways,
you have not glorified” (Dan 5:23). Paul also sets God forth as Creator and Sustainer
in his evangelism to the idolaters at Athens, saying, “Therefore what you worship in
ignorance, this I proclaim to you. The God who made the world and all things in it,
since He is Lord of heaven and earth, does not dwell in temples made with hands;
nor is He served by human hands, as though He needed anything, since He Himself
gives to all people life and breath and all things” (Acts 17:23–25). Moses
acknowledges God’s providence in delivering and sustaining the Israelites, as he
says, “Was it I who conceived all this people? Was it I who brought them forth, that
You should say to me, ‘Carry them in your bosom as a nurse carries a nursing infant,
to the land which You swore to their fathers?’” (Num 11:12). Yet, the question
Colossians 1:16–17 would have us ponder is, “How often do we consider that our
very being, life, and daily operations upon this earth would utterly cease if it were
not for the sustaining hand of Christ?” He is truly Lord over all things, but Christ also
gives us our very being and existence and does preserve and keep us until we will be
taken out of this earth to heavenly glory.
In the doctrine of the Godhead, this respect is due not only to God the Father,
but our Lord Jesus Christ as noted in Colossians 1:17. Why must all things subsist
and be upheld by Christ our Creator? Primarily, because preservation is a continuance
of the creative power that was exhibited during the creation week and a logical
extension thereof. Christ’s purpose and will in creation brought a thing to exist, but
His will and providence in preservation makes it continue to exist. You could also
say that the same omnipotency and efficacy exhibited by God in the original creation
is necessary also to sustain it. Nothing can come into existence without Christ and
the will of God, and nothing can continue to exist without His power and good
pleasure.
Christ sustains all life not only directly but also indirectly by providentially
providing the means that all creatures need. It is impossible to cut off the dependence
of any created entity, whether life or non-life, from Christ because in the final
analysis, no created thing has self-sufficiency to maintain and support itself. While
devices of mankind’s engineering may exist for a season without the engineer, all
things in nature depend upon the omnipotent God who made them because they have
the entirety of their whole being and continuing function from Him. In fact, at this
stage of our scientific understanding of physics, we still do not know exactly what
keeps the subatomic particles of atoms from flying apart. Thus, if God were to
withdraw His upholding power, the creation would cease to exist because it has no
298 | Christ as Creator and Sustainer

other being than what God is pleased to bestow upon it. Unless we acknowledge
Christ’s intimate presence with us and His preservation of all things, the activities of
this life will degenerate into a vain and needless superstition. A cold and careless lack
of respect toward God concerning our continual dependence on Him every moment
leads nowhere but to a practical atheism. Thus, we should establish a practical
reverence and regular habit of acknowledging Christ’s providential upholding of all
things. This brings about trust and dependence in His goodness and care for relief in
all our predicaments and necessities. When we relinquish ourselves from all worldly
confidences and put all our trust in Him, we will also at all times be constant in prayer
and supplication seeing that all things subsist by Him.
TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 299–308

REVIEWS
MacArthur, John. Jonah & Nahum. The MacArthur Old Testament Commentary.
Los Angeles, CA: The Master’s Seminary Press, 2024. 255 pp., $30.00
Hardcover.

MacArthur, John. Zechariah. The MacArthur Old Testament Commentary. Los

Angeles, CA: The Master’s Seminary Press, 2023. 465 pp., $34.99 Hardcover.

Reviewed by Marc Daniel Rivera, Independent Reviewer.

The MacArthur Old Testament Commentary Series has officially launched with
its inaugural volumes, featuring comprehensive studies on the books of Jonah,
Nahum, and Zechariah. These groundbreaking volumes mark not only the beginning
of this new series but also stand among the first publications from the John
MacArthur Publishing Group through its imprint The Master’s Seminary Press, a
publisher dedicated to producing biblical resources that bring the transforming truth
of God’s Word to the lives of His people.
Authored by bestselling Bible teacher John MacArthur, this series represents a
significant advancement in biblical scholarship. The MacArthur Old Testament
Commentary Series is designed to provide an exhaustive, verse-by-verse exploration
of the Old Testament Scriptures, ensuring that readers gain a deep understanding of
each text’s historical and theological content.

Jonah & Nahum

John MacArthur’s commentaries on Jonah and Nahum reflect his steadfast

commitment to the faithful exposition of Scripture. The book of Jonah is widely
known for its narrative of a prophet swallowed by a great fish, but this volume dives
deeper into the theological implications of Jonah’s mission to Nineveh. MacArthur
carefully explains that Jonah’s story is not just about obedience or disobedience but
also about God’s boundless grace. He highlights how Jonah’s reluctance and eventual
proclamation to the Ninevites reveals God’s desire to extend salvation beyond the
boundaries of Israel, to Gentiles, and to all who repent and believe.
MacArthur’s expository approach meticulously details the prophetic symbolism
in Jonah’s narrative, drawing parallels to the work of Christ. The text expounds on
how the sign of Jonah foreshadows Christ’s death and resurrection, offering salvation
to all who acknowledge their sinfulness and turn to God in repentance. This

299
300 | Reviews

interpretation aligns with MacArthur’s theological stance that the Old Testament
consistently points toward the coming Messiah, Jesus Christ, making the book of
Jonah a significant precursor to the New Testament’s message of redemption.
The volume then transitions to Nahum, a sequel to Jonah’s story, set over a
century later. Here, MacArthur contrasts the themes of grace and judgment. While
Jonah celebrates the repentance of Nineveh, Nahum delivers a sobering message of
divine justice. The Ninevites’ return to wickedness and their subsequent downfall
exemplify God’s righteous judgment against sin. MacArthur’s analysis is precise and
engaging, emphasizing that God’s patience and mercy do not negate His justice.
Nahum’s prophecies provide a theological counterbalance to Jonah, reminding
readers that God’s character encompasses both grace and righteousness.

Zechariah

The commentary on the book of Zechariah offers a comprehensive expository

study of one of the most eschatologically dense books of the Old Testament.
MacArthur approaches Zechariah with a pastor’s heart and a scholar’s mind. The
commentary covers Zechariah’s role in comforting the Israelites after their return
from Babylonian exile and his prophetic visions that forecast significant events in
both near and distant futures.
MacArthur’s treatment of Zechariah’s prophecies is thorough and thoughtful. He
traces how the prophet’s messages span from the rebuilding of the temple in
Jerusalem to the coming of the Messiah and the end times. MacArthur connects
Zechariah’s ancient prophecies with future eschatological events, such as the coming
of Alexander the Great, the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, the tyranny of the
Antichrist, and the battle of Armageddon. MacArthur’s interpretation is heavily
Christological, consistently pointing readers to the fulfillment of these prophecies in
Jesus Christ.
The focus on Christ in the book of Zechariah is particularly compelling.
MacArthur highlights key messianic prophecies, including Christ’s entry into
Jerusalem on a donkey, His betrayal for thirty pieces of silver, and His sacrificial
death. Additionally, MacArthur delves into the future return of Christ to the Mount
of Olives and the establishment of His earthly kingdom. This focus on the Messiah
not only aligns with the traditional Christian interpretation but also provides a
cohesive narrative that ties the Old and New Testaments together.

Summary

The MacArthur Old Testament Commentary Series stands out for its scholarly
excellence, precision, and clarity. MacArthur’s methodical approach ensures that
each verse is examined within its historical, grammatical, and theological context.
His commitment to expository preaching is evident throughout, as he seeks to unveil
the text’s meaning in a way that is both academically rigorous and spiritually
enriching.
These commentaries are not just for scholars or pastors but are also intended for
lay readers who seek to deepen their understanding of Scripture. MacArthur provides
practical applications alongside theological insights, encouraging readers to reflect
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 301

on their own lives in light of the biblical truths presented. This dual approach ensures
that the volumes are both informative and transformative, aligning with the
publisher’s goal of bringing the transformative truth of God’s Word to His people.
These two introductory volumes from the series are crafted with the same attention
to detail as the New Testament Commentary series. Whereas the New Testament
volumes feature red hardback covers with dust jackets, the Old Testament series
comes in matching blue hardback covers and dust jackets, equally elegantly designed.
I also appreciate that the text blocks are smyth-sewn, allowing the books to lay flat
when open, and that they use highly opaque cream paper, which enhances the overall
reading experience.
Overall, Jonah & Nahum and Zechariah are a solid introduction to the
MacArthur Old Testament Commentary Series. These volumes are valuable
resources for Bible study and expository preaching—must-haves for any Christian
library!

Naselli, Andrew David. How to Read a Book: Advice for Christian Readers.
Moscow, ID: Canon Press, 2024. 206 pp., $21.95 Hardback.

Reviewed by Daniel Clouthier, Assistant to the Executive Director, John MacArthur

Publishing Group.

Andrew Naselli currently teaches systematic theology and New Testament at

Bethlehem College and Seminary. In addition to that, he also serves as one of the
pastors of The North Church in Mounds View, Minnesota. Both positions readily
qualify him to speak authoritatively on the subject of his book How to Read a Book:
Advice for Christian Readers. With an endless supply of material to read yet a limited
amount of time in one’s life, the author seeks to advise Christians how they might
take their reading to the next level for the glory of God.
Sharing the same title as a familiar work written by Mortimer Adler and Charles
van Doren, Naselli’s book is distinctly Christian. 1 He distinguishes the two works by
noting seven features: 1) his is written by a Christian, 2) to Christians, 3) while being
broader in scope (Adler and van Doren focus on reading for increased learning
whereas he gives emphasis to entertainment), 4) as well as being more accessible, 5)
concise, 6) personal, and 7) relevant. In light of his aim, this work stands as both a
charge to tolle lege (“Take up and read”) while also offering encouragement for those
who desire and/or need to read yet struggle to do so in any effective manner.
The main body of the book divides into 4 chapters with each addressing a
different question related to the pursuit of reading: why (13–22), how (23–86), what
(87–138), and when (139–158). The reader may or may not prefer Naselli’s fond
affection for numbered lists which direct the entire flow of the book. So structured in
this fashion is the whole of the book that a careful study of the Expanded Table of
Contents might suffice for reading the rest of the book. Love it or hate it, this style

1
Adler, Mortimer J., and Charles Van Doren. How to Read a Book. Revised and updated edition
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972).
302 | Reviews

effectively isolates the various topics so that the reader can easily refer back to this
book for its insights into specific areas of discussion.
Taking on the question of why you should read in chapter one, Naselli sets forth
three reasons to convince the reader that it is worth the effort. First, Christians are to
read to live. He connects this reason primarily to the reading of Scripture. Reiterating
the teaching of Jesus, that “Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that
comes from the mouth of God” (Matt 4:3–4; Deut 8:3), Naselli highlights the need
in the believer’s life to truly live. Moving on, he argues that one should also read to
grow. The reader is shown six ways that the practice helps them mature: 1)
intellectually, 2) in their vision of reality, 3) spiritually, 4) emotionally, 5) in their
communication, and 6) in their vocation. The last reason he presents as to why one
should read is for the enjoyment of it. In Piper-esk fashion, Naselli’s Christian
hedonism motivates this point showcasing the glory of God in our satisfaction in
Him. This section gives a very basic yet straightforward argument that should leave
the reader convinced and also motivated to read, asking how they might do it better.
To which the following chapter gives attention.
As in any process of learning a new skill, focusing on its various components
will in time improve one’s overall performance. When it comes to skillful reading,
he gives seven aspects that make it up: 1) reading carefully, 2) reading at different
levels, 3) reading systematically, 4) reading repeatedly, 5) reading without
distractions, 6) reading with eyes to see and ears to hear, and 7) reading with serious
joy. Chapter 2 is the heart of the book and presumably the reason why most people
made the purchase as it bears the title’s name. This section alone is worth the price
of admission. Drawing on his personal experience, Naselli provides gems of insight
for the aspiring skilled reader. Perhaps the most beneficial portion in this chapter for
this current author was the explanation of reading at different levels (survey, macro,
and micro). The quick evaluation of survey-level reading is also referred to as “pre-
reading” (53). While some may hesitate to consider this as reading, Naselli argues
several reasons as to why this is a legitimate form of reading that everyone should
integrate. What liberation comes as he encourages the reader that it is not necessary
to read every single word of a book! Bringing in a more focused approach, Macro-
level reading builds on surveying. In this process you read every word, but in an
accelerated manner. Lastly, micro-level reading delves even further into a text and
incorporates annotations, of which he provides a helpful sampling of his own
notetaking process.
Armed with the know-how, Naselli next addresses what should be read. Given
the limited supply of time in life, readers should wisely determine what they should
invest their precious time into reading. At the heart of his recommendations is the
goal of personal development for the glory of God. It should be no surprise that Bible
tops the list yet stretches from the various branches of theology to history, and even
to fiction. His case for the presence of fiction literature one’s library should be
appreciated, as it should be seen as a gift from God to enjoy. In short, read for joy.
He closes his book with a couple helpful appendices. Of note among those is his
section explaining how he uses social media. This unique section should be of great
use to the modern pastor who prayerfully considers his presence online.
The benefit that comes from listening in on a voracious reader’s approach and
reading hacks that he has picked up over the years are many and will serve the church
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 303

well. An easy read, this book is commended to you as a great tool to help readers
tackle the daunting task that stands before them. With the abundance of material that
is worthy of being read, Naselli’s work shows the necessity of using one’s time
wisely and choosing wisely what is to be read, knowing that what you read influences
you.

Cooper, Tim. When Christians Disagree: Lessons from the Fractured Relationship
of John Owen and Richard Baxter. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2024. 184 pp.,
$18.99 Paperback.

Reviewed by Karl Walker, Associate Editor, The Master’s Seminary.

Tim Cooper’s When Christians Disagree: Lessons from the Fractured

Relationship of John Owen and Richard Baxter plunges into the quarrel between two
ministerial icons of 17th century England. Cooper, a professor of church history at the
University of Otago, has written a much larger work on Baxter and Owen, and here
reduces that work into a book palatable for the lay person. 2 Renowned for their
ministry in the pastorate and with the pen, Owen and Baxter’s contentious
relationship offers the observer a wealth of wisdom for navigating disagreement.
Cooper’s analysis, though exposing the glaring weaknesses of both men, does not
seek further division. Rather, his aim is the promotion of unity, “hop[ing] their
conflict can help us understand and manage our own difficulties with each other so
that we might be… ‘of the same mind, having the same love, being in full accord and
of one mind’ (Phil 2:2)” (7).
Cooper begins the narrative reminding the reader of who John Owen and Richard
Baxter were: two good men (ch. 1). These men had much in common: they suffered
greatly for Christ, pastored faithfully, and wrote extensively, of which we benefit
even today. Cooper discourages their pronounced disagreement from hindering our
reception of either of their ministries. And yet at the same time, it is precisely the
fruitfulness of their ministry that issues a warning call to Christians everywhere.
Since even these two faithful ministers were susceptible to bickering, quarreling, and
strife, readers should learn from their example to more wisely steward their
differences.
Chapters two through four recount preliminary factors that shaped Owen and
Baxter’s conflict. Experience (ch. 2), personality (ch. 3), and theology (ch. 4) pushed
them apart prior to their first interaction. Baxter and Owen both lived through the
English Civil War of the mid 1600’s, though it affected them quite differently.
Baxter’s ministry to profane soldiers nurtured a desire to counter antinomianism, a
primary concern in his writing and correspondence. Furthermore, Baxter’s proximity
to much of the fighting exposed him to many of the horrors war brings. Owen,
however, was much removed from these experiences. Ministering in a location
secluded from significant fighting, Owen was free from many of the effects of war
and able to celebrate the war’s theological ‘accomplishments.’ He interpreted the

2
Tim Cooper, John Owen, Richard Baxter, and the Formation of Nonconformity (Surrey, England:
Ashgate Publishing, 2011).
304 | Reviews

same event, not as a blight upon the nation, but as a glorious triumph in moving
England away from Arminianism and Socinianism. He sought to preserve the
theological gains brought about by the war. Yet for Owen, these theological battles
were also intensely personal. Though the full details of his inner turmoil remain
unclear, Cooper suggests that Owen’s struggle concerned his enjoyment of the
assurance of salvation. One might see how the doctrines of Arminianism and
Socianisim would only have exacerbated Owen’s personal angst. These two
divergent aims, Baxter confronting Antinomianism and Owen countering
Arminianism and Socinianism, combined with opposite personalities paved the road
to disagreement.
Chapters five through seven summarize the encounters between Owen and
Baxter, from their first point of contact (ch. 5), to their repeated collisions (ch. 6), to
the way their memory of past events shaped their final interactions (ch. 7). Owen and
Baxter’s first point of contact was through print, not face-to-face. It was this medium,
the written word, that fueled many of the head-on collisions that were to come. Their
in-person meetings were no better than those on the page. These short exchanges
were characterized by presumption, ignorance, and strangely enough, accident. As
Cooper sifts through the layers of animosity, irony, and bitterness, he concludes that
Owen and Baxter’s relationship is paradigmatic. “Those who are the closest to each
other have the bitterest disagreements—the smallest differences assume an overlarge
importance, while outsiders look on and wonder what all the fuss is about” (122).
And thus, Cooper concludes with five suggestions for the reader to assist those
embroiled in strife. Christians in conflict should look for a wise choice of mediator,
concentrate on their commonalities, heed the Scriptures that exhort us to unity,
humble themselves, and recognize the obscuring nature of proximity.
Upon assessing this book, several points are worthy of reflection. First, Cooper’s
presentation of this historical controversy is highly commendable. The contents of
Baxter and Owen’s relationship span many years, cover a variety of theological
issues, and are found throughout numerous writings. However, Cooper has
effectively distilled the complexities of their disagreement into a clear, readable
summary. The reflection questions at the end of each chapter make the book suitable
for usage in a group setting, particularly applicable to leadership teams in the local
church. Each chapter is laid out in a structured fashion, often examining Baxter and
Owen separately, and then bringing them together in comparison. This permits the
reader to clearly see each man in his own right, and what may have contributed to
their disagreement. Though Cooper’s ordering of the content may slightly obscure a
linear timeline, he includes a side-by-side chronology at the end of the book that
greatly assists the reader in grasping the flow of their disagreement. Furthermore,
though Cooper seeks the benefit of the present reader, he avoids mapping Baxter and
Owen’s controversy onto any specific disagreement among Christians today. His
reluctance to force specific applications strengthens his argument and permits better
reflection on the current issues of our time.
Second, Cooper’s narrative places a high priority on experience in shaping the
disagreement between Baxter and Owen. The English Civil War of the 1600’s played
a significant role in Baxter’s theology, while Owen’s theology was constructed from
his personal turmoil. To be clear, Cooper is not suggesting a fatalistic approach to
disagreement that brandishes experience as the end-all excuse for disunity. He
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 305

tempers his emphasis on experience by noting the role of our actions: “This is not to
say that we are merely passive victims of the outside world: we are also shaped by
the choices we ourselves have made” (38). However, Cooper’s argument leaves one
wondering how the Scripture shapes our theology in relation to personal experience.
Additionally, it seems a distinction should be made between Baxter and Owen’s
theology, and their theological opponents. Elsewhere in the book, Cooper concedes
that Owen and Baxter’s theologies were not mutually exclusive. But at times his
explanation of their disagreement zooms in on their theology rather than their
theological opponents. 3 Might it be seen that Baxter and Owen’s theological
opponents (Antinomianism vs. Arminianism and Socianism), rather than their
theologies, were shaped by their experiences, leading to their separation? In respect
to Cooper’s analysis, one’s theological opponents are often opposite to one’s
theology. But a clearer distinguishment between the two may have assisted the reader
in analyzing Baxter and Owen’s disagreement.
Finally, the reader must accept that Cooper’s book raises thought-provoking
questions without providing the answers one may desire. When Christians Disagree
spotlights a negative example (Baxter and Owen) emphasizing what one should
avoid, rather than highlighting positive behavior to emulate. In turn, the reader may
wonder: How should I respond to someone with an opposite personality? What
should I do when my experiences are drastically different than the person I disagree
with? It is only by inference from the negative that Cooper may offer suggestions for
Christians to move forward in the midst of conflict. This method has an inherent
limit. It cannot provide the hope that comes through success. Surely, one may learn
from another’s mistakes, but without seeing the resolution of conflict fleshed out, he
may be left to his own pursuit through trial and error. This reiterates the benefit of a
central component of the book: the reflection questions. Engaging with this book in
Christian community should prove fruitful for those seeking to formulate how they
might respond when Christians disagree.

Dirks, Paul. Is There Anything Good About Hell? Our Discomfort About Hell and
Its Ultimate Good. NP: Decretum Books, 2021. 229 pp, $19.95 Paperback.

Reviewed by John Tucker, Pastor of Providence Baptist Church, Kelowna, British

Columbia, Canada.

Paul Dirks, author of Is There Anything Good About Hell?, pastors in British
Columbia, Canada, a hotbed of social and theological liberalism. Dirks is a champion
of biblical values, notably on sexuality and gender, on which he has written
extensively and has addressed the Canadian Senate. With this book he sets out to

3
The reader should compare Cooper’s headings of chapter 4 (“Baxter’s Theology of Salvation” and
“Owen’s Theology of Salvation”) in When Christians Disagree with the headings of chapter 2 (“Owen v.
the Arminians and Socinians” and “Richard Baxter v. the Antinomians”) in his fuller work on this same
topic, see Tim Cooper, John Owen, Richard Baxter, and the Formation of Nonconformity (Surrey,
England: Ashgate Publishing, 2011). Cooper intends these two chapters to be parallel, see Tim Cooper,
When Christians Disagree: Lessons from the Fractured Relationship of John Owen and Richard Baxter
(Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2024), 158.
306 | Reviews

address one of the most misunderstood and maligned doctrines in society today, the
doctrine of hell. This societal misunderstanding and maligning have infected the
visible church, leading to misgivings which, the author laments, has led many to deny
the doctrine of eternal punishment. Dirks was initially motivated to write this book
by the discomfort many Christians have with the doctrine of hell, even among the
theologically Reformed. This sentiment stirred Dirks’ desire not to prove the
existence of hell, but rather to defend the goodness of hell, a more important task
since this doctrine is essential to the biblical doctrine of God.
In chapter 1, Dirks outlines the doctrine of hell, helpfully defining the concepts
of Sheol and Gehenna. He points out that the positive reference to Sheol as the
intermediate state is tied to hope in the resurrection. He provides a survey of the New
Testament material pertaining to hell with a focus on the teachings of Jesus. With
clear biblical exegesis Dirks proves definitively that hell is the corporeal, conscious,
eternal punishment as the necessary consequence for sin. He highlights the essential
link between hell and the gospel—Jesus Christ suffered infinite agony under the
wrath of God for our infinite sin as an eternal being of infinite worth.
After summarizing the doctrine of hell, Dirks divides the remainder of the book
into two parts. Part 1 (chs. 2–4) addresses our discomfort with hell, and in part 2 (chs.
5–10) he sets out to prove the goodness of hell. In chapter 2, his exegesis shows that
our discomfort first begins with a misunderstanding of the love of God. This
misunderstanding produces a failure to reconcile the apparent paradox between hell
and the love of God. Similarly, in chapter 3 he examines the discomfort with
seemingly ‘good’ people being sent to hell. While properly showing that human
beings retain the image of God and are beneficiaries of common grace, Dirks reminds
the reader that human beings are not, in themselves, good. In defining sin as privation,
he emphasizes the disparity between the goodness of God and sinful humanity. Hell
is necessary because of the radical difference between “a good person and a person
who does good things” (45). In chapter 4 Dirks charitably allows that there is a “sort
of validity” (50) to the question “how can a just God allow people who do evil into
heaven?” However, he counters this question by revealing it to be a misunderstanding
of God’s justice and righteousness. Any objection to the doctrine of eternal
punishment is corrected in light of God’s verdict on the believer as well as on the
unbeliever. This verdict is not based on their works but on faith in Christ and His
work.
With part 2, Dirks begins to prove the goodness of hell directly. First, Dirks
demonstrates the motivational nature of hell (ch. 5). The horrors of hell provide an
impetus to flee from sin to Christ despite the criticisms of some theologians that a
fear of hell actually detracts from the beauty of worshiping God in His own right or
confuses the doctrine of justification by faith. Dirks’ argues that the depravity of
unregenerate man requires hell. Even believers, Dirks explains, are motivated by the
biblical teaching on hell.
Next, he demonstrates how evil necessitates hell from the point of view of the
victim (ch. 6). He focuses on man as the victim of sin. Ultimately, sin against man
earns the wrath of God because of the value invested in man as God’s image-bearer.
This leads to a discussion of the love of God that necessitates eternal punishment in
hell (ch. 7). His love is holy and just. For God to be God, He must hate evil and
evildoers. Because of God’s greatness, sin deserves a fitting punishment (ch. 8). Here
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 307

Dirks takes up Anselm’s “infinite honour-infinite sin” defence of hell (133). Sin is
infinitely wicked because it is committed against the infinitely holy God. All sin is
ultimately against God as David says, “Against you, you only, have I sinned and done
what is evil in your sight” (Ps 51:4).
Chapter 9 examines the relationship between the doctrine of hell and the mercy
of God. In doing so, Dirks focuses his attention on an exposition of Romans 9. Rather
than exploring the apparent injustice of God’s condemnation of the wicked, Dirks
rightly zeroes in on the fact that Romans 9 is a monument to God’s mercy on the
elect. Chapter 10 brings the book to a close, tying together several of the main themes.
In summary, Dirks succeeds in his stated purpose, to demonstrate the goodness
of hell. He does more, proving not just the goodness of hell but also the necessity of
hell. He does so in a manner that is biblical, gospel-saturated, logical, winsome, and
clear. The book is well-researched with an impressive bibliography, drawing from
the teaching that spans church history, including the early Church Fathers, the
Scholastics, the Reformers, the Puritans and modern theologians. Illustrations are
compelling and drawn from a wide range of sources. He addresses several influential
writings on hell that have wrongly nudged the church away from a biblical
understanding of hell, countering them with numerous passages of Scripture.
That being said, this reviewer has two key criticisms of this book. First, Dirks’
use of theological language is at times ambiguous or incomplete and may distract the
reader from Dirks’ primary purpose of defending the goodness of hell. Several
examples are of note. Dirks writes, “More general evils like disease and death,
earthquakes and tsunamis, also did not originate with God. God is good, and it
follows that He does good” (35). Though this statement is not a major point in his
book, this claim undermines his thesis and goes against the testimony of Scripture
regarding God’s providence. If Dirks is claiming that earthquakes, tsunamis, and
sickness do not originate from God, but come from man’s sin in the Fall, his above
statement needs clarification in its wording. Scripture does testify that God causes
these things to occur, often as a display of judgment upon sin: “I form light and create
darkness; I make well-being and create calamity; I am the Lord, who does all these
things” (cf. Amos 3:6; Lam 3:38; etc.). Furthermore, if the use of earthquakes,
diseases, and other phenomena to judge humanity do not originate from God because
these are not good, then how could God’s ultimate judgment of sinners, hell, also be
good? However, because God does cause these things to occur as judgments upon
sin, they manifest His goodness and are in keeping with the ‘goodness’ of hell.
Elsewhere, Dirks states concerning the Trinity, “the Son’s personal
subordination to the Father in a filial or relational way is a truth” (192). Furthermore,
in the footnotes Dirks rejects the position that Jesus’ statement in John 14:28 (“The
Father is greater than I”) should be attributed to the humanity of Christ (192),
claiming a similar position belonged to John Owen and Jonathan Edwards. If Jesus
is not making a statement of his human nature, in what sense is the divine Son inferior
to the Father? And how does this support the goodness of hell? Again, Dirks presents
a complex historical-theological issue in brief terms, and in a manner not clearly
related to his thesis.
A second issue the reader may encounter is the occasional overstatement
regarding the goodness of hell. For example, Dirks writes, “the final state, including
hell is a helpful and glorious vantage point from which to view everything else…the
308 | Reviews

whole tenor and teaching of Scripture demands it” (181). Certainly, the reader should
live his life in view of his end, but is it a stretch to say that this is the lens whereby
he views everything else? What does it look like to view everything through this lens?
Could viewing all of life through the lens of heaven and hell distract the reader from
a God-centered view of all of life?
Nevertheless, with these caveats in mind, the book is a helpful tool to silence
voices raised against the biblical doctrine of hell. The author graciously and logically
addresses common misunderstandings and misconceptions, in a manner sympathetic
to human nature. It also serves as a tool to help overcome misgivings among
Christians who desire to submit to the biblical testimony of hell but have a natural
aversion to its horrors. In the light of the testimony of Scripture regarding the
attributes of God seen most clearly in the cross of Christ, those misgivings give way
to worship.
TMSJ 35/2 (Fall 2024) 309–313

RECOMMENDED READING BY
THE MASTER’S SEMINARY FACULTY
*****

The following books are recommended by The Master’s Seminary faculty for pastors,
shepherds, students, and all Christians. Some works are academic in nature, while
others are devotional; but they all are edifying and instructive for the life of a believer
seeking to know Christ more and to be more like Christ.

*****

The Person of Christ

by: Donald Macleod

Macleod overviews Christology and its related issues

in a clear, readable manner that proves effective for the
student of Christology.

Macleod, Donald. The Person of Christ. Downers

Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1998.

The Glory of Christ

by: John Owen

Owen exposits John 17:24 and helps the reader behold

the glory of Christ.

Owen, John. The Glory of Christ. Edinburgh, Banner

of Truth Trust, 2021.

309
310 | Recommended Reading

On the Incarnation
by: Saint Athanasius

Athanasius’ On the Incarnation remains a classic for

every serious student of Christology and is paired
with an excellent foreword by C.S. Lewis on the value
of reading old books.

Saint Athanasius. On the Incarnation. Yonkers, NY:

St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2011.

The Messiah in the

Old Testament
by: Walter C. Kaiser, Jr.

Kaiser opens up the richness of messianic theology in

the Old Testament with precision and clarity.

Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. The Messiah in the Old

Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995.

God the Son Incarnate:

The Doctrine of Christ
by: Stephen J. Wellum

God the Son Incarnate demonstrates the foundational

truth that Jesus Christ is God the Son, showing this
both from Scripture and history.

Wellum, Stephen J. God the Son Incarnate: The

Doctrine of Christ. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2016.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 311

The Whole Christ

by: Sinclair Ferguson

The Whole Christ brings the Marrow Controversy

into the realm of the present, showing how the
doctrinal discussions of the past remain important
today, for both the heart of the gospel and the
believer’s assurance of Christ.

Ferguson, Sinclair. The Whole Christ. Wheaton, IL:

Crossway, 2016.

One Perfect Life

by: John MacArthur

One Perfect Life takes the reader on a biographical

tour of the life of Jesus Christ, from the beginning of
the Scriptures to their conclusion.

MacArthur, John. One Perfect Life: The Complete

Story of the Lord Jesus. Nashville, TN: Thomas
Nelson, 2012.

The Person and Work of Christ

by: Benjamin B. Warfield

The Person and Work of Christ displays Warfield’s

robust theology and love for Christ as he outlines the
doctrine of Christology.

Warfied, Benjamin B. The Person and Work of

Christ. Philipsburg, NJ: P&R, 2023.
312 | Recommended Reading

The Heart of Christ

by: Thomas Goodwin

Thomas Goodwin’s The Heart of Christ

demonstrates the abundant love and compassion of
the Savior that comes to us as fallen sinners beset
with weakness.

Goodwin, Thomas. The Heart of Christ. Edinburgh,

Banner of Truth Trust, 2021.

The Search for the Christian

Doctrine of God
by: R. P. C. Hanson

For a serious student, this semi-classic study offers a

good discussion on the Christian Doctrine of God and
the Arian Controversy.

Hanson, R. P. C. The Search for the Christian

Doctrine of God. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic,
2006.

Christ in Christian Tradition

by: Alois Grillmeier

Christ in Christian Tradition discusses the church’s

study of Christ and the deity of Christ from the
Apostolic Age to the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451).

Grillmeier, Alois. Christ in Christian Tradition:

Volume 1: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon.
Atlanta, GA: John Knox, 1975.
The Master’s Seminary Journal | 313

Light in a Dark Place

by: John S. Feinberg

Light in a Dark Place offers an extensive treatment

of the doctrine of Scripture from an evangelical,
inerrantist, and literalist perspective.

Feinbeg, John S. Light in a Dark Place: The Doctrine

of Scripture. Foundations of Evangelical Theology
(Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2018).

Christology:
A Guide for the Perplexed
by: Alan Spence

Introducing the topic of “Christology,” this text

defines the term, traces the early church’s discussion
of the subject, and examines a selection of key
modern scholars on the study of the person of Christ.

Spence, Alan. Christology: A Guide for the

Perplexed. London: T&T Clark, 2013.

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THE MASTER’S SEMINARY JOURNAL

Abner Chou, President

Edited for the President and the Faculty:

Lucas Alemán Carl Hargrove Michael Riccardi

Iosif J. Zhakevich Managing Editor

Los Angeles, California

THE MASTER’S SEMINARY JOURNAL

Editorial: The Christ of Scripture .......................................................................... 151

All That Is in a Name: Daniel’s Deliberate Christology and

The Heavenly Third Party in Job:

The Second Adam and the Necessity for

Are Your Temptations Like Jesus’ Temptations?

An Interview with Iosif J. Zhakevich:

The Significance of the Divine Name in Peter’s Pentecost Sermon...................... 257

Conversations with Jesus: Jesus and Saul ............................................................. 273

Colossians 1:16–17 and the Theological Implications of

Reviews ................................................................................................................. 299

Jonah & Nahum, Zechariah.

How to Read a Book: Advice for Christian Readers

When Christians Disagree: Lessons from the Fractured

Is There Anything Good About Hell?

Recommended Reading......................................................................................... 309

ALL THAT IS IN A NAME:

The book of Daniel exerts tremendous influence upon New Testament

Daniel’s Deliberate Christology

Fundamental to constructing Daniel’s concept of the Son of Man is to establish

The above discussion surveyed chapter by chapter through Daniel, proving

A – The dream of Nebuchadnezzar: four empires and God's future kingdom

The Christology of the Son of Man

Daniel 2: The Son of Man Identified

Daniel 3 and 6: The Son of Man Proven

Daniel 7: The Son of Man as the Final Adam

Daniel 9: The Means to Being the Son of Man

Daniel 10–12: The Certainty of the Son of Man

recognized the figure in Daniel 10 as the one in Ezekiel’s vision.

chariot-throne is more fully described.” 80 Goldingay agrees, “The vision of God

THE HEAVENLY THIRD PARTY IN JOB:

The Heavenly Third Party and Legal Metaphor

The Heavenly Third Party and Justification

The Adjudicator in Job 9

Job 9:2–3: Justification Is Impossible under Normal Circumstances

Job 9:4–28: God’s Transcendent Holiness Makes Justification Impossible

Job 9:33: The Adjudicator Is a Heavenly Third Party

Job 9:34–35: The Adjudicator Enables Forgiveness of Sins and Reconciliation

Job 16:1–17: Job Believes God Is Set against Him

By introducing the concept of a legal witness, Job is continuing the forensic

Job 16:18–22: A Heavenly Witness Who Will Act After Death

The Heavenly Witness Is Also the Adjudicator from Job 9:33–34

Job 19: Job’s Eschatological Hope

Job 19:25–27: Job’s Redeemer Accomplishes Eschatological Justification

The Redeemer Is a Heavenly Third Party Who Saves from Sin

Job’s Redeemer Will Do His Work in the Eschaton

The Work of Job’s Redeemer Will Result in Resurrection and Reconciliation

The Heavenly Mediator and Christ

THE SECOND ADAM AND THE NECESSITY FOR

One of the most theologically rich themes of Scripture as it pertains to Christ is

The Creation Mandate for Dominion of the Earth

Genesis 1—The First Adam’s Mandate Expressed

Genesis 2—The First Adam’s Mandate Illustrated

Genesis 3—The First Adam’s Mandate Failure

The blessing of man’s exalted status in exercising dominion is contrasted to the

The Messianic Dominion of the Earth

Psalms 8, 72, 110

One of the most significant aspects of Psalm 72 is the description of dominion

Daniel adds to the compounding picture of an earthly eschatological dominion over

Christ’s First Advent—The Gospels

The compounding prophetic picture of the Davidic King exercising dominion

ARE YOUR TEMPTATIONS LIKE JESUS’ TEMPTATIONS?

Christianity Today and Mere Orthodoxy

Jesus’ Temptation in the Wilderness

Claim One: Jesus Doubted in the Wilderness

What we learn here is that…Jesus could be tempted—though he did not sin.

Responding to Swoboda and Gupta’s First Claim

When We Are Tempted Like Jesus Was in the Wilderness

Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane

Claim Two: Jesus Doubted in Gethsemane