Biodegradable Polymer Composite Films

for Green Packaging Applications

Shobhit Dixit and Vijay Laxmi Yadav

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Natural Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Biodegradable Polymer Composites Based on Natural Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Strategies for Enhancing the Interfacial Interaction, Preparation Techniques, and Testing
Methods for Polymer/Natural Fiber Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Strategies for Enhancing the Interfacial Interaction for Polymer/Natural Fiber
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Preparation Methods for Green Packaging Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Testing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Conclusions and Future Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Abstract
In present scenario, consumption of indispensable nonbiodegradable plastics has
become a potential threat to the environment. Their use has been growing up at an
alarming rate due to their low cost, easy manufacture, light weight, and water-
resistant nature. Hence, we need to think for restricting the use of indispensable
plastics and find some alternative to minimize the use of nonbiodegradable waste.
Biodegradable polymer composites are composed of polymer and natural fiber.
Natural fibers are used as a reinforcing agent in a polymer matrix for enhancing
the mechanical property of the resultant composites. Many scientists have
reported numerous preparation methods such as compression molding, hand
layup, extrusion, injection molding, and solvent casting method to fulfil the
industrial aspects as compared to synthetic plastics for green packaging applica-
tion. Some strategies are also applied for enhancing the adhesion between

S. Dixit · V. L. Yadav (*)

Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, IIT BHU, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

O. V. Kharissova et al. (eds.), Handbook of Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites for
Energy and Environmental Applications,
[Link]
2 S. Dixit and V. L. Yadav

polymer and natural fiber. After listing the numerous sustainable synthesizing
methods, various testing methods such as water vapor transmission rate, water
vapor permeability, optical characteristics test, thermal stability test, mechanical
stability, and impact strength are presented in this chapter to check the suitability
of green packaging film.

Introduction

Advancement in the field of biotechnology engineering and surging non-

biodegradable polymeric wastes have compelled the researchers to prepare biode-
gradable composites due to their abundant availability and renewability properties
and provide higher mechanical and thermal stabilities to the natural fiber-based
composites as compared to synthetic composites. Biopolymers such as starch,
polylactic acid, and cellulose are used for synthesizing green composites for pack-
aging application (Fig. 1). In addition, these polymers are biodegradable and non-
toxic with remarkable mechanical stability for packaging applications.
aThe present chapter enlightens the use of natural fibers such as hemp, jute, sisal,
coir, banana, and kenaf fibers based biodegradable polymer composites for green
packaging application. Current trend promotes to prepare natural fiber based biode-
gradable composites due to their lightweight, low thermal expansion, biodegradabil-
ity, and high mechanical strength. Higher percentage of cellulose in natural fiber
encourages many scientists to substitute synthetic toxic polymers with

Fig. 1 Classification of biopolymers [2]

Biodegradable Polymer Composite Films for Green Packaging Applications 3

biodegradable natural fiber. Thus, natural fibers may suitably replace the conven-
tional polymers [1].
Sometimes researchers find difficulties to blend natural fiber in polymer matrix
due to characteristics of natural fiber. Generally natural fiber is composed of cellu-
lose, lignin, and hemicellulose. Inherent composition such as lignin and hemicellu-
lose don’t allow natural fiber to successfully blend in polymer matrix. This behavior
of natural fiber signifies the noncompatibility of natural fiber in the matrix. More-
over, this result would weaken the mechanical stability of natural fiber-based
polymer composites. To overcome this problem, many researchers used pre-treatment
strategies for enhancing the interfacial interactions between polymer and natural
fiber (Fig. 2) [3].
Various types of preparation methods such as compression molding, hand layup,
and extrusion, are used to fulfill the industrial aspects. However, synthesized
biocomposites from above methods are comparable to synthetic plastics in terms
of water absorption, water vapor migration rate, water vapor permeability, mechan-
ical stability, and impact strength for green packaging application.

Natural Fiber

Natural fibers are generally produced from plants and animals. Natural fibers are
light in weight, easy to process, low in cost, and biodegradable in nature. Moreover,
it can be a substitute of synthetic polymer for many applications such as automotive,
packaging, building, and furniture industries [5, 6]. This will help the world to
enhance the environment-friendly quality of products.

Fig. 2 Pretreatment of natural fibers [4]

4 S. Dixit and V. L. Yadav

Classification of Natural Fibers

Natural fibers have drawn lot of global focus due to their cellulosic property.
Researchers have used environment friendly sustainable natural fibers as a replace-
ment of synthetic fibers. Natural fibers can be categorized in three ways, viz.,
lignocellulosic fibers, animal fibers, and mineral fibers. Lignocellulosic fibers are
classified such as bast fibers (hemp, kenaf, jute, flax), fruit fibers (cotton coir,
coconut coir), leaf fibers (banana, sisal, pineapple), wood fibers (soft, hard), and
grass (bamboo, bagasse, rice). On the other hand, animal fibers are wool and silk
fibers, and mineral fibers are glass wool, silk wool (Fig. 3). Natural fibers are easy to
process and require low maintenance of machines used for their processing. How-
ever, this property is correlated with massive use of natural fibers in composite
preparation.

Chemical Composition of Natural Fibers

The structure of natural fibers is complex in which cellulose is tightly embedded with
hemicellulose and that structure cover with strong wall of lignin. The percentage of
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin present in fibers are varying with the type of
natural fibers. Lignocellulosic property of natural fibers has provoked researchers to
use them for reinforcement of polymer composites [7]. The chemical composition of
several types of natural fibers is depicted in Table 1.

Fig. 3 Classification of natural fiber [2]

Biodegradable Polymer Composite Films for Green Packaging Applications 5

Table 1 Chemical composition of some natural fibers.

Natural fiber Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%) References
Hemp 57–77 14–22.4 3.7–13 [2]
Banana 53.45 28.56 15.46 [8]
Coir 43.44 0.25 45.84 [8]
Jute 59–61 22.1 15.9 [8]
Sisal 65–68 10–22 9.9–14 [9]
Wheat straw 38–45 15–31 12–20 [2]
Bagasse 40–55.2 25.3 16.8 [2]
Kenaf 72 20.3 9 [10]
Rice husk 35–45 19–25 20 [10]
Rice straw 41–57 33 8–19 [10]
Flax 62–72 18.6–20.6 2–5 [11]
Bamboo 26–65 30 5–31 [11]

Biodegradable Polymer Composites Based on Natural Fiber

Nowadays, polymers are generally used in daily applications such as manufacturing,

packaging, home utilities, and automotive industry. These demands are responsible
for hike in nonbiodegradable disposal crisis which contribute remarkable negative
impact on the environment. This condition provokes many researchers to synthesize
environment friendly biodegradable polymer composites. Recently many natural
fibers such as banana, hemp, jute, sisal, kenaf, coir, straws, and flax have been used
due to their benchmark mechanical property. However, many researchers have also
prepared natural fiber-based polymer composites for packaging application. Numer-
ous experimental studies have proved the perfect replacement of synthetic fibers
with eco-friendly cellulosic fibers [10, 12, 13] that are depicted in Table 2.

Strategies for Enhancing the Interfacial Interaction, Preparation

Techniques, and Testing Methods for Polymer/Natural Fiber
Composites

Strategies for Enhancing the Interfacial Interaction for Polymer/

Natural Fiber Composites

In order to improve the interfacial interaction between polymer and natural fibers,
many strategies have been applied. These strategies are categorized in many pre-
treatments such as chemical, physical, biological, and physicochemical pretreat-
ments [26]. These strategies have been reported in the literature to attain the higher
mechanical and thermal properties of the natural fiber-based composites [9]. In other
word, these techniques have been applied to overcome poor natural fiber/ matrix
adhesion due to their inherent structure.
 6

Table 2 Literature review for biodegradable polymer composite Films for green packaging applications
Pre- Parameters Application
treatment of
natural
References Natural fiber Biodegradable polymer fibers Method composites Properties
Srivastava et Banana [14] Starch, polyvinyl alcohol NaOH Solvent Banana fiber-based Tensile strength ¼ (14.5–18.3) Packaging
al. [14] treatment casting method composites MPa
Alkali treated banana Tensile strength ¼ (32.1–34.4)
fiber-based composites MPa
Acid treated banana Tensile strength ¼ (19.2–22.2)
fiber-based composites MPa
Islam et al. Kenaf Polylactic acid (PLA) Silane , Melt blending PLA Tensile strength ¼ 55 MPa Packaging
[15] [15] alkaline method Impact strength ¼ 38 J/m
treatment PLA/alkali-treated Tensile strength ¼ 8 MPa
Kenaf composites Impact strength ¼ 70 J/m
Sánchez- Almond shell, Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) Seagrass Melt blending PHB Tensile strength ¼ 40 MPa Packaging
Safont et al. rice husk, treated with Elongation limit ¼ 1.7%
[16] seagrass NaOH WVP ¼ (2.1)  1015Kg.S1.
treatment Pa1.m1
PHB/almond shell Tensile strength ¼ 30–35 MPa
composites Elongation limit ¼ (0.8–1.25)%
WVP ¼ (3–5)  1015Kg.S1.
Pa1.m1
PHB/rice husk Tensile strength ¼ 26–29 MPa
composites Elongation limit ¼ (0.75–
1.12)%
WVP ¼ (5–8)  1015Kg.S1.
Pa1.m1
PHB/seagrass Tensile strength ¼ 40 MPa
composites Elongation limit ¼ (0.75–
S. Dixit and V. L. Yadav
 1.25)%
WVP ¼ (4.1–7.5)  1015Kg.
S[Link]1.m1
Yang et al. Wheat straw Polylactic acid (PLA) Solid-state Extrusion PLA Tensile strength ¼ 70 MPa Packaging
[13] shear Elongation limit (%) ¼ 7
milling PLA/wheat straw Tensile strength ¼ 60 MPa
process Elongation limit (%) ¼ 3.85
(SSSM) PLA/wheat straw Tensile strength ¼ 68 MPa
(SSSM) Elongation limit (%) ¼ 3.1
Zuccarello et Sisal Green epoxy Mechanical Unidirectional Epoxy/untreated sisal Tensile strength ¼ 325 MPa Packaging
al. [12] pressing single-layer composites Tensile strength ¼ 410 MPa
laminates Epoxy/treated sisal
composites
Perumal et Rice straw, Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) NaOH Solvent PVA Tensile strength ¼ 41 MPa Packaging
al. [17] cellulose treatment casting method Transparency ¼ (68-95)%
nanocrystals PVA/rice straw Tensile strength ¼ (42–45) MPa
composites Transparency ¼ (40–76)%
PVA/bleached rice Tensile strength ¼ (48–55) MPa
straw composites Transparency ¼ (50–80)%
PVA/alkali treated-rice Tensile strength ¼ (55-98)MPa
straw composites Transparency ¼ (52-90)%
Mustapa et Hemp fiber Polylactic acid Film stacking PLA Storage modulus ¼3.45 GPa Packaging
al. [18] method PLA/hemp fiber Storage modulus ¼18.95 GPa
composites
PLA/hemp fiber/silica Storage modulus ¼ 19.93 GPa
Biodegradable Polymer Composite Films for Green Packaging Applications

PLA/silica Storage modulus ¼ 3.49 GPa

(continued)
7
 8

Table 2 (continued)
Pre- Parameters Application
treatment of
natural
References Natural fiber Biodegradable polymer fibers Method composites Properties
Khan et al. Hemp hurd Polylactic acid (PLA) Extrusion and PLA Tensile strength ¼ 65 MPa Rigid
[19] injection Elongation limit ¼ 4.5% application
molding PLA/Hemp hurd Tensile strength ¼ (60–65) MPa
Elongation limit ¼ 2%
Dhakal et al. Hemp fiber Polylactic acid (PLA) Twin extrusion PLA Tensile strength ¼ 11.73 MPa Light
[20] Elongation limit ¼ 12.756 weight
application
PLA/hemp fiber Tensile strength ¼ (10.02–11.77)
MPa
Elongation limit ¼ (4.6–6.5) %
Orasugh et Jute fiber Hydroxypropylmethylcellulose Solvent Hydroxypropylmethyl Tensile strength ¼ 41.56 MPa Packaging
al. [21] casting method cellulose film Elongation limit ¼ 41%
Transparency ¼ 89%
WVTR ¼ 0.053 g/cm2/24 h
Jute fiber-based Tensile strength ¼ (57.86–
hydroxypropylmethyl 84.16) MPa
cellulose film Elongation limit ¼ (41–60) %
Transparency ¼ (78–84)%
WVTR ¼ (0.034–0.044) g/cm2/
24 h
S. Dixit and V. L. Yadav
Kargarzadeh Rice husk fiber Starch Sulfuric Solvent Starch Tensile strength ¼ 2.5 MPa Packaging
et al. [22] acid casting method Elongation limit ¼ 65%
treatment Water uptake ¼ 250%
Starch/rice husk fiber Tensile strength ¼ (2–2.5) MPa
Elongation limit ¼ 18–35%
Water uptake ¼ 200%
Starch/rice husk Tensile strength ¼ (2.5–2.9)MPa
cellulose Elongation limit ¼ 32–63%
Water uptake ¼ 160%
Starch/cellulose nano Tensile strength ¼ (3.2–3.8)MPa
crystals Elongation limit ¼ 70–80%
Water uptake ¼ 100%
Sirvio et al. Micro- Alginate Solvent Alginate Tensile strength ¼ 69 MPa Packaging
[23] fibrillated wood casting method Elongation limit ¼ 2.12%
cellulose Alginate/MFC film Tensile strength ¼ (58–68) MPa
(MFC), Elongation limit ¼ (1.70–
unmodified 2.30%)
BIRCH pulp Alginate/NFC film Tensile strength ¼ (80–94) MPa
(BIRCH), Elongation limit ¼ (1.35–2.85)
nanofibrillated
cellulose Alginate/DCC film Tensile strength ¼ (70–80) MPa
(NFC) Elongation limit ¼ (1.6–2.35) %
Nanofibrillated Alginate/BIRCH Tensile strength ¼ 20 MPa
dicarboxylic Elongation limit ¼ 1.80%
acid cellulose
(DCC)
(continued)
Biodegradable Polymer Composite Films for Green Packaging Applications
9
Table 2 (continued)
10

Pre- Parameters Application

treatment of
natural
References Natural fiber Biodegradable polymer fibers Method composites Properties
Luzi et al. Cellulose Polylactic acid (PLA), poly Sulfuric Solvent PLA Tensile strength ¼ 21.7 MPa Packaging
[24] crystals (CNC) (butylene succinate) PBS acid casting method Elongation limit ¼ 2.5%
(extracted from treatment WVP ¼ (0.071)  1011
hemp fiber (g mm k pa1 h1 m2)
PLA/PBS Tensile strength ¼ (22.7) MPa
Elongation limit ¼ (3.7) %
WVP ¼ (0.042)  1011
(g mm k pa1 h1 m2)
PLA/PBS/CNC Tensile strength ¼ (15.6–28.1)
MPa
Elongation limit ¼ (3.9–4.2) %
WVP ¼ (0.055–0.071)  1011
(g mm k pa1 h1 m2)
Ganjyal et Corn stalk Starch acetate NaOH Extrusion Starch aetate film Shear stress ¼ 0.025–0.04 MPa Packaging
al., 2004 treatment Starch acetate/alkali Shear stress ¼ 0.41–0.70 MPa
treated-corn stalk film
Averous et Cellulose Plasticized wheat starch Extrusion Plasticized wheat Tensile strength ¼ 3 MPa Packaging
al. [25] starch Elongation limit ¼ 26%
Plasticized wheat Tensile strength ¼ 7–22 MPa
starch/cellulose Elongation limit ¼ (19–47) %
composites
S. Dixit and V. L. Yadav
Biodegradable Polymer Composite Films for Green Packaging Applications 11

Physical Pre-treatment
In this treatment, many comminution processes such as coarse size reduction,
chipping, grinding, and milling are categorized as a mechanical size-reduction
methods. Moreover, these processes have been applied to increase the exposing
area of biomass. This pretreatment may help to decrease the crystallinity of cellulose
present in biomass and surging the digestibility of lignocellulosic fibers [27].

Chemical Pre-treatment
Chemical pretreatment pre-treatment is a most promising technique to remove
hindrance such as lignin and hemicellulose from natural fibers and surging its
suitability for polymer adhesion. In this treatment, many chemicals such as acids
(hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, etc.), alkali (potassium hydroxide,
sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, etc.), and ionic liquids (imidazolium,
alkylated phosphonium, pyridinium, sulfonium ions, and aliphatic ammonium)
have been used [28].

Biological Pre-treatment
Biological pretreatment pre-treatment is considered as energy saver and environment
friendly process in which many organisms such as brown, white, and soft rot fungi,
etc. have been used for treatment of natural fibers. The main drawbacks of this
process are higher residence time, marinating suitable environment for cellulose
growth, and requirement of large area to perform this treatment. Moreover, these
disadvantages make this process less attractive as compared to other pre-treatment
[29].

Physicochemical Pre-treatment
This pretreatment pre-treatment represents a combination of physical and chemical
pretreatment for achieving remarkable results for better adhesion between the
polymer and the fibers. Some of the physicochemical pretreatment processes are
steam pretreatment, liquid hot water pretreatment, Ammonia fiber/freeze explosion,
Lime pretreatment/wet oxidative pretreatment, and Organosolv pretreatment [26].
This pre-treatment can jointly affect the physical and chemical properties of natural
fibers.

Preparation Methods for Green Packaging Film

In order to improve the interfacial interaction of natural fiber/polymer composites

and ensure homogenous distribution of natural fibers in the polymer matrix, various
processing techniques such as compression molding, hand layup, extrusion,
and solution casting method have been used by many researchers.
12 S. Dixit and V. L. Yadav

Hand Layup
Hand layup method is an economical method which is used to prepare natural fiber-
based composites for industrial scale. In this process, gel coating is applied on the
mold surface for ease of detaching the composites film from the surface. After that,
the composite materials are poured in the gel coating surface using roller. The idea of
using roller over the surface is for attaining a uniform thickness of composites by
distributing the composite materials. After curing, composites are easily detached
from the surface [11].

Injection Molding
Many researchers have used injection molding process for synthesizing natural fiber-
based biocomposites [30–32]. Injection molding can be categorized in three zones,
viz., feed zone, compacting zone, and metering zone. In feed zone, all the component
materials are placed in barrel through hopper and allowed to mix and melt. The
molten composites are compacted and sent towards the mold cavity using applica-
tion of screw movement. There is no need to chopper final composites and this is the
main advantage of this process.

Compression Molding
This preparation method is generally used to fabricate high-strength material com-
posites. This process can synthesize composites in different complex shapes, and it is
economically better as compared to injection molding or other transfer molding. In
this process, composite is prepared by placing composite material in mold cavity.
Furthermore, upper mold part is closed and high pressure is applied for framing the
material in mold shape. After curing, composites are allowed to cool for some time
and extra material can be removed carefully for receiving composites in final mold
shape. This method can be used in the industry for producing composites on a larger
scale [11].

Extrusion
Extrusion has widely received attention to produce natural fibers based polymeric
composites. Many literatures have supported this process to synthesize
biocomposites for wide variety of applications which is shown in Table 2. Initially,
composite materials are melted in hopper and move forward towards the extruder.
The extruder frames the extrudate in desired shape. Further, the cooling of extrudate
is done using air, water, or contact with cold surface.

Solvent Casting Method

Many studies have been performed using solvent casting method which is
represented in Table 2. It is economically simplest method to synthesize natural
fiber-based polymer composites utilized in many applications such as packaging
goods, building materials, furniture products, and membrane formation. In this
method, blending of polymer and natural fibers are done in solvent solution. The
Biodegradable Polymer Composite Films for Green Packaging Applications 13

final solution is poured in petri dish at controlled atmosphere. Moreover, dried

composite film can be used for desired applications.

Melt Blending
Melt blending method is preferable method for preparing composites on industrial
scale for different type of applications such as packaging, automotive, and furniture
goods. In this process, the polymer is melted and mixed with required amount of
natural fiber using extruder. This process is generally carried out under inert atmo-
sphere using nitrogen, argon, or neon gas. Due to their potential applications, this
process is compatible with extrusion and injection molding [33].

Testing Methods

Water Vapor Transmission Rate and Water Vapor Permeability

The water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) for all composite films can be estimated
by performing simple experiments. A wet glass chamber tightly covered with
biocomposite film is weighed and then placed in an incubator at a constant temper-
ature with fixed relative humidity. The weight of the wet chamber is regularly
checked at a period of 1 day [23, 34]. Water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of
composite film can be determined using following Eq. 1:

WC1  WC2
WVTR ¼ ð1Þ
WC1  A  day

where WC1 is initial weight of the wet glass chamber, WC2 is the final weight of the
wet glass chamber, and A exhibits the exposed area of the wet glass chamber. Water
vapor permeability (WVP) is also determined using the following Eq. 2:

WVTR  T
WVP ¼ ð2Þ
SðR1  R2Þ

where S represents saturation vapor pressure, R1 represents humidity inside wet

glass chamber, R2 represents humidity of incubation chamber, and T represents
thickness of the composite film (m).

Mechanical Test

Tensile Test
Tensile strength and elongation at break (%) of composite films are investigated
using universal testing machine according to different ASTM standards. Tensile
property of composites depends on materials thickness, strain rate, and method of
preparation. Initially, films should be prepared in uniform thickness and width for
testing. Moreover, cross-sectional area of testing materials is also calculated. In this
test, specimen is fixed in between the grips of testing machine and the machine is
14 S. Dixit and V. L. Yadav

allowed to elongate the specimen. Further, this test provides the load versus exten-
sion graph of the sample and signifies the mechanical stability and elongation limit
of the composite film which is an important characteristic for packaging application.

Impact Test
To study the impact resistance of a polymeric composite film, free-falling impact test
method (ASTM D-1709) is generally used. This impact test is based on investigating
the ability of a material to resist fracture under sudden loading. In this experiment, a
free-falling dart weight is dropped down on a polymeric film from a specified height.
Two pieces of clamp are used for fixing the sample in the instrument. The energy
required to fracture the sample is correlated with falling a known weight from a
specific height on a polymeric film. This result provides the impact strength of
composite material for packaging application.

Optical Characteristic Test

Optical characteristic is an important property for packaging application. Optical
characteristic is demonstrated by UV-VIS spectrophotometer over the wavelength
range of 200–900 nm. In this test, the light transmission rate of visible light through
composite films is determined using the blank compartment as a reference and the
light transmission for the composite film is determined [35].

Water Absorption Test

In this test, water repelling behavior for composite film is analyzed. In this test,
biocomposite film is cut in specified shape and immersed in double distilled water
for 24 h at a temperature of 23  C with 50–60% constant relative humidity. The
change in weight of films is measured at periodic interval of 2 h. Every 2 h, the
excess amount of water present at the surface is gently removed using tissue paper
before weighing the biocomposite film. Further, biocomposite films are reimmersed
in double distilled water. The water absorption of the biocomposite films can be
calculated using the Eq. 3 [36]:

ðMt  MoÞ
WA ¼  100 ð3Þ
Mo
where WA represents the water absorption (%), Mo is the initial weight of the sample
(g), and Mt is the weight of the sample at a certain time (g).

Thermal Stability Test

In the recent past, many polymeric films are being used for packaging of different
types of goods. Thermal stability test represents the heat tolerance of composite film
for packaging application. It can be done using PerkinElmer Thermo gravimetric
analyzer. This test also reveals the maximum temperature at which our material can
be used. In this test, sample is weighed before the experiment and allowed to heat
from room temperature to 800  C at required heating rate. All experiments should be
performed under nitrogen atmosphere for preventing the thermal cracking of sample
Biodegradable Polymer Composite Films for Green Packaging Applications 15

[16]. This analysis provides the graph between mass (%) versus temperature.
Moreover, TGA thermo gram helps to know the temperature range in which the
degradation of sample occurs.

Conclusions and Future Outlook

The key results obtained from the literature reviewed in this chapter are favorable for
the use of natural fiber-based polymer composites. This chapter emphasized the
different strategies for enhancing the interfacial interactions between natural fiber
and polymer such as chemical pretreatment, physical, physicochemical, biological
pretreatments. Many literatures using different strategies have favored its importance
in terms of improving mechanical, thermal, barrier, and optical properties. Moreover,
this chapter also enlightens the various types of suitable methods which have been
used for synthesizing a sustainable biodegradable composite. Further, different
testing methods for checking the properties of biodegradable composites and
enabling their application for packaging have also been described briefly for future
outlook.

References
1. Dayo AQ, Gao B-c, Wang J, W-b L, Derradji M, Shah AH, Babar AA (2017) Natural hemp fiber
reinforced polybenzoxazine composites: curing behavior, mechanical and thermal properties.
Compos Sci Technol 144:114–124
2. Chaitanya S, Singh AP, Singh I (2017) Natural fiber-reinforced biodegradable and bioresorbable
polymer composites. United Kingdom: Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and
Technology, Elsevier, pp 163–179
3. Zegaoui A, Derradji M, Ma R-k, W-a C, Medjahed A, W-b L, Dayo AQ, Wang J, Wang G-x
(2018) Influence of fiber volume fractions on the performances of alkali modified hemp fibers
reinforced cyanate ester/benzoxazine blend composites. Mater Chem Phys 213:146–156
4. Zheng Y, Pan Z, Zhang R (2009) Overview of biomass pretreatment for cellulosic ethanol
production. Int J Agric Biol Eng 2:51–68
5. Chawla K, Bastos A (1979) The mechanical properties of jute fibers and polyester/jute
composites. Mech Behav Mater 3:191–196
6. Dhakal HN, Sarasini F, Santulli C, Tirillò J, Zhang Z, Arumugam V (2015) Effect of basalt fibre
hybridisation on post-impact mechanical behaviour of hemp fibre reinforced composites.
Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf 75:54–67
7. Laadila MA, Hegde K, Rouissi T, Brar SK, Galvez R, Sorelli L, Cheikh RB, Paiva M, Abokitse
K (2017) Green synthesis of novel biocomposites from treated cellulosic fibers and recycled
bio-plastic polylactic acid. J Clean Prod 164:575–586
8. Shahinur S, Hasan M (2019) Jute/coir/banana fiber reinforced bio-composites: critical review of
design, fabrication, properties and applications. In: Reference module in materials science and
materials engineering. Japan: Elsevier
9. Senthilkumar K, Saba N, Rajini N, Chandrasekar M, Jawaid M, Siengchin S, Alotman OY
(2018) Mechanical properties evaluation of sisal fibre reinforced polymer composites: a review.
Constr Build Mater 174:713–729
10. Faruk O, Bledzki AK, Fink H-P, Sain M (2012) Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers:
2000–2010. Prog Polym Sci 37:1552–1596
16 S. Dixit and V. L. Yadav

11. Santhosh SK, Hiremath SS (2019) Natural fiber reinforced composites in the context of
biodegradability: a review. In: Reference module in materials science and materials engineering.
India: Elsevier
12. Zuccarello B, Marannano G, Mancino A (2018) Optimal manufacturing and mechanical
characterization of high performance biocomposites reinforced by sisal fibers. Compos Struct
194:575–583
13. Yang S, Bai S, Wang Q (2018) Sustainable packaging biocomposites from polylactic acid and
wheat straw: enhanced physical performance by solid state shear milling process. Compos Sci
Technol 158:34–42
14. Srivastava KR, Singh MK, Mishra PK, Srivastava P (2019) Pretreatment of banana pseudostem
fibre for green composite packaging film preparation with polyvinyl alcohol. J Polym Res 26:95
15. Islam MS, Rahman MM, Hasan M (2019) Kenaf fiber based bio-composites: processing,
characterization and potential applications. In: Reference module in materials science and
materials engineering. Italy: Elsevier
16. Sánchez-Safont EL, Aldureid A, Lagarón JM, Gámez-Pérez J, Cabedo L (2018) Biocomposites
of different lignocellulosic wastes for sustainable food packaging applications. Compos Part B
145:215–225
17. Perumal AB, Sellamuthu PS, Nambiar RB, Sadiku ER, Phiri G, Jayaramudu J (2018) Effects of
multiscale rice straw (Oryza sativa) as reinforcing filler in montmorillonite-polyvinyl alcohol
biocomposite packaging film for enhancing the storability of postharvest mango fruit
(Mangifera indica L.). Appl Clay Sci 158:1–10
18. Mustapa IR, Shanks RA, Kong I, Daud N (2018) Morphological structure and thermo-
mechanical properties of hemp fibre reinforced poly(lactic acid) nanocomposites plasticized
with tributyl citrate. Mater Today Proc 5:3211–3218
19. Khan BA, Na H, Chevali V, Warner P, Zhu J, Wang H (2018) Glycidyl methacrylate-
compatibilized poly (lactic acid)/hemp hurd biocomposites: processing, crystallization, and
thermo-mechanical response. J Mater Sci Technol 34:387–397
20. Dhakal HN, Ismail SO, Zhang Z, Barber A, Welsh E, Maigret J-E, Beaugrand J (2018)
Development of sustainable biodegradable lignocellulosic hemp fiber/polycaprolactone
biocomposites for light weight applications. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf 113:350–358
21. Orasugh JT, Saha NR, Rana D, Sarkar G, Mollick MMR, Chattoapadhyay A, Mitra BC, Mondal
D, Ghosh SK, Chattopadhyay D (2018) Jute cellulose nano-fibrils/hydroxypropylmethyl-
cellulose nanocomposite: a novel material with potential for application in packaging and
transdermal drug delivery system. Ind Crop Prod 112:633–643
22. Kargarzadeh H, Johar N, Ahmad I (2017) Starch biocomposite film reinforced by multiscale
rice husk fiber. Compos Sci Technol 151:147–155
23. Sirviö JA, Kolehmainen A, Liimatainen H, Niinimäki J, Hormi OE (2014) Biocomposite
cellulose-alginate films: promising packaging materials. Food Chem 151:343–351
24. Luzi F, Fortunati E, Jiménez A, Puglia D, Pezzolla D, Gigliotti G, Kenny JM, Chiralt A, Torre L
(2016) Production and characterization of PLA_PBS biodegradable blends reinforced with
cellulose nanocrystals extracted from hemp fibres. Ind Crop Prod 93:276–289
25. Averous L, Fringant C, Moro L (2001) Starch-based biodegradable materials suitable for
thermoforming packaging. Starch-Stärke 53:368–371
26. Agbor VB, Cicek N, Sparling R, Berlin A, Levin DB (2011) Biomass pretreatment: fundamen-
tals toward application. Biotechnol Adv 29:675–685
27. Palmowski L, Müller J (2000) Influence of the size reduction of organic waste on their
anaerobic digestion. Water Sci Technol 41:155–162
28. Fengel D, Wegener G (1984) Wood: chemistry, ultrastructure. Reactions 613:1960–1982
29. Sindhu R, Binod P, Pandey A (2016) Biological pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass–an
overview. Bioresour Technol 199:76–82
30. Fung K, Xing X, Li R, Tjong S, Mai Y-W (2003) An investigation on the processing of sisal
fibre reinforced polypropylene composites. Compos Sci Technol 63:1255–1258
Biodegradable Polymer Composite Films for Green Packaging Applications 17

31. Lee B-H, Kim H-J, Yu W-R (2009) Fabrication of long and discontinuous natural fiber
reinforced polypropylene biocomposites and their mechanical properties. Fibers Polym
10:83–90
32. Lee B-H, Kim H-S, Lee S, Kim H-J, Dorgan JR (2009) Bio-composites of kenaf fibers in
polylactide: role of improved interfacial adhesion in the carding process. Compos Sci Technol
69:2573–2579
33. Rane AV, Kanny K, Abitha VK, Thomas S (2018) Chapter 5 – Methods for synthesis of
nanoparticles and fabrication of nanocomposites. In: Mohan Bhagyaraj S, Oluwafemi OS,
Kalarikkal N, Thomas S (eds) Synthesis of inorganic nanomaterials. South africa: Woodhead
Publishing, pp 121–139
34. R^apă M, Miteluţ AC, Tănase EE, Grosu E, Popescu P, Popa ME, Rosnes JT, Sivertsvik M,
Darie-Niţă RN, Vasile C (2016) Influence of chitosan on mechanical, thermal, barrier and
antimicrobial properties of PLA-biocomposites for food packaging. Compos Part B 102:112–
121
35. Naskar A, Khan H, Sarkar R, Kumar S, Halder D, Jana S (2018) Anti-biofilm activity and food
packaging application of room temperature solution process based polyethylene glycol capped
Ag-ZnO-graphene nanocomposite. Mater Sci Eng C 91:743–753
36. Xu K, Liu C, Kang K, Zheng Z, Wang S, Tang Z, Yang W (2018) Isolation of nanocrystalline
cellulose from rice straw and preparation of its biocomposites with chitosan: physicochemical
characterization and evaluation of interfacial compatibility. Compos Sci Technol 154:8–17