CHAPTER

REFORMATION
AND RELIGIOUS
WARFARE IN
THE SIXTEENTH
CENTURY .- A nineteenth-century engraving showing Luther before the Diet of Worms
Berlin/Art
bpk,
NY
Resource,

MAJOR CONCEPTS respond to Protestant criticisms? (CID, SOP, SCD,

Corruption in the Catholic Church, use of the printing press NEI)
to spread new ideas, and the growing power of the new ® How did the various Protestant sects appeal to different
monarchs led to the Protestant Reformation and changes social classes? (SCD) To what extent did the Protestant
in religious beliefs, institutions, and culture. (Topics 1.3, 1.4, Reformation cause the relationship between states and
1.5) Christian humanists, like Erasmus, and dissenters, like ecclesiastical authority to change? (SOP)
Martin Luther, John Calvin, and the Anabaptists, criticized
§ To what extent did women's roles change within the
church doctrine, practices, and abuses. (Topics 1.3, 2.1, 2.2)
family, society, and the church? (SCD)
The lower classes turned to Protestantism and revolt, hoping ® How did religion, dynastic rivalry, and commercial
in vain for economic reforms and freedom from serfdom. interests interact as causes of the religious wars?
The Reformation affected European society through the (SOP, ECD, CID)
development of the Protestant work ethic, social dislocation
@ What effects did the religious wars and accompanying
and changes in gender roles. (Topics 2.2, 2.6)
social dislocation have on the society and culture of
Religious reforms of Henry VIII and Elizabeth I empowered Europe? (CID, SCD)
the English monarchy, while other rulers, such as Philip II ®@ To what extent did the Reformation and the religious wars
of Spain, enhanced their power by embracing Catholicism. affect the individual at the national level, in the community,
(Topic 2.3, 2.5) Dynastic, commercial, and religious issues and within the home? (NEI, SCD, SOP, CID, ECD)
played roles in Wars of Religion that devastated sixteenth-
century Europe. Protestant nobles challenged traditional
rulers and the Catholic Church in the Holy Roman Empire,
the French Wars of Religion, and the Dutch Revolt, ON APRIL 18, 1521, alowly monk stood before the
leading to political change. (Topic 2.4) Religious minorities emperor and princes of Germany in the city of Worms.
were often persecuted during this period, and dealing with He had been called before this august gathering to
homeless refugees was a particular problem for many towns. answer charges of heresy, charges that could threaten
(Topics 2.4, 2.6) For a short time, freedom of religion in France his very life. The monk was confronted with a pile of his
was granted by the Edict of Nantes. (Topics 2.4, 2.6) books and asked if he wished to defend them all or reject
a part. Courageously, Martin Luther defended them all
and asked to be shown where any part was in error on
the basis of “Scripture and plain reason.” The emperor
AP® THEMATIC QUESTIONS
was outraged by Luther’s response and made his own
TO THINK ABOUT AS YOU READ position clear the next day: “Not only I, but you of this
@ In what ways was the Catholic Church influenced by noble German nation, would be forever disgraced if by
Renaissance ideals? (CID) our negligence not only heresy but the very suspicion
of heresy were to survive. After having heard yesterday
@ What aspects of Catholicism were challenged by
the obstinate defense of Luther, I regret that I have so
religious reformers, and how did the Catholic Church
67
 é

long delayed in proceeding against him and his false and the writings of such church fathers as Augustine, Ambrose,
teaching. I will have no more to do with him.”’ Luther’s and Jerome. In these early Christian writings, they discovered a
appearance at Worms set the stage for a serious challenge simple religion that they came to feel had been distorted by the
to the authority of the Catholic Church. This was by no complicated theological arguments of the Middle Ages.
means the first crisis in the church’s fifteen-hundred-year The most important characteristic of northern humanism
history, but its consequences were more far-reaching than was its reform program. Convinced of the ability of human
anyone at Worms in 1521 could have imagined. beings to reason and improve themselves, the northern human-
Throughout the Middle Ages, the Christian church ists felt that through education in the sources of classical, and
had continued to assert its primacy of position. It had especially Christian, antiquity, they could instill a true inner
overcome defiance of its temporal authority by emperors piety or an inward religious feeling that would bring about a
and kings, and challenges to its doctrines had been crushed reform of the church and society. For this reason, Christian
by the Inquisition and combated by new religious orders humanists supported schools, brought out new editions of the
that carried its message of salvation to all the towns and classics, and prepared new editions of the Bible and writings
villages of medieval Europe. The growth of the papacy of the church fathers. In the preface to his edition of the Greek
had paralleled the growth of the church, but by the end of New Testament, the famous humanist Erasmus wrote:
the Middle Ages, challenges to papal authority from the
I disagree very much with those who are unwilling that Holy
rising power of monarchical states had resulted in a loss of
Scripture, translated into the vulgar tongue, be read by the
papal temporal authority. An even greater threat to papal
uneducated, as if Christ taught such intricate doctrines that
authority and church unity arose in the sixteenth century
they could scarcely be understood by very few theologians,
when the Reformation shattered the unity of Christendom.
or as if the strength of the Christian religion consisted in
The movement begun by Martin Luther when he
men’s ignorance of it. . . . |would that even the lowliest
made his dramatic stand quickly spread across Europe, a
women read the Gospels and the Pauline Epistles. And I
clear indication of dissatisfaction with Catholic practices.
would that they were translated into all languages so that
Within a short time, new forms of religious practices,
doctrines, and organizations, including Zwinglianism, they could be read and understood not only by Scots and
Irish but also by Turks and Saracens. ... Would that, as a
Calvinism, Anabaptism, and Anglicanism, were attracting
result, the farmer sing some portion of them at the plow,
adherents all over Europe. Although seemingly helpless
to stop the new Protestant churches, the Catholic Church
the weaver hum some parts of them to the movement of
also underwent a reformation and managed to revive its his shuttle, the traveler lighten the weariness of the journey
fortunes by the mid-sixteenth century. All too soon, the
with stories of this kind!’
doctrinal divisions between Protestants and Catholics led This belief in the power of education would remain an impor-
to a series of religious wars that dominated the history of tant characteristic of European civilization. Like later intellec-
western Europe in the second half of the sixteenth century. tuals, Christian humanists believed that to change society, they
must first change the human beings who compose it. Although
some critics have called the Christian humanists naive, they
were in fact merely optimistic. The turmoil of the Reforma-
Prelude to Reformation tion, however, shattered much of this intellectual optimism, as
the lives and careers of two of the most prominent Christian
FOCUS QUESTION: What were the chief ideas of
humanists, Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas More, illustrate.
the Christian humanists, and how did they differ
from the ideas of the Protestant reformers?
ERASMUS The most influential of all the Christian human-
ists was Desiderius Erasmus (dez-ih-DEER-ee-uss ih-RAZZ-mus)
Martin Luther’s reform movement was by no means the first.
(1466-1536), who formulated and popularized the reform
During the second half of the fifteenth century, the new clas-
program of Christian humanism. Born in Holland, Erasmus
sical learning that was part of Italian Renaissance humanism
was educated at one of the schools of the Brothers of the
spread to northern Europe and spawned a movement called
Common Life (see Chapter 1). He wandered to France, Eng-
Christian (northern Renaissance) humanism whose major
land, Italy, Germany, and Switzerland, conversing everywhere
goal was the reform of Christianity.
in the classical Latin that might be called his mother tongue.
The Handbook of the Christian Knight, printed in 1503, reflected
Christian or Northern Renaissance
his preoccupation with religion. He called his conception of
Humanism religion “the philosophy of Christ,” by which he meant that
Like their Italian counterparts, northern humanists cultivated Christianity should be a guiding philosophy for the direction of
knowledge of the classics, the bond that united all humanists into daily life rather than the system of dogmatic beliefs and prac-
a kind of international fellowship. In returning to the writings tices that the medieval church seemed to stress. In other words,
of antiquity, northern humanists (also called Christian human- he emphasized inner piety and de-emphasized the external
ists because of their profound preoccupation with religion) forms of religion (such as the sacraments, pilgrimages, fasts,
focused on the sources of early Christianity, the Holy Scriptures veneration of saints, and relics). To return to the simplicity

68 M@ CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

 Peter denies him entrance because of Julius’ misdeeds, Julius
threatens to raise an army and storm heaven itself.
Erasmus’s program did not achieve the reform of the church
that he so desired. His moderation and his emphasis on education
were quickly overwhelmed by the passions of the Reformation.
Undoubtedly, though, his work helped prepare the way for the
Reformation; as contemporaries proclaimed, “Erasmus laid the
egg that Luther hatched.” Yet Erasmus eventually disapproved
of Luther and the Protestant reformers. He had no intention of
destroying the unity of the medieval Christian church; rather, his
whole program was based on reform within the church.

THOMAS MORE The son of a London lawyer, Thomas

More (1478-1535) received the benefits of a good education.
Although trained in the law, he took an avid interest in the
new classical learning and became proficient in both Latin and
Greek. Like the Italian humanists, who believed in putting their
learning at the service of the state, More embarked on a public
career that ultimately took him to the highest reaches of power
as lord chancellor of England.
His career in government service, however, did not keep
More from the intellectual and spiritual interests that were so
dear to him. He was well acquainted with other English human-
ists and became an intimate friend of Erasmus. He made trans-
lations from Greek authors and wrote both prose and poetry in
Latin. A devout man, he spent many hours in prayer and private
Scala/Art
NY
Resource, devotions. Contemporaries praised his household as a shining
model of Christian family life.
Erasmus. Desiderius Erasmus was the most influential of the northern
More’s most famous work, and one of the most controversial
Renaissance humanists. He sought to restore Christianity to the early
simplicity found in the teachings of Jesus. This portrait of Erasmus
of his age, was Utopia, written in 1516. This literary masterpiece
was painted in 1523 by Hans Holbein the Younger, who had formed a is an account of the idealistic life and institutions of the commu-
friendship with the great humanist while they were both in Basel. nity of Utopia (Greek for “nowhere”), an imaginary island in the
vicinity of the recently discovered New World. It reflects More’s
own concerns with the economic, social, and political problems
of the early church, people needed to understand the original
meaning of the Scriptures and the writings of the early church of his day. He presented a new social system in which coopera-
fathers. Because Erasmus thought that the standard Latin edi- tion and reason replaced power and fame as the proper moti-
tion of the Bible, known as the Vulgate, contained errors, he
vating agents for human society. Utopian society, therefore, was
edited the Greek text of the New Testament from the earliest based on communal ownership rather than private property. All
available manuscripts and published it, along with a new Latin residents of Utopia worked nine hours a day, regardless of occu-
pation, and were rewarded according to their needs. Possessing
translation, in 1516. Erasmus also wrote Annotations, a detailed
abundant leisure time and relieved of competition and greed,
commentary on the Vulgate Bible itself. In his day, Erasmus’s
Utopians were free to lead wholesome and enriching lives.
work on the New Testament was considered his most out-
In serving King Henry VIII, More came face to face with the
standing achievement, and Martin Luther himself would use
abuses and corruption he had criticized in Utopia. But he did
Erasmus’s work as the basis for his German translation of the
not allow idealism to outweigh his own ultimate realism, and
New Testament.
in Utopia itself he justified his service to the king:
To Erasmus, the reform of the church meant spreading an
understanding of the philosophy of Jesus, providing enlight- If you can’t completely eradicate wrong ideas, or deal with
ened education in the sources of early Christianity, and making inveterate vices as effectively as you could wish, that’s no
common-sense criticisms of the abuses in the church. This last is reason for turning your back on public life altogether... . On
especially evident in The Praise of Folly, written in 1509, in which the other hand, it’s no use attempting to put across entirely
Erasmus engaged in humorous yet effective criticism of the most new ideas, which will obviously carry no weight with people
corrupt practices of his own society. He was especially harsh on who are prejudiced against them. You must go to work
the abuses within the ranks of the clergy (see the box on p. 70). indirectly. You must handle everything as tactfully as you
In another satirical work, Julius Excluded from Heaven, Eras- can, and what you can’t put right you must try to make as
mus pilloried the Renaissance papacy in the person of Julius II, little wrong as possible. For things will never be perfect, until
the “warrior pope” (see Chapter 2). When Julius dies, he appears human beings are perfect—which I don’t expect them to be
before the gates of heaven, expecting a quick entry. When St. for quite a number of years.’

Prelude to Reformation ™ 69
ae | ERASMUS: IN PRAISE OF FOLLY
THE PRAISE OF FOLLY IS ONE OF THE MOST famous much lace is allowed on each habit; the girdle must be of
pieces of literature produced in the sixteenth century. just the right material and width; the hood of a certain shape
Erasmus, who wrote it in a short time during a visit to the and capacity; their hair of just so many fingers’ length; and
home of Thomas More, considered it a “little diversion” finally they can sleep only the specified number of hours per
from his “serious work.” Yet both contemporaries and later day. Can they not understand that, because of a variety of
generations have appreciated “this laughing parody of every bodies and temperaments, all this equality of restrictions is
form and rank of human life.” In this selection, Erasmus in fact very unequal? Nevertheless, because of all this detail
belittles one of his favorite objects of scorn, the monks. They that they employ they think that they are superior to all
were, however, merely one of the many groups he disparaged. other people. And what is more, amid all their pretense of
Apostolic charity, the members of one order will denounce
Erasmus, The Praise of Folly the members of another order clamorously because of the
Those who are the closest to these [the theologians] in happi- way in which the habit has been belted or the slightly darker
ness are generally called “the religious” or “monks,” both of color of it...
which are deceiving names, since for the most part they stay as Many of them work so hard at protocol and at traditional
far away from religion as possible and frequent every sort of fastidiousness that they think one heaven hardly a suitable
place. I [Folly] cannot, however, see how any life could be more reward for their labors; never recalling, however, that the time
gloomy than the life of these monks if I did not assist them in will come when Christ will demand a reckoning of that which
many ways. Though most people detest these men so much he had prescribed, namely charity, and that he will hold their
that accidentally meeting one is considered to be bad luck, the deeds of little account. One monk will then exhibit his belly
monks themselves believe that they are magnificent creatures. filled with every kind of fish; another will profess a knowledge
One of their chief beliefs is that to be illiterate is to be of a of over a hundred hymns. Still another will reveal a countless
high state of sanctity, and so they make sure that they are not number of fasts that he has made, and will account for his
able to read. Another is that when braying out their gospels in large belly by explaining that his fasts have always been broken
church they are making themselves very pleasing and satisfying by a single large meal. Another will show a list of church
to God, when in fact they are uttering these psalms as a matter ceremonies over which he has officiated so large that it would
of repetition rather than from their hearts. . . . fill seven ships.
Moreover, it is amusing to find that they insist that
everything be done in fastidious detail, as if employing the & AP® HISTORICAL THINKING SKILL: Sourcing and
orderliness of mathematics, a small mistake in which would Situation (AP® Themes: SOP, CID) Why did Erasmus,
be a great crime. Just so many knots must be on each shoe who was Catholic, criticize the Catholic monks the way
and the shoelace may be of only one specified color; just so he did?

Source: Erasmus, “The Praise of Folly,” in The Essential Erasmus, trans. J. P. Dolan (New York: Dutton Signet, 1964).

More’s religious devotion and belief in the universal Catholic members of the bourgeoisie held the highest positions among
Church ultimately proved even more important than his ser- the clergy. Moreover, to increase their revenues, high church
vice to the king, however. While in office, More’s intolerance officials (bishops, archbishops, and cardinals) took over more
of heresy led him to advocate persecution of those who would than one church office. This so-called pluralism led in turn
fundamentally change the Catholic Church. Moreover, always to absenteeism: church officeholders ignored their duties and
the man of conscience, More willingly gave up his life oppos- hired underlings who sometimes lacked the proper qualifica-
ing England’s break with the Roman Catholic Church over the tions. Complaints about the ignorance and ineptness of parish
divorce of King Henry VIII. priests became widespread in the fifteenth century.

THE SEARCH FOR SALVATION While many of the leaders of

Church and Religion on the Eve the church were failing to meet their responsibilities, ordinary
of the Reformation people were clamoring for meaningful religious expression
Corruption in the Catholic Church was another factor that and certainty of salvation. As a result, for some the salvation
spurred people to want reform. No doubt the failure of the process became almost mechanical. As more and more people
Renaissance popes to provide spiritual leadership had affected sought certainty of salvation through veneration of relics, col-
the spiritual life of all Christendom. The papal court’s pre- lections of such objects grew. Frederick the Wise, elector of
occupation with finances had an especially strong impact on Saxony and Martin Luther’s prince, had amassed more than
the clergy. So did the economic changes of the fourteenth 19,000 relics to which were attached indulgences that could
and fifteenth centuries. Increasingly, nobles or wealthy reduce one’s time in purgatory by nearly 2 million years. (An

70 MM CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

indulgence, you will recall, is a remission, after death, of all or traditional teachings of the late medieval church. Ultimately,
part of the punishment for sin.) Other people sought certainty he split with that church, destroying the religious unity of west-
of salvation in the popular mystical movement known as the ern Christendom. That other people were concerned with the
Modern Devotion, which downplayed religious dogma and same question is evident in the rapid spread of the Reforma-
stressed the need to follow the teachings of Jesus. Thomas a tion. But religion was so entangled in the social, economic,
Kempis, author of The Imitation of Christ, wrote that “truly, at and political forces of the period that the Protestant reformers’
the day of judgment we shall not be examined by what we have hope of transforming the church quickly proved illusory.
read, but what we have done; not how well we have spoken,
but how religiously we have lived.” The Early Luther
What is striking about the revival of religious piety in the
Martin Luther was born in Germany on November 10, 1483.
fifteenth century—whether expressed through such external
His father wanted him to become a lawyer, so Luther enrolled
forces as the veneration of relics and the buying of indulgences
at the University of Erfurt, where he received his bachelor’s
or the mystical path—was its adherence ‘to the orthodox beliefs
degree in 1502. Three years later, after becoming a master in the
and practices of the Catholic Church. The agitation for certainty liberal arts, the young man began to study law. But Luther was
of salvation and spiritual peace occurred within the framework
not content, not in small part due to his long-standing religious
of the “holy mother Church.” But disillusionment grew as
inclinations. That summer, while returning to Erfurt after a
the devout experienced the clergy’s inability to live up to their
brief visit home, he was caught in a ferocious thunderstorm
expectations. The deepening of. religious life, especially in the
and vowed that if he survived unscathed, he would become a
second half of the fifteenth century, found little echo among
monk. He then entered the monastic order of the Augustinian
the worldly-wise clergy, and this environment helps explain the Hermits in Erfurt, much to his father’s disgust. In the mon-
tremendous and immediate impact of Luther’s ideas.
astery, Luther focused on his major concern, the assurance of
salvation. The traditional beliefs and practices of the church
CALLS FOR REFORM At the same time, several sources of
seemed unable to relieve his obsession with this question, espe-
reform were already at work within the Catholic Church at the cially evident in his struggle with the sacrament of penance
end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century. or confession. The sacraments were a Catholic’s chief means
Especially noticeable were the calls for reform from the reli- of receiving God’s grace; confession offered the opportunity
gious orders of the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians. to have one’s sins forgiven. Luther spent hours confessing his
Members of these groups put particular emphasis on preach- sins, but he was always doubtful. Had he remembered all of his
ing to laypeople. One of the popular preachers was Johannes sins? Even more, how could a hopeless sinner be acceptable to
Geiler of Kaisersberg (KY-zerz-bayrk), who denounced the cor- a totally just and all-powerful God? Luther threw himself into
ruption of the clergy. his monastic routine with a vengeance:
The Oratory of Divine Love, first organized in Italy in 1497,
was not a religious order but an informal group of clergy and I was indeed a good monk and kept my order so strictly
laymen who worked to foster reform by emphasizing personal that I could say that if ever a monk could get to heaven
spiritual development and outward acts of charity. The “phi- through monastic discipline, I was that monk. . .. And yet my
losophy of Christ,” advocated by the Christian humanist Eras- conscience would not give me certainty, but I always doubted
mus, was especially appealing to many of them. The Oratory’s and said, “You didn’t do that right. You weren't contrite
members included a number of cardinals who favored church enough. You left that out of your confession.” The more I
reform. A Spanish archbishop, Cardinal Ximenes, was espe- tried to remedy an uncertain, weak and troubled conscience
cially active in using Christian humanism to reform the church. with human traditions, the more | daily found it more
To foster spirituality among the people, he had a number of uncertain, weaker and more troubled.*
religious writings, including Thomas a Kempis’s The Imitation Despite his strenuous efforts, Luther achieved no certainty.
of Christ, translated into Spanish. To help overcome his’ difficulties, his superiors recom-
mended that the monk study theology. He received his doc-
Martin Luther and the torate in 1512 and then became a professor in the theological
faculty at the University of Wittenberg (VIT-ten-bayrk), lectur-
Reformation in Germany ing on the Bible. Sometime between 1513 and 1516, through
his study of the Bible, he arrived at an answer to his problem.
FOCUS QUESTION: What were Martin Luther's Catholic doctrine had emphasized that both faith and good
main disagreements with the Roman Catholic works were required for a Christian to achieve personal salva-
Church, and what political, economic, and social tion. In Luther’s eyes, human beings, weak and powerless in the
conditions help explain why the movement he sight of an almighty God, could never do enough good works
began spread so quickly across Europe? to merit salvation. Through his study of the Bible, especially
his work on Paul’s Epistle to the Romans, Luther rediscovered
The Protestant Reformation began with a typical medieval another way of viewing this problem. To Luther, humans are
question: What must I do to be saved? Martin Luther, a deeply saved not through their good works but through faith in the
religious man, found an answer that did not fit within the promises of God, made possible by the sacrifice of Jesus on

Martin Luther and the Reformation inGermany ® 71

 2 1 Katharina
Martin Luther ana WNatheiitia

yon Bora. This double portrait of

Martin Luther and his wife was done
by Lucas Cranach the Elder in 1529.
By this time, Luther’s reforms had
begun to make an impact in many
parts of Germany. Luther married
Katherina von Bora in 1525, thus
creating a new model of family life
for Protestant ministers.

Resource,
Scala/Art
NY

the cross. The doctrine of salvation or justification by grace have ended. But Pope Leo X did not take the issue seriously
through faith alone became the primary doctrine of the Prot- and is even reported to have said that Luther was simply “some
estant Reformation (justification is the act by which a person drunken German who will amend his ways when he sobers up.”
is made deserving of salvation). Because Luther had arrived at Thousands of copies of a German translation of the Ninety-
this doctrine from his study of the Bible, the Bible became for Five Theses were quickly printed and were received sympathet-
Luther, as for all other Protestants, the chief guide to religious ically in a Germany that had a long tradition of dissatisfaction
truth. Justification by faith and the Bible as the sole author- with papal policies and power.
ity in religious affairs were the twin pillars of the Protestant Of course, Luther was not the first theologian to criticize
Reformation. the powers of the papacy. As we saw in Chapter 2, John Wyclif
at the end of the fourteenth century and John Hus at the begin-
THE INDULGENCE CONTROVERSY Luther did not see him- ning of the fifteenth century had attacked the excessive power
self as either a revolutionary innovator or a heretic, but his of the papacy. Luther was certainly well aware of John Hus’s
involvement in the indulgence controversy propelled him into fate at the Council of Constance, where he was burned at the
an open confrontation with church officials and forced him to stake on charges of heresy.
see the theological implications of justification by faith alone.
In 1517, Pope Leo X had issued a special jubilee indulgence to THE QUICKENING REBELLION The controversy reached an
finance the ongoing construction of Saint Peter’s Basilica in important turning point with the Leipzig Debate in July 1519.
Rome. Johann Tetzel, a rambunctious Dominican, hawked the In Leipzig, Luther’s opponent, the capable Catholic theologian
indulgences in Germany with the slogan “As soon as the coin in Johann Eck, forced Luther to move beyond indulgences and deny
the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.” the authority of popes and councils. During the debate, Eck also
Greatly distressed by the sale of indulgences, Luther was identified Luther's ideas with those of John Hus, the condemned
certain that people who relied on these pieces of paper to heretic. Luther was now compelled to see the consequences
assure themselves of salvation were guaranteeing their eternal of his new theology. At the beginning of 1520, he proclaimed:
damnation instead. Angered, he issued his Ninety-Five Theses, “Farewell, unhappy, hopeless, blasphemous Rome! The Wrath
although scholars are unsure whether he nailed them to a of God has come upon you, as you deserve. We have cared for
church door in Wittenberg, as is traditionally alleged, or mailed Babylon, and she is not healed: let us then, leave her, that she
them to his ecclesiastical superior. In either case, his theses were may be the habitation of dragons, spectres, and witches.”* At the
a stunning indictment of the abuses in the sale of indulgences same time, Luther was convinced that he was doing God’s work
(see the box on p. 73). It is doubtful that Luther intended any and had to proceed regardless of the consequences.
break with the church over the issue of indulgences. If the In three pamphlets published in 1520, Luther moved toward
pope had clarified the use of indulgences, as Luther wished, he a more definite break with the Catholic Church. The Address
would probably have been satisfied, and the controversy would to the Nobility of the German Nation was a political tract written

72 CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

aS LUTHER AND THE NINETY-FIVE THESES
TO MOST HISTORIANS, THE PUBLICATION of Luther's burnt to ashes, than that it should be built up with the
Ninety-Five Theses marks the beginning of the Reformation. skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep.
To Luther, they were simply a response to what he considered 81. This license in the preaching of pardons makes it no easy
Johann Tetzel’s blatant abuses in selling indulgences. Although thing, even for learned men, to protect the reverence due
written in Latin, Luther’s statements were soon translated into to the Pope against the calumnies, or, at all events, the
German and disseminated widely across Germany. They made keen questionings, of the laity;
an immense impression on Germans already dissatisfied with 82. As, for instance: Why does not the Pope empty pur-
the ecclesiastical and financial policies of the papacy. gatory for the sake of most holy charity and of the
supreme necessity of souls,—this being the most just of
Martin Luther, Selections from the all reasons,—if he redeems an infinite number of souls
Ninety-Five Theses for the sake of that most fatal thing, money, to be spent
5. The Pope has neither the will nor the power to remit on building a basilica—this being a slight reason?
any penalties, except those which he has imposed 86. Again: Why does not the Pope, whose riches are at this
by his own authority, or by that of the canons day more ample than those of the wealthiest of the
[canon law]. ; wealthy, build the one Basilica of St. Peter with his own
20. Therefore the Pope, when he speaks of the plenary money, rather than with that of poor believers?
remission of all penalties, does not mean simply of all, 90. To repress these scruples and arguments of the laity
but only of those imposed by himself. by force alone, and not to solve them by giving reasons,
21. Thus those preachers of indulgences are in error who say is to expose the Church and the Pope to the ridicule of
that, by the indulgences of the Pope, a man is loosed and their enemies, and to make Christian men unhappy.
saved from all punishment. 94. Christians should be exhorted to strive to follow Christ
27. They preach man [It is mere human talk], who say that their head through pains, deaths, and hells;
the soul flies out of purgatory as soon as the money 95. And thus trust to enter heaven through many tribulations,
thrown into the chest rattles. rather than in the security of peace.
28. It is certain, that, when the money rattles in the chest,
avarice and gain may be increased, but the suffrage of the ‘o) AP® HISTORICAL THINKING SKILL: Claims and Evidence
Church depends on the will of God alone. in Sources (AP® Themes: SOP, CID) Look at Luther's
50. Christians should be taught, that, if the Pope were criticisms of the church. How did his criticisms directly
acquainted with the exactions of the preachers of pardons, threaten the church's power? How were Luther's criticisms
he would prefer that the Basilica of St. Peter should be similar to previous criticisms of church doctrine?

Source: P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. VI (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1916), pp. 161-166.

in German in which Luther called on the German princes to Emperor Charles V (1519-1556). Expected to recant the heretical
overthrow the papacy in Germany and establish a reformed doctrines he had espoused, Luther refused and made the famous
German church. The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, written reply that became the battle cry of the Reformation:
in Latin for theologians, attacked the sacramental system as the
Since then Your Majesty and your lordships desire a simple
means by which the pope and church had held the real mean-
reply, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless
ing of the Gospel captive for a thousand years. Luther called for
Iam convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept
the reform of monasticism and for the clergy to marry. Though
the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted
virginity is good, he argued, marriage is better, and freedom
each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God.
of choice is best. On the Freedom of a Christian Man was a short
I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against
treatise on the doctrine of salvation. It is faith alone, not good
conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do
works, that justifies, frees, and brings salvation through Jesus.
otherwise. God help me. Amen.’
Being saved and freed by his faith in Jesus, however, does not
free the Christian from doing good works. Rather, he performs Emperor Charles was outraged at Luther's audacity and gave his
good works out of gratitude to God. “Good works do not make opinion that “a single friar who goes counter to all Christianity for
a good man, but a good man does good works.” a thousand years must be wrong.” By the Edict of Worms, Martin
Unable to accept Luther's forcefully worded dissent from tradi- Luther was made an outlaw within the empire. His works were to
tional Catholic teachings, the church excommunicated him in Jan- be burned, and Luther himself was to be captured and delivered
uary 1521. He was also summoned to appear before the Reichstag to the emperor. Instead, Luther’s prince, the Elector of Saxony,
(RYKHSS-tahk), the imperial diet of the Holy Roman Empire, in sent him into hiding at the Wartburg (VART-bayrk) Castle, where
Worms (WURMZ or VORMPS), convened by the recently elected he remained for nearly a year (see “Film & History” on p. 74).

Martin Luther and the Reformation inGermany ™ 73

 Instead, the primary means of disseminating Luther’s
ideas was the sermon. The preaching of evangelical sermons,
FILM & HISTORY
based on a return to the original message of the Bible, found
Watch Luther (2003), which favor throughout Germany. In city after city, the arrival of
depicts the early life and preachers presenting Luther’s teachings was soon followed
career of Martin Luther,
by a public debate in which the new preachers proved
largely from a Lutheran point Stock
12/Alamy
Photos
Photo
victorious. State authorities then instituted a reform of the
_of view. The movie focuses
on some of the major events in Luther's early life, church.
such as his years in a monastery, his study for a Also useful to the spread of the Reformation were pam-
doctorate in theology at the University of Wittenberg, phlets illustrated with vivid woodcuts portraying the pope
the writing of his Ninety-Five Theses, and his dramatic as a hideous Antichrist and titled with catchy phrases such as
stand at the Diet of Worms. The movie is based more on “I Wonder Why There Is No Money in the Land” (which, of
legends about Luther than on a strict adherence to the course, was an attack on papal greed). Luther also insisted on
historical facts. = the use of music as a means to teach the Gospel, and his own
composition, “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God,” became the
What historical errors can you find in this portrayal battle hymn of the Reformation:
of Luther's career? Does the film reveal what made
Luther a rebel? Why or why not? With our power nothing is done.
We are soon lost.
But for us fights the mighty one
The Rise of Lutheranism Whom God himself has chosen.
You ask, who is this?
At the beginning of 1522, Luther returned to Wittenberg in
He is called Jesus Christ
Electoral Saxony and began to organize a reformed church.
The Lord God of hosts.
While at the Wartburg Castle, Luther's foremost achievement
And there is no other God.
was his translation of the New Testament into German. Within
He must hold the field forever.*
twelve years, his German New Testament had sold almost
200,000 copies. Lutheranism had wide appeal and spread rap-
idly, but not primarily through the written word since only 4 THE SPREAD OF LUTHER’S IDEAS Lutheranism spread to
to 5 percent of people in Germany were literate. And most of both princely and ecclesiastical states in northern and central
these were in urban areas. Germany as well as to two-thirds of the free imperial cities,

Resource,
Anders//Art
P.
SMB/Jorg
Berlin/Kupferstichkabinett,
bpk,
NY

Woodcut: Luther Versus the Pope. In the 1520s, after Luther’s return to Wittenberg, his teachings began ~
to spread rapidly, ending ultimately in a reform movement supported by state authorities. Pamphlets containing
picturesque woodcuts were important in the spread of Luther's ideas. In the woodcut shown here, the crucified
Jesus attends Luther's service on the left, while on the right the pope is at a table selling indulgences.

74 ™ CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

especially those of southern Germany, where prosperous bur-
ghers, for both religious and secular reasons, became commit- CHRONOLOGY Luther’s Reform Movement
ted to Luther’s cause. Nuremberg, where an active city council
led by the dynamic city secretary Lazarus Spengler (SCHPEN- Ninety-Five Theses 1517
ler) brought about a conversion as early as 1525, was the first Leipzig Debate 1519
imperial city to convert to Lutheranism. Luther had visited
Diet and Edict of Worms 1521
the city in 1518 and made a number of friends and supporters
there, including some prominent men. Albrecht Diirer, the art- Peasants’ War 1524-1525
ist (see Chapter 2) said, “In my opinion, it is exactly here that
Luther has helped to clarify the situation by making it a point church depended on the full support of the German princes
to trust God more than oneself, worldly works, and the laws and magistrates, supported the rulers, although he also blamed
of human beings.” At its outset, the Reformation in Germany them for helping to set off the rebellion by their earlier harsh
was largely an urban phenomenon. Three-fourths of the early treatment of the peasants. To Luther, the state and its rulers
converts to the reform movement were from the clergy, many were ordained by God and given the authority to maintain the
of them from the upper classes, which made it easier for them peace and order necessary for the spread of the Gospel. It was
to work with the ruling elites in the cities. the duty of princes to put down all revolts. By May 1525, the
A series of crises in the mid-1520s made it apparent, how- German princes had ruthlessly suppressed the peasant hordes.
ever, that spreading the word of’God was not as easy as Luther By this time, Luther found himself ever more dependent
had originally envisioned—the usual plight of most reformers. on state authorities for the growth and maintenance of his
Luther experienced dissent within his own ranks in Wittenberg reformed church.
from people such as Andreas Carlstadt (KARL-shtaht), who
wished to initiate a more radical reform by abolishing all relics, Organizing the Church
images, and the Mass. Luther had no sooner dealt with them Justification by faith alone was the starting point for most of
than he began to face opposition from the Christian human- Protestantism’s major doctrines. Since Luther downplayed the
ists. Many had initially supported Luther, believing that he role of good works in salvation, the sacraments also had to be
shared their goal of reforming the abuses within the church. redefined. No longer regarded as merit-earning works, they
But when it became apparent that Luther’s movement threat- were now viewed as divinely established signs signifying the
ened the unity of Christendom, the older generation of Chris- promise of salvation. Based on his interpretation of scriptural
tian humanists, including Erasmus, broke with the reformer. authority, Luther kept only two of the Catholic Church’s seven
A younger generation of Christian humanists, however, played sacraments—baptism and the Lord’s Supper. Baptism signified
a significant role in Lutheranism. When Philip Melanchthon rebirth through grace. Regarding the Lord’s Supper, Luther
(muh-LANK-tun) (1497-1560) arrived in Wittenberg in 1518 denied the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which
at the age of twenty-one to teach Greek and Hebrew, he was taught that the substance of the bread and wine consumed in
immediately attracted to Luther’s ideas and became a staunch the rite is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of
supporter. Jesus. Yet he continued to insist on the real presence of Jesus’s
body and blood in the bread and wine given as a testament to
THE PEASANTS’ WAR Luther's greatest challenge in the God’s forgiveness of sin.
mid-1520s, however, came from the Peasants’ War. Peasant Luther’s emphasis on the importance of Scripture led him
dissatisfaction in Germany stemmed from several sources. to reject the Catholic belief that the authority of Scripture
Many peasants had not been touched by the gradual economic must be supplemented by the traditions and decrees of the
improvement of the early sixteenth century. In some areas, church. The word of God as revealed in the Bible was sufficient
especially southwestern Germany, influential local lords con- authority in religious affairs. A hierarchical priesthood was
tinued to abuse their peasants, and new demands for taxes and thus unnecessary since all Christians who followed the word
other services caused them to wish for a return to “the good of God were their own priests, constituting a “priesthood of
old days.” Social discontent soon became entangled with reli- all believers.” Even though Luther thus considered the true
gious revolt as peasants looked to Martin Luther, believing that church to be an invisible entity, the difficulties of actually estab-
he would support them. It was not Luther, however, but one lishing a reformed church led him to believe that a tangible,
of his ex-followers, the radical Thomas Miintzer (MOON-tsur), organized church was needed. Since the Catholic ecclesiastical
himself a pastor, who inflamed the peasants against their rulers hierarchy had been scrapped, Luther came to rely increasingly
with his fiery language: “Strike while the iron is hot!” Revolt on the princes or state authorities to organize and guide the
first erupted in southwestern Germany in June 1524 and spread new Lutheran reformed churches. He had little choice. Secu-
northward and eastward. lar authorities in Germany, as elsewhere, were soon playing an
Luther reacted quickly and vehemently against the peas- important role in church affairs. By 1530, in the German states
ants. In his pamphlet Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes that had converted to Lutheranism, both princes and city coun-
of Peasants, he called on the German princes to “smite, slay cils appointed officials who visited churches in their territories
and stab” the stupid and stubborn peasantry (see the box on and regulated matters of worship. The Lutheran churches in
p. 76). Luther, who knew how much his reformation of the Germany (and later in Scandinavia) quickly became territorial

Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany @™ 75

 LUTHER AND THE “ROBBING AND MURDERING HORDES
OF PEASANTS”
THE PEASANTS’ WAR OF 1524-1525 encompassed a In the third place, they cloak this terrible and horrible
series of uprisings by German peasants who were suffering sin with the Gospel, call themselves “Christian brothers,”
from economic changes they did not comprehend. Led by receive oaths and homage, and compel people to hold with
radical religious leaders, the revolts quickly became entangled them to these abominations. Thus, they become the greatest
with the religious revolt set in motion by Luther's defiance of of all blasphemers of God and slanderers of his holy Name,
the church. But it was soon clear that Luther himself did not serving the devil, under the outward appearance of the
believe in any way in social revolution. This excerpt is taken Gospel, thus earning death in body and soul ten times
from Luther's pamphlet written in May 1525 at the height of over... . It does not help the peasants, when they pretend
the peasants’ power but not published until after their defeat. that, according to Genesis I and II, all things were created
free and common, and that all of us alike have been
Martin Luther, Against the Robbing baptized. . . . For baptism does not make men free in body
and Murdering Hordes of Peasants and property, but in soul; and the Gospel does not make
The peasants have taken on themselves the burden of three goods common. .. . Since the peasants, then, have brought
terrible sins against God and man, by which they have abun- both God and man down upon them and are already so many
dantly merited death in body and soul. In the first place they times guilty of death in body and soul . . . I must instruct the
have sworn to be true and faithful, submissive and obedient, worldly governors how they are to act in the matter with a
to their rulers, as Christ commands, when he says, “Render clear conscience.
unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s,” and in Romans XIII, First, I will not oppose a ruler who, even though he does
“Let everyone be subject unto the higher powers.” Because not tolerate the Gospel, will smite and punish these peasants
they are breaking this obedience, and are setting themselves without offering to submit the case to judgment. For he is
against the higher powers, willfully and with violence, they within his rights, since the peasants are not contending any
have forfeited body and soul, as faithless, perjured, lying, dis- longer for the Gospel, but have become faithless, perjured,
obedient knaves and scoundrels are wont to do. ... disobedient, rebellious murderers, robbers and blasphemers,
In the second place, they are starting a rebellion, and whom even heathen rulers have the right and power to
violently robbing and plundering monasteries and castles punish; nay, it is their duty to punish them, for it is just for this
which are not theirs, by which they have a second time purpose that they bear the sword, and are “the ministers of
deserved death in body and soul, if only as highwaymen and God upon him that doeth evil.”
murderers. . . . For rebellion is not simple murder, but is like
a great fire, which attacks and lays waste a whole land... . AP® HISTORICAL THINKING SKILL: Claims and
Therefore, let everyone who can, smite, slay and stab, secretly Evidence in Sources (AP® Theme: SCD) Why did
or openly, remembering that nothing can be more poisonous, Luther condemn the peasants when they rebelled against
hurtful or devilish than a rebel. . . . Catholic lords?

Source: E. G. Rupp and B. Drewery, Martin Luther: Documents of Modern History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1970).

or state churches in which the state supervised and disciplined and grandson of Emperor Maximilian (see Chart 3.1), was
church members. elected Holy Roman Emperor as Charles V. Charles ruled over
As part of the development of these state-dominated an immense empire, consisting of Spain and its overseas pos-
churches, Luther also instituted new religious services to replace sessions, the traditional Austrian Habsburg lands, Bohemia,
the Mass. These featured a worship service consisting of a ver- Hungary, the Low Countries, and the kingdom of Naples in
nacular liturgy that focused on Bible reading, preaching the word southern Italy (see Map 3.1). The extent of his possessions was
of God, and song. Following his own denunciation of clerical reflected in the languages he used. He said once that he spoke
celibacy, Luther married a former nun, Katherina von Bora (kat- Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and Ger-
uh-REE-nuh fun BOH-rah), in 1525. His union provided a model man to his horse. Politically, Charles wanted to maintain his
of married and family life for the new Protestant minister. dynasty’s control over his enormous empire; religiously, he
hoped to preserve the unity of the Catholic faith throughout
his empire. Despite Charles’s strengths, his empire was over-
Germany and the Reformation: extended, and he spent a lifetime in futile pursuit of his goals.
Religion and Politics Four major problems—the French, the papacy, the Turks, and
From its very beginning, the fate of Luther’s movement was Germany’s internal situation—cost him both his dream and his
closely tied to political affairs. In 1519, Charles I, king of Spain health. At the same time, the emperor's problems gave Luther’s

76 (8 CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

 Chart 3.1 The Habsburgs as
Maximilian I of Austria Ferdinand of Aragon Holy Roman Emperors and Kings
Holy Roman Emperor of Spain
(1493-1519)

Philip of Habsburg Joanna of Spain

Isabella of Portugal Charles V Ferdinand I

king of Spain (1516-1556) Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor (1519-1556) (1556-1564)

Philip II
king of Spain
(1556-1598)

| Maximilian of Austria ee Isabella of Castile

| Mary of Burgundy ae) Ferdinand of Aragon

] Acquired by Ferdinand, Boundaries of the
brother of Charles V Holy Roman Empire
ES] Ottoman Empire possessions

ETE LLL RE ONIN TIED

MAP 3.1 The Empire of Charles V. Charles V spent much of his reign fighting wars in Italy, against France and the Ottoman
Empire, and within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire. He failed in his main goal to secure Europe for Catholicism: the Peace
of Augsburg in 1555 recognized the equality of Catholicism and Lutheranism and let each German prince choose his realm’s religion.
@ Why would France feel threatened by the empire of Charles V?

Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany 77

movement time to grow and organize before facing the con-
certed onslaught of the Catholic forces.

THE FRENCH AND THE Papacy Charles V’s chief political

concern was his rivalry with the Valois king of France, Francis
I (1515-1547). Encircled by the possessions of the Habsburg
empire, Francis became embroiled in a series of conflicts
with Charles over disputed territories in southern France,
the Netherlands, the Rhineland, northern Spain, and Italy.
These conflicts, known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars, were
fought intermittently for twenty-four years (1521-1544), pre-
venting Charles from concentrating on the Lutheran problem
in Germany.
Meanwhile, Charles faced two other enemies. The Habsburg
emperor expected papal cooperation in dealing with the
Lutheran heresy. Papal policy, however, was guided by political
considerations, not religious ones, a clear indication that, like
the Catholic king of France, a pope could act against his religious
interests because of the political situation. Fearful of Charles’s
power in Italy, Pope Clement VII (1523-1534) joined the side of
Francis I in the second Habsburg-Valois War (1527-1529), with
catastrophic results. In April 1527, the Spanish-imperial army
of Charles V went berserk while attacking Rome and gave the
capital of Catholicism a fearful and bloody sacking. Sobered by
the experience, Clement came to terms with the emperor, and
by 1530, Charles V stood supreme over much of Italy.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE In the meantime, Charles V also

faced problems in the eastern part of his empire. In the
fifteenth century, the Ottoman Turks had overrun Constan-
tinople and established control over much of the Balkans in
southeastern Europe (see Chapter 2). Now, in the first decades
of the sixteenth century, the Ottomans posed a new threat
to Europe. Ottoman armies had taken control of much of
the North African coast and captured the Christian island of
Rhodes. Under their new leader, Suleiman (SOO-lay-mahn)
the Magnificent (1520-1566), Ottoman forces had defeated Germany/Bri
Munich,
Pinakothek,
Alte
Images

and killed King Louis of Hungary, Charles’s brother-in-law, at arles V. Charles V sought to maintain religious unity throughout his
the Battle of Mohacs (MOH-hach) in 1526. Subsequently, the vast empire by keeping all his subjects within the bounds of the Catholic
Ottomans overran most of Hungary, moved into Austria, and Church. Due to his conflict with Francis I of France and his difficulties
advanced as far as Vienna, where they were finally repulsed in with the Turks, the papacy, and the German princes, Charles was never
1529. The emperor and much of Christian Europe breathed able to check the spread of Lutheranism. This portrait of Charles V is by
the Venetian painter Titian.
a sigh of relief but still remained fearful of another Ottoman
attack.
and the emperor wound up demanding that the Lutherans
POLITICS IN GERMANY By the end of 1529, Charles was return to the Catholic Church by April 15, 1531. In February
ready to deal with Germany. The second Habsburg-Valois War 1531, fearful of Charles’s intentions, eight princes and eleven
had ended, the Turks had been defeated temporarily, and the imperial cities—all Lutheran—formed a defensive alliance
pope had been subdued. The internal political situation in the known as the Schmalkaldic League. These Protestant Ger-
Holy Roman Empire was not in his favor, however. Germany man states vowed to assist each other “whenever any one of
was a land of several hundred territorial states: princely states, us is attacked on account of the Word of God and the doc-
ecclesiastical principalities, and free imperial cities. Though all trine of the Gospel.” Religion was dividing the empire into
owed loyalty to the emperor, Germany’s medieval develop- two armed camps.
ment had enabled these states to become quite independent The renewed threat of the Turks against Vienna forced
of imperial authority. They had no desire to have a strong Charles once again to seek compromise instead of war with
emperor. the Protestant authorities. From 1532 to 1535, Charles was
Charles’s attempt to settle the Lutheran problem at the forced to fight off an Ottoman, Arab, and Barbary attack on
Diet of Augsburg in 1530 proved completely inadequate, the Mediterranean coasts of Italy and Spain. Two additional

78 CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

 CHRONOLOGY
Politics and the German The Spread of the Protestant
Reformation
Reformation
First Habsburg-Valois War 1521-1525
Second Habsburg-Valois War 1527-1529 FOCUS QUESTIONS: What were the main tenets
of Lutheranism, Zwinglianism, Anabaptism, and
Defeat of the Turks at Vienna 1529
Calvinism, and how did they differ from each other
Diet of Augsburg 1530 and from Catholicism? What impact did political,
Third Habsburg-Valois War 1535-1538 economic, and social conditions have on the
Fourth Habsburg-Valois War 1542-1544 development of these four reform movements?
Schmalkaldic Wars 1546-1555
For both Catholics and Protestant reformers, Luther’s heresy
Peace of Augsburg rm ABS5 raised the question of what constituted the correct interpreta-
tion of the Bible. The inability to agree on this issue led not only
Habsburg-Valois Wars (1535-1538 and 1542-1544) soon fol- to theological confrontations but also to bloody warfare as each
lowed and kept Charles preoccupied with military campaigns in Christian group was unwilling to admit that it could be wrong.
southern France and the Low Countries. Finally, Charles made
peace with Francis in 1544 and the Turks in 1545. Fifteen years Lutheranism in Scandinavia
after the Diet of Augsburg, Charles was finally free to resolve In 1397, the Union of Kalmar had brought about the unification of
his problem in Germany. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden under the rule of one monarch,
By the time of Luther's death in February 1546, all hopes the king of Denmark. This union, however, failed to achieve any
of a peaceful compromise had faded. Charles brought a sizable real social or political unification of the three states, particularly
imperial army of German, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish troops to since the independent-minded landed nobles worked to frustrate
do battle with the Protestants. In the first phase of the Schmalkal- any increase in monarchical centralization. By the beginning of the
dic Wars (1546-1547), the emperor’s forces decisively defeated sixteenth century, the union was on the brink of disintegration.
the Lutherans at the Battle of Miihlberg (MOOL-bayrk). Charles V In 1520, Christian II (1513-1523) of Denmark, ruler of the three
was at the zenith of his power, and the Protestant cause seemed Scandinavian kingdoms, was overthrown by Swedish barons led
doomed. by Gustavus Vasa. Three years later, Vasa became king of an inde-
Appearances proved misleading, however. The Schmalkal- pendent Sweden (1523-1560) and took the lead in establishing a
dic League was soon reestablished, and the German Protestant Lutheran Reformation in his country and by the 1530s had created
princes allied themselves with the new French king, Henry a Swedish Lutheran National Church.
II (1547-1559)—a Catholic—to revive the war in 1552. This Meanwhile, the Danish nobility had also deposed Christian
time Charles was less fortunate and had to negotiate a truce. II as the king of Denmark. He was succeeded by his uncle, who
Exhausted by his efforts to maintain religious orthodoxy and became FrederickI (1523-1533). Frederick encouraged Lutheran
the unity of his empire, Charles abandoned German affairs to preachers to spread their evangelical doctrines and to intro-
his brother Ferdinand, abdicated all of his titles in 1556, and duce a Lutheran liturgy into the Danish church service. In the
retired to his country estate in Spain to spend the remaining 1530s, under Frederick’s successor, Christian III (1534-1559), a
two years of his life in solitude. Lutheran state church was installed
An end to religious warfare in Ger- with the king as the supreme author-
many came in 1555 with the Peace of ity in all ecclesiastical affairs. Christian
Augsburg, which marked an impor- was also instrumental in spreading
tant turning point in the history of the Lutheranism to Norway. By the 1540s,
Reformation. The agreement formally Scandinavia had become a Lutheran
acknowledged the division of Chris- stronghold. Like the German princes,
tianity, with Lutheranism granted the Scandinavian monarchs had been
equal legal standing with Catholi- the dominant force in establishing
cism. Moreover, the peace settlement state-run churches.
accepted the right of each German
ruler to determine the religion of
The Zwinglian
his subjects (but not the right of the Reformation
subjects to choose their religion). In the sixteenth century, the Swiss
Charles’s hope for a united empire Confederation was a loose associa-
had been completely dashed, and the tion of thirteen self-governing states
ideal of medieval Christian unity was called cantons. Theoretically part
irretrievably lost. The rapid prolifera- of the Holy Roman Empire, they
tion of new Protestant groups served had become virtually independent
to underscore that new reality. The Swiss Cantons in 1499. The six forest cantons were

The Spread of the Protestant Reformation ™ 79

democratic republics; the seven urban cantons, which included
Ziirich, Bern, and Basel, were for the most part governed by
city councils controlled by narrow oligarchies of wealthy
citizens.
Ulrich Zwingli (OOL-rikh TSFING-lee) (1484-1531) was a
product of the Swiss forest cantons. The precocious son of a
relatively prosperous peasant, the young Zwingli eventually
obtained both bachelor of arts and master of arts degrees. Dur-
ing his university education at Vienna and Basel, Zwingli was
strongly influenced by Christian humanism. Ordained a priest
in 1506, he accepted a parish post in rural Switzerland until
his appointment as a cathedral priest in the Great Minster of
Ziirich in 1518. Through his preaching there, Zwingli began the
Reformation in Switzerland.
Zwingli’s preaching of the Gospel caused such unrest that
in 1523 the city council held a public disputation or debate in
the town hall. The disputation became a standard method of
spreading the Reformation to many cities. It gave an advantage
to reformers, since they had the power of new ideas and Cath-
olics were not used to defending their teachings. The victory
went to Zwingli’s party, and the council declared that “Mayor,
Council and Great Council of Ziirich, in order to do away with
disturbance and discord, have upon due deliberation and con-
sultation decided and resolved that Master Zwingli should con-
tinue as heretofore to proclaim the Gospel and the pure sacred
Gianni
Orti/The
Dagli
Archive
NY
Resource,
Art
at
Scripture.”’°
Zwingli. Ulrich Zwingli began the Reformation in Switzerland through
REFORMS IN ZURICH Over the next two years, a city coun- his preaching in Ziirich. Zwingli’s theology was accepted in Ziirich and
cil strongly influenced by Zwingli promulgated evangelical soon spread to other Swiss cities. This portrait of Zwingli was done by
reforms in Ztirich. Zwingli looked to the state to supervise an unknown artist in the early sixteenth century.

the church. He declared that a church without the magistrate

is “mutilated and incomplete.” The city council abolished rel- Protestant political leaders, especially Landgrave Philip of
ics and images, removed all paintings and decorations from Hesse, fearful that Charles V would take advantage of the divi-
the churches, and replaced them with whitewashed walls. As sion between the reformers, attempted to promote an alliance
Zwingli remarked, “The images are not to be endured; for all of the Swiss and German reformed churches by persuading
that God has forbidden, there can be no compromise.”"’ A new the leaders of both groups to attend a colloquy (conference) at
liturgy consisting of Scripture reading, prayer, and sermons Marburg to resolve their differences. Able to agree on virtually
replaced the Mass, and music was eliminated from the service everything else, the gathering splintered over the interpretation
as a distraction from the pure word of God. Monasticism, of the Lord’s Supper (see the box on p. 81). Zwingli believed
pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, clerical celibacy, and that the scriptural words “This is my body” and “This is my
the pope’s authority were all abolished as remnants of papal blood” should be taken symbolically, not literally. To Zwingli,
Christianity. Zwingli’s movement soon spread to other cities in the Lord’s Supper was only a meal of remembrance, and he
Switzerland, including Bern in 1528 and Basel in 1529. refused to accept Luther’s insistence on the real presence of
the body and blood of Jesus “in, with, and under the bread and
A FUTILE SEARCH FOR UNITY By 1528, Zwingli’s reform wine.” The Marburg Colloquy of 1529 produced no agreement
movement faced a serious political problem as the forest and no evangelical alliance. It was a foretaste of the issues that
cantons remained staunchly Catholic. Zitirich feared that they would divide one reform group from another and lead to the
would ally with the Habsburgs. To counteract this danger, creation of different Protestant groups.
Zwingli attempted to build a league of evangelical cities by In October 1531, war erupted between the Swiss Protestant
seeking an agreement with Luther and the German reformers. and Catholic cantons. Ziirich’s army was routed, and Zwingli
An alliance between them seemed possible, since the Refor- was found wounded on the battlefield. His enemies killed him,
mation had spread to the southern German cities, especially cut up his body, burned the pieces, and scattered the ashes. This
Strasbourg, where Martin Bucer (1491-1551) had instituted a Swiss civil war of 1531 provided an early indication of what reli-
moderate reform movement containing characteristics of both gious passions would lead to‘in the sixteenth century. Unable to
Luther’s and Zwingli’s movements. Both the German and the find peaceful ways to agree on the meaning of the Gospel, the
Swiss reformers realized the need for unity to defend against disciples of Christianity resorted to violence and decision by
imperial and conservative opposition. force. When he heard of Zwingli’s death, Martin Luther, who

80 Mf CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

OPPOSING

A Reformation Debate: Conflict at Marburg

DEBATES PLAYED A CRUCIAL ROLE in the Reformation by the article of faith: “taken up into heaven, seated
period. They were a primary instrument in introducing the at the right hand of the Father.” Otherwise, it would
Reformation into innumerable cities as well as a means of be absurd to look for him in the Lord’s Supper at the
resolving differences among like-minded Protestant groups. same time that Christ is telling us that he is in heaven.
This selection contains an excerpt from the vivacious and often One and the same body cannot possibly be in different
brutal debate between Luther and Zwingli over the sacrament places...
of the Lord’s Supper at Marburg in [Link] two protagonists Lutuer: | call upon you as before: your basic contentions are
failed to reach agreement. shaky. Give way, and give glory to God!
ZwIncut: And we call upon you to give glory to God and
The Marburg Colloquy, 1529 to quit begging the question. The issue at stake is this:
THE HEssIAN CHANCELLOR FEIGE: My gracious prince and Where is the proof of your position? . . . You're trying to
lord [Landgrave Philip of Hesse] has summoned you outwit me. I stand by this passage in the sixth chapter of
for the express and urgent purpose of settling the John, verse 63, and shall not be shaken from it. You'll have
dispute over the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. . . . Let to sing another tune.
everyone on both sides present his arguments in a spirit LuTHER: You're being obnoxious.
of moderation, . . Now then, Doctor Luther, you may ZWINGLI: (excitedly) Don’t you believe that Christ was attempting
proceed. inJohn 6 to help those who did not understand?
Lutuer: Noble prince, gracious lord! Undoubtedly the LuTHER: You're trying to dominate things! You insist on
colloquy is well intentioned. . . . Although I have no passing judgment . . . It is your point that must be proved,
intention of changing my mind, which is firmly made not mine. But let us stop this sort of thing. It serves no
up, I will nevertheless present the grounds of my belief purpose.
and show where the others are in error. . . . Your basic ZWINGLI: It certainly does! It is for you to prove that the
contentions are these: In the last analysis you wish to passage inJohn 6 speaks of a physical repast.
prove that a body cannot be in two places at once, and LUTHER: You express yourself poorly and make about as much
you produce arguments about the unlimited body which progress as a cane standing in a corner. You're going
are based on natural reason. I do not question how Christ nowhere.
can be God and man and how the two natures can be ZWINGLI: No, no, no! This is the passage that will break your
joined. For God is more powerful than all our ideas, and neck!
we must submit to his word. LuTHER: Don't be so sure of yourself. Necks don’t break this
Prove that Christ’s body is not there where the way. You're in Hesse, not Switzerland.
Scripture says, “This is my body!” Rational proofs I will
not listen to. It is God who commands, “Take, eat, this is ©) AP® HISTORICAL THINKING SKILL: Claims and
my body.” I request, therefore, valid scriptural proof to Evidence in Sources (AP® Theme: CID) Luther and
the contrary. Zwingli could not agree. What political and religious
ZwIncLt: I insist that the words of the Lord’s Supper must consequences could result from disagreement among
be figurative. This is ever apparent, and even required Reformation leaders?

Source: “The Marburg Colloquy,” in Great Debates of the Reformation, ed. D. Ziegler (New York: Modern Library, 1969).

had not forgotten the confrontation at Marburg, is supposed to Anabaptism was especially attractive to the peasants, weavers,
have remarked that Zwingli “got what he deserved.” miners, and artisans who had been adversely affected by the
economic changes of the age.
The Radical Reformation: The Anabaptists
Although many reformers were ready to allow the state to play THE IDEAS OF THE ANABAPTISTS Anabaptists everywhere
an important, if not dominant, role in church affairs, some peo- held certain ideas in common. All felt that the true Christian
ple rejected this kind of magisterial reformation and favored church was a voluntary association of believers who had
a far more radical reform movement. Collectively called the undergone spiritual rebirth and had then been baptized into
Anabaptists, these radicals were actually members of a large the church. Anabaptists advocated adult rather than infant
variety of groups who shared some common characteristics. baptism. No one, they believed, should be forced to accept the

The Spread of the Protestant Reformation @ 81

truth of the Bible. They also tried to return literally to the prac- the kingdom of God with Miinster as the New Jerusalem. By
tices and spirit of early Christianity. Adhering to the accounts the end of February 1534, these millenarian Anabaptists had
of early Christian communities in the New Testament, they taken control of the city, driven out everyone they considered
followed a strict sort of democracy in which all believers were godless or unbelievers, burned all books except the Bible, and
considered equal. Each church chose its own minister, who proclaimed communal ownership of all property. Eventually,
might be any member of the community, since all Christians the leadership of this New Jerusalem fell into the hands of
were considered priests (though women were often excluded). one man, John of Leiden, who proclaimed himself king of the
Those chosen as ministers had the duty to lead services, which New Jerusalem. As king, he would lead the elect from Miinster
were very simple and contained nothing not found in the early out to cover the entire world and purify it of evil by the sword
church. Like early Christians, Anabaptists, who called them- in preparation for Jesus’s Second Coming and the creation of
selves “Christians” or “Saints,” accepted that they would have a New Age. In this new kingdom, John of Leiden believed,
to suffer for their faith. Anabaptists rejected theological specu- all goods would be held in common and the saints would live
lation in favor of simple Christian living according to what they without suffering.
believed was the pure word of God. The Lord’s Supper was But it was not to be. As the Catholic prince-bishop of Mtin-
interpreted as a remembrance, a meal of fellowship celebrated ster gathered a large force and laid siege to the city, the new
in the evening in private houses according to Jesus’s example. king repeatedly had to postpone the ushering forth from Miin-
Unlike the Catholics and other Protestants, most Anabap- ster. Finally, after many inhabitants had starved, a joint army of
tists believed in the complete separation of church and state. Catholics and Lutherans recaptured the city in June 1535 and
Not only was government to be excluded from the realm of executed the radical Anabaptist leaders in gruesome fashion.
religion, but it was not even supposed to exercise political juris- The New Jerusalem had ceased to exist.
diction over real Christians. Human law had no power over Purged of its fantasies and its more extrerne elements,
those whom God had saved. Anabaptists refused to hold politi- Dutch Anabaptism reverted to its pacifist tendencies, especially
cal office or bear arms because many took the commandment evident in the work of Menno Simons (1496-1561), the man
“Thou shall not kill” literally, although some Anabaptist groups most responsible for rejuvenating Dutch Anabaptism. A popu-
did become quite violent. Their political beliefs as much as their lar leader, Menno dedicated his life to the spread of a peaceful,
religious beliefs caused the Anabaptists to be regarded as dan- evangelical Anabaptism that stressed separation from the world
gerous radicals who threatened the very fabric of sixteenth- in order to truly emulate the life of Jesus. Simons imposed strict
century society. Indeed, the chief thing Protestants and Catho- discipline on his followers and banned those who refused to
lics could agree on was the need to stamp out the Anabaptists. conform to the rules. The Mennonites, as his followers were
called, spread from the Netherlands into northwestern Ger-
VARIETIES OF ANABAPTISTS One early group of Anabap- many and eventually into Poland and Lithuania as well as the
tists known as the Swiss Brethren arose in Ziirich. Their ideas, New World. Both the Mennonites and the Amish, who are also
especially adult baptism, frightened Zwingli, and they were descended from the Anabaptists, maintain communities in the
expelled from the city in 1523. Because the first members of United States and Canada today.
the Swiss Brethren who were baptized as adults had already
been baptized as children (in the Catholic Church), their oppo- The Reformation in England
nents labeled them Anabaptists or Rebaptists. Under Roman The English Reformation was initiated by King Henry VIII
law, such people were subject to the death penalty. (1509-1547), who wanted to divorce his first wife, Catherine of
As the teachings of the Swiss Brethren spread through south- Aragon, because she had failed to produce a male heir. Further-
ern Germany, the Austrian Habsburg lands, and Switzerland, more, Henry had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn (BUH-lin or
Anabaptists suffered ruthless persecution, especially after the buh-LIN), a lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine. Anne’s unwill-
Peasants’ War of 1524-1525, when the upper classes resorted ingness to be only the king’s mistress and the king’s desire to
to repression. Virtually eradicated in Germany, Anabaptist sur- have a legitimate male heir made their marriage imperative, but
vivors emerged in Moravia and Poland, and in the Netherlands, the king’s first marriage stood in the way.
Anabaptism took on a strange form. Henry relied on Cardinal Wolsey, the highest-ranking Eng-
In the 1530s, the city of Miinster, in Westphalia in north- lish church official and lord chancellor to the king, to obtain
western Germany near the Dutch border, was the site of an from Pope Clement VII an annulment of the king’s mar-
Anabaptist uprising that determined the fate of Dutch Anabap- riage. Normally, the pope might have been willing to oblige,
tism. Seat of a powerful Catholic prince-bishop, Miinster had but the sack of Rome in 1527 had made the pope dependent
experienced severe economic disasters, including crop failure on the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who happened to be
and plague. Although converted to Lutheranism in 1532, Miin- the nephew of Queen Catherine. Discretion dictated delay in
ster experienced a more radical mass religious hysteria that led granting the English king’s request. Impatient with the process,
to legal recognition for the Anabaptists. Soon Miinster became Henry dismissed Wolsey in 1529.
a haven for Anabaptists from the surrounding neighborhood, Two new advisers now became the king’s agents in fulfill-
especially the more wild-eyed variety known as Melchiorites, ing his wishes. These were Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556),
who adhered to a vivid millenarianism. They believed that the who became archbishop of Canterbury in 1532, and Thomas
end of the world was at hand and that they would usher in Cromwell (1485-1540), the king’s principal secretary after the

82 HM CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

 fall of Wolsey. They advised the king to obtain an annulment of Christendom?” Because his conscience could not accept the
of his marriage in England’s own ecclesiastical courts. The victory of the national state over the church, nor would he, as
most important step toward this goal was an act of Parliament a Christian, bow his head to a secular ruler in matters of faith,
cutting off all appeals from English church courts to Rome, More was beheaded in London onJuly 6, 1535.
a piece of legislation that essentially abolished papal author- Recent research that emphasizes the strength of Catholi-
ity in England. Henry no longer needed the pope to obtain cism in England suggests that Thomas More was not alone in
his annulment. He was now in a hurry because Anne Boleyn his view of the new order. In fact, one historian has argued that
had become pregnant and he had secretly married her in Janu- Catholicism was vibrant in England in both the fifteenth and
ary 1533 to legitimize the expected heir. In May, as archbishop sixteenth centuries; in his view, the English Reformation was
of Canterbury and head of the highest ecclesiastical court in alien to many English people.
England, Thomas Cranmer ruled that the king’s marriage to
Catherine was “null and absolutely void” and then validated THE NEW ORDER Thomas Cromwell worked out the details
Henry’s marriage to Anne. At the beginning of June, Anne was of the Tudor government’s new role in church affairs based on
crowned queen. Three months later, a child was born. Much the centralized power exercised by the king and Parliament.
to the king’s disappointment, the baby was a girl, whom they Cromwell also came to his extravagant king’s financial rescue
named Elizabeth. with a daring plan for the dissolution of the monasteries.
In 1534, Parliament completed the break of the Church of About four hundred religious houses were closed in 1536, and
England with Rome by passing the Act of Supremacy, which the king confiscated their lands and possessions. Many were
declared that the king was “taken, accepted, and reputed the sold to nobles, gentry, and some merchants. The king added
only supreme head on earth of the Church of England.” This enormously to his treasury and also to his ranks of supporters,
meant that the English monarch now controlled the church in who now had a stake in the new Tudor order.
all matters of doctrine, clerical appointments, and discipline. In Although Henry VIII had broken with the papacy, little
addition, Parliament passed the Treason Act, making it punish- change occurred in matters of doctrine, theology, and cer-
able by death to deny that the king was the supreme head of emony. Some of his supporters, such as Archbishop Thomas
the church. Cranmer, wished to have a religious reformation as well as an
One who challenged the new order was Thomas More, the administrative one, but Henry was unyielding. Nevertheless,
humanist and former lord chancellor, who saw clearly to the some clergymen ignored Henry on the matter of priestly celi-
heart of the issue: loyalty to the pope in Rome was now trea- bacy and secretly married.
son in England. More refused to support the new laws and was The final decade of Henry’s reign was preoccupied with for-
duly tried for treason. At his trial, he asked, rhetorically, what eign affairs, factional intrigue, and a continued effort to find
the effect of the actions of the king and Parliament would be: the perfect wife. Henry soon tired of Anne Boleyn and had her
“Therefore am I not bound . . . to conform my conscience to beheaded in 1536 on a charge of adultery. His third wife, Jane
the Council of one realm [England] against the general Council Seymour, produced the long-awaited male heir but died twelve

a ms Ni and
an | uccessors

This allegorical painting of the Tudor

succession, entitled The Family of

B
Henry VIII, was done by an English
artist about forty years after the death
S| of Henry VIII. King Henry sits on his
> | throne under the Tudor Coat of arms.
At the far left is the figure of a Roman
soldier representing the god of war.
BS I Next is Philip Il of Spain, the husband
a of Mary Tudor, who stands at his right.
To the right of Henry stand Edward,
Elizabeth, and two female figures who
represent peace and plenty.

a
g
S|
5 |

me he

5 Lt
= |

Museum
National
Wales/Bridgeman
Images

The Spread of the Protestant Reformation 83

days later. His fourth marriage, to Anne of Cleves, a German period of life. Having thus received some taste and knowledge
princess, was arranged for political reasons. Henry relied on a of true godliness, I was immediately inflamed with so intense
painted portrait of Anne when he made the arrangements, but a desire to make progress therein, although I did not leave off
he was disappointed at her physical appearance when he saw other studies, I yet pursued them with less ardor.”
her in person and soon divorced her. His fifth wife, Catherine Calvin’s conversion was solemn and straightforward. He was
Howard, was more attractive but less moral. When she com- so convinced of the inner guidance of God that he became the
mitted adultery, Henry had her beheaded. His last wife was most determined of all the Protestant reformers.
Catherine Parr, who married the king in 1543 and outlived him. After his conversion and newfound conviction, Calvin was
Henry was succeeded by the underage and sickly Edward VI
no longer safe in Paris, since King Francis I periodically perse-
(1547-1553), the son of his third wife.
cuted Protestants. Eventually, Calvin made his way to Basel,
Since the new king was only nine years old at the time of where in 1536 he published the first edition of the Institutes
his accession to the throne, real control of England passed to a of the Christian Religion, a masterful synthesis of Protestant
council of regency. During Edward's reign, Archbishop Cran-
thought that immediately secured his reputation as one of the
mer and others inclined toward Protestant doctrines were able
new leaders of Protestantism.
to move the Church of England in a more Protestant direction.
New acts of Parliament instituted the right of the clergy to
CALVIN’S IDEAS On most important doctrines, Calvin stood
marry, eliminated images, and authorized a revised Protestant
very close to Luther. He adhered to the doctrine of justifica-
liturgy that was elaborated in a new prayer book and liturgi-
tion by faith alone to explain how humans achieved salvation.
cal guide known as the Book of Common Prayer. These rapid
Calvin also placed much emphasis on the absolute sovereignty
changes in doctrine and liturgy aroused much opposition and
of God or the “power, grace, and glory of God.” Thus,
prepared the way for the reaction that occurred when Mary,
“God asserts his possession of omnipotence, and claims our
Henry's first daughter by Catherine of Aragon, came to the
throne.

REACTION UNDER MARY Mary (1553-1558) was a Catholic

who fully intended to restore England to the Roman Catholic
fold. But her restoration of Catholicism, achieved by joint
action of the monarch and Parliament, aroused opposition.
There was widespread antipathy to Mary’s unfortunate mar-
riage to Philip II, son of Charles V and the future king of
Spain. Philip was strongly disliked in England, and Mary’s
foreign policy of alliance with Spain aroused further hostility,
especially when her forces lost Calais, the last English posses-
sion in France after the Hundred Years’ War. The burning of
more than three hundred Protestant heretics aroused further
ire against “bloody Mary.” As a result of her policies, Mary
managed to achieve the opposite of what she had intended:
England was more Protestant by the end of her reign than it
had been at the beginning. When she came to power, Protes-
tantism had become identified with church destruction and
religious anarchy. Now people identified it with English resis-
tance to Spanish interference. Mary’s death in 1558 ended the
restoration of Catholicism in England.

John Calvin and Calvinism

Of the second generation of Protestant reformers, one stands
out as the systematic theologian and organizer of the Protes-
tant movement—John Calvin (1509-1564). Calvin received a
remarkably diverse education in humanistic studies and law in
his native France. He was also influenced by Luther’s writings,
which were being circulated and read by French intellectuals as
early as 1523. In 1533, Calvin experienced a religious crisis that
determined the rest of his life’s work. He described it in these France/Bri
Paris,
France,
of
Church
Images
Reformed
The

words: After a conversion experience, John Calvin abandoned his

life as a humanist and became a reformer. In 1536, Calvin began working
God, by a sudden conversion, subdued and brought my mind
to reform the city of Geneva, where he remained until his death in 1564.
to a teachable frame, which was more hardened in such This is a seventeenth-century portrait of Calvin done by a member of
matters than might have been expected from one at my early the Swiss school.

84. CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

acknowledgment of this attribute; not such as is imagined by CALVIN’S GENEVA Before 1536, John Calvin had essentially
sophists, vain, idle, and almost asleep, but vigilant, efficacious, been a scholar. But in that year, he took up a ministry in
operative and engaged in continual action.” Geneva that lasted, except for a brief exile (1538-1541), until
One of the ideas derived from his emphasis on the absolute his death in 1564. Calvin achieved a major success in 1541 when
sovereignty of God—predestination—gave a unique cast to the city council accepted his new church constitution, known
Calvin’s teachings, although Luther also believed in this prin- as the Ecclesiastical Ordinances.
ciple. This “eternal decree,” as Calvin called it, meant that God This document created a church government that used both
had predestined some people to be saved (the elect) and others clergy and laymen in the service of the church. The Consistory,
to be damned (the reprobate). According to Calvin, “He has a special body for enforcing moral discipline, was set up as a
once for all determined, both whom he would admit to sal- court to oversee the moral life and doctrinal purity of Genevans
vation, and whom he would condemn to destruction.”® Calvin (see the box on p. 86). As its power increased, the Consistory
identified three tests that might indicate possible salvation: an went from “fraternal corrections” to the use of public penance
open profession of faith, a “decent and godly life,” and partici- and excommunication. More serious cases could be turned
pation in the sacraments of baptism and communion. In no over to the city council for punishments greater than excom-
instance did Calvin ever suggest that worldly success or mate- munication. During Calvin’s last years, stricter laws against
rial wealth was a sign of election. Significantly for the future of blasphemy were enacted and enforced with banishment and
Calvinism, although Calvin himself stressed that there could be public whippings.
no absolute certainty of salvation; some of his followers did not Calvin’s success in Geneva enabled the city to become
always make this distinction. The practical psychological effect a vibrant center of Protestantism. John Knox, the Calvinist
of predestination was to give some later Calvinists an unshak- reformer of Scotland, called it “the most perfect school of Christ
able conviction that they were doing God’s work on earth. It on earth.” Following Calvin’s lead, missionaries trained in Geneva
is no accident that Calvinism became the activist international were sent to all parts of Europe. Calvinism became established
form of Protestantism. in France, the Netherlands, Scotland, and central and eastern
To Calvin, the church was a divine institution responsible Europe. By the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism had replaced
for preaching the word of God and administering the sacra- Lutheranism as the international form of Protestantism, and Cal-
ments. Calvin kept the same two sacraments as other Protes- vin’s Geneva stood as the fortress of the Reformation.
tant reformers, baptism and the Lord’s Supper. Baptism was a
sign of the remission of sins. Calvin believed in the real pres-
ence of Jesus in the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper, but only The Social Impact of the
in a spiritual sense. Jesus’s body is at the right hand of God and Protestant Reformation
thus cannot be in the sacrament, but to the believer, Jesus is
spiritually present in the Lord’s Supper. FOCUS QUESTION: What impact did the
Protestant Reformation have on society in the
sixteenth century?

fetale)\fo}melcng §=New Reform Movements Because Christianity was such an integral part of European life,
it was inevitable that the Reformation would have an impact on
The Zwinglian Reformation the family, education, and popular religious practices.
Zwingli made cathedral priest at Zurich 1518
Reform adopted in Zurich 1523
The Family
For centuries, Catholicism had praised the family and sanctified
Marburg Colloquy 1529
its existence by making marriage a sacrament. But the Catho-
The Anabaptists lic Church’s high regard for abstinence from sex as the surest
Anabaptists expelled from Zurich 1523 way to holiness made the celibate state of the clergy preferable
New Jerusalem in Munster 1534-1535 to marriage. Nevertheless, because not all men could remain
chaste, marriage offered the best means to control sexual
The Reformation in England
intercourse and give it a purpose, the procreation of children.
Henry VIII 1509-1547 To some extent, this attitude persisted among the Protestant
Act of Supremacy 1534 reformers; Luther, for example, argued that sex in marriage
Edward VI 1547-1553 allowed one to “make use of this sex in order to avoid sin,” and
Calvin advised that every man should “abstain from marriage
Mary 1553-1558
only so long as he is fit to observe celibacy.” If “his power to
Calvin and Calvinism tame lust fails him,” then he must marry.
Institutes of the Christian Religion 1536 But the Reformation did bring some change to the con-
Calvin begins ministry in Geneva 1536 ception of the family. Both Catholic and Protestant clergy
preached sermons advocating a more positive approach to fam-
Ecclesiastical Ordinances 1541 ily relationships. The Protestants were especially important in

The Social Impact of the Protestant Reformation @ 85

| CALVIN’S RULES FOR THE CHURCH IN GENEVA |

JOHN CALVIN HAD EMPHASIZED IN HIS reform movement there be any disorders in the Church and discuss together such
that the church should have the ability to enforce proper remedies as shall be necessary. . . . If any one shall in contempt
behavior. Consequently, the Ecclesiastical Ordinances of refuse to appear before them, it shall be their duty to inform
1541, the constitution of the church in Geneva, provided for the council, so that it may supply a remedy. . . .
an order of elders whose function was to cooperate with the Those who are found to have rosaries or idols to adore,
pastors in maintaining discipline, “to watch over the conduct of let them be sent before the consistory, and in addition to the
every individual,” as Calvin expressed it. These selections from reproof they receive there, let them be sent before the council.
Calvin’s plan demonstrate the organization of the elders and Let the same be done with those who go on a pilgrimage.
some of the rules that were expected to be followed in Geneva. Those who observe feasts or [Catholic] fasts should only
be admonished. Those who go to mass shall, besides being
Pian for the Elders and Consistory admonished, be sent before the council, and it shall consider
and Rules for the Church in Geneva the propriety of punishing the offenders by imprisonment or
The office of the elders is to watch over the conduct of every special fines, as it judges best.
individual, to admonish lovingly those whom they see doing He who blasphemes, swearing by the body or blood of
wrong or leading an irregular life. When there is need, they our Lord, or in like manner, shall kiss the earth for the first
should lay the matter before the body deputed to inflict paternal offense, pay five sous for the second and ten for the third.
disciple [that is, the Consistory] of which they are members. As He who contradicts the word of God shall be sent before the
the Church is organized, it is best that the elders be chosen, two consistory for reproof, or before the council for punishment,
from the small council, four from the council of sixty, and six as the case may require. If any one sings indecent songs, or
from the council of two hundred [the councils constituted the. dances or otherwise, he shall be kept in prison three days and
government of the city of Geneva]; they should be men of good then sent to the council.
life and honest, without reproach and beyond suspicion, above all,
God-fearing without reproach and endowed with spiritual pru- AP® HISTORICAL THINKING SKILL: Claims and
dence. And they should be so chosen they be distributed in each Evidence in Sources; AP® HISTORY REASONING
quarter of the city, so that they can have an eye on everything. . . . PROCESS: Continuity and Change (AP® Themes: SOP,
The elders, who have been described, shall assemble once a SCD) What do the prohibitions suggest about the
week with the ministers, namely Thursday morning, to see if persistence of Catholic practice in Geneva?

Source:J.H. Robinson, Readings in European History, vol. 2 (Boston: Ginn & Company, 1906), pp. 133-134.

developing this new view of the family. Because Protestantism Obedience to her husband was not a wife’s only role; her
had eliminated any idea of special holiness for celibacy, abolish- other important duty was to bear children. To Calvin and
ing both monasticism and a celibate clergy, the family could be Luther, this function of women was part of the divine plan.
placed at the center of human life, and a new stress on “mutual God punishes women for the sins of Eve by the burdens of
love between man and wife” could be extolled. But were doc- procreation and feeding and nurturing their children, but,
trine and reality the same? For more radical religious groups, at said Luther, “it is a gladsome punishment if you consider
times they were (see the box on p. 87). One Anabaptist wrote the hope of eternal life and the honor of motherhood which
to his wife before his execution, “My faithful helper, my loyal had been left to her.”'* Although the Protestant reformers
friend. I praise God that he gave you to me, you who have sus- sanctified this role of woman as mother and wife, viewing
tained me in all my trial.”'° But more often reality reflected the it as a holy vocation, Protestantism also left few alterna-
traditional roles of husband as the ruler and wife as the obedi- tives for women. Because monasticism had been destroyed,
ent servant whose chief duty was to please her husband. Luther life as a nun was no longer available; for most Protestant
stated it clearly: women, family life was their only destiny. At the same time,
by emphasizing the father as “ruler” and hence the center
The rule remains with the husband, and the wife is compelled of household religion, Protestantism even removed the
to obey him by God’s command. He rules the home and the woman from her traditional role as controller of religion
state, wages war, defends his possessions, tills the soil, builds, in the home.
plants, etc. The woman on the other hand is like a nail driven Protestant reformers called on men and women to read the
into the wall . . . so the wife should stay at home and look after Bible and participate in religious services together. In this way,
the affairs of the household, as one who has been deprived the reformers did provide a stimulus for the education of girls
of the ability of administering those affairs that are outside so that they could read the Bible and other religious literature.
and that concern the state. She does not go beyond her most The city council of Zwickau, for example, established a girls’
personal duties.” school in 1525. But these schools were designed to encourage

86 MM CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

oe A PROTESTANT WOMAN
IN THE INITIAL ZEAL OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION, Well then, this is now enough. However, if Mr. Ludwig is
women were frequently allowed to play unusual roles. Katherine not satisfied with his injudicious condemnation of me, a poor
Zell of Germany (ca. 1497-1562) first preached beside her solitary women, then I want to take God as my helper and
husband in 1527. After the deaths of her two children, she further recount my dear husband's and my faith, teaching and
devoted the rest of her life to helping her husband and their life, and let anyone who wants to do so judge who has fallen
reform faith. This selection is taken from one of her letters to away or climbed out of the right way! Now, dear Strasbourg,
the city of Strasbourg to defend herself against Ludwig Rabus, a read this letter that Mr. Ludwig Rabus sent to me and judge
Lutheran minister who had criticized her activities. without any favor and ill humor toward him or me. If lam
owed this and have behaved as he describes, then I will gladly
A Letter to the Whole Citizenship of the City
bear my punishment. But I believe that no Jew would give me
of Strasbourg from Katherine Zell
such a testimony and bring such a judgment on me. I am also
So that you, dear Strasbourg, may know why I have first intro- assured in my heart that I stand before my Lord Christ and His
duced this long speech about how I was loved in my youth and heavenly Father in a fitting way through the power of His Spirit;
marriage (a speech that should be unnecessary!) so read now I stand before Him through the great and high merit of Christ
also what disrespect and judgmentI have received in my old in whom I believe, who also will bring to light this wicked letter
age. Therefore I have put here the letter that Mr. Ludwig sent to or witness by Mr. Ludwig (which lies about me) on the great
me. See how he ascribes to me insult, dishonor and godlessness day of His glorious appearance, when all the books of the
together with all errors and heresies before God and human conscience with stand open. Yes, here I stand also before many
beings. He hands me over to the devil, with whom (God be people who know me, who know my life story and have seen
praised) I have nothing to do forever, but I belong to my Lord me from youth: as a young woman in my father’s house, in my
Jesus Christ, who with His own blood redeemed me from the marriage, and now in my grieving widowhood—let them also
devil. So besides showing Rabus’s letter I also seek to give a full judge this matter between Mr. Ludwig and me.
accounting of my faith to anyone who wants it. In this account
you may see whether my good husband’s faith and mine are
alike or unlike or whether my confidence and faith in the Lord AP® HISTORICAL THINKING SKILL: Claims and Evidence
Jesus have changed or not. However, I will clearly show Rabus in Sources (AP® Theme: SCD) How typical do you think
that he and others have not kept to the pure knowledge of Jesus Katherine Zell's experience was? Was she taking any risks in
Christ as the old architects of our church taught us, . . . making the statements she did?

Source: Elsie McKee, Church Mother: The Writings of a Protestant Reformer in Sixteenth-Century Germany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), pp. 230-231.

proper moral values rather than intellectual development and and wealthier bourgeoisie, Protestant schools were aimed at a
really did little to improve the position of women in society. much wider audience. Protestantism created an increased need
Likewise, when women attempted to take more active roles for at least a semiliterate body of believers who could read the
in religious life, reformers—Lutheran and Calvinist alike— Bible for themselves.
shrank back in horror. To them, the equality of the Gospel While adopting the classical emphasis of humanist schools,
did not mean overthrowing the inequality of social classes or Protestant reformers broadened the base of the people being
the sexes. Calvin also made clear what he thought of women educated. Convinced of the need to provide the church with
rulers: “the government of women . . is utterly at variance good Christians and good pastors as well as the state with good
with the legitimate order of nature. . . . For a female rule badly administrators and citizens, Martin Luther advocated that all
organized is like a tyranny, and is to be tolerated until God children should have the opportunity of an education provided
sees fit to overthrow it.”’? Overall, the Protestant Reforma- by the state. To that end, he urged the cities and villages of
tion did not noticeably transform women’s subordinate place Saxony to establish schools paid for by the public. Luther’s ideas
in society. were shared by his Wittenberg co-worker Philip Melanchthon,
whose educational efforts earned him the title of Praecepter
Germaniae (PREE-sep-tur gayr-MAHN-ee-ee), the Teacher of
Education in the Reformation Germany. In his scheme for education in Saxony, Melanchthon
The Reformation had an important effect on the develop- divided students into three classes or divisions based on their
ment of education in Europe. Renaissance humanism had age or capabilities.
significantly altered the content of education, and Protestant Following Melanchthon’s example, the Protestants in
educators were very successful in implementing and using Germany were responsible for introducing the gymnasium, or
humanist methods in Protestant secondary schools and univer- secondary school, where the humanist emphasis on the liberal
sities. Unlike the humanist schools, however, which had been arts based on instruction in Greek and Latin was combined with
mostly for an elite, the sons and a few daughters of the nobility religious instruction. Most famous was the school in Strasbourg

The Social Impact of the Protestant Reformation @ 87

Images
Basel/Giraudon/Bridgeman
Kunstsammlung,
Offentliche

A Sixteenth-Century Classroom. Protestants in Germany developed secondary schools that combined

instruction in the liberal arts with religious education. This scene from a painting by Ambrosius Holbein
shows a schoolmaster instructing a pupil in the alphabet while his wife helps a little girl.

founded by Johannes Sturm in 1538, which served as a model The Catholic Reformation
for other Protestant schools. John Calvin’s Genevan Academy,
founded in 1559, was organized in two distinct parts. The “pri- / FOCUS QUESTION: What measures did the
vate school” or gymnasium was divided into seven classes for Roman Catholic Church take to reform itself and to
young people who were taught Latin and Greek grammar and combat Protestantism in the sixteenth century?
literature as well as logic. In the “public school,” students were
taught philosophy, Hebrew, Greek, and theology. The Genevan By the mid-sixteenth century, Lutheranism had become estab-
Academy, which eventually became a university, came to con- lished in parts of Germany and Scandinavia, and Calvinism
centrate on preparing ministers to spread the Calvinist view of in parts of Switzerland, France, the Netherlands, and eastern
the Gospel. Europe (see Map 3.2). In England, the split from Rome had
resulted in the creation of a national church. The situation in
Europe did not look particularly favorable for the Roman Cath-
Religious Practices and Popular Culture
olic Church. Yet constructive, positive forces were already at
The Protestant reformers’ attacks on the Catholic Church
work within the Catholic Church.
led to radical changes in religious practices. The Protestant
Reformation abolished or severely curtailed such customary
practices as indulgences, the veneration of relics and saints, Catholic Reformation
pilgrimages, monasticism, and clerical celibacy. The elimi- or Counter-Reformation?
nation of saints put an end to the numerous celebrations There is no doubt that the Catholic Church underwent a revi-
of religious holy days and changed a community’s sense of talization in the sixteenth century. But was this reformation a
time. Thus, in Protestant communities, religious ceremonies Catholic Reformation or a Counter-Reformation? Some his-
and imagery, such as processions and statues, tended to be torians prefer to call it a “Counter-Reformation” to focus on
replaced with individual private prayer, family worship, and the aspects that were a direct reaction against the Protestant
collective prayer and worship at the same time each week on movement. Historians who prefer to use “Catholic Reforma-
Sunday. tion” point out that elements of reform were already present
In addition to abolishing saints’ days and religious car- in the Catholic Church at the end of the fifteenth century and
nivals, some Protestant reformers even tried to eliminate the beginning of the sixteenth, and that by the mid-sixteenth
customary forms of entertainment. The Puritans (as Eng- century, they came to be directed by a revived and reformed
lish Calvinists were called), for example, attempted to ban papacy, giving the church new strength.
drinking in taverns, dramatic performances, and dancing. No doubt, both positions on the nature of the reformation
Dutch Calvinists denounced the tradition of giving small of the Catholic Church contain elements of truth. The Catho-
presents to children on the feast of Saint Nicholas, in early lic Reformation revived the best features of medieval Catholi-
December. Many of these Protestant attacks on popular cul- cism and then adjusted them to meet new conditions, as is
ture were unsuccessful, however. The importance of taverns most apparent in the revival of mysticism and monasticism.
in English social life made it impossible to eradicate them, The emergence of a new mysticism, closely tied to the tradi-
and celebrating at Christmastime persisted in the Dutch tions of Catholic piety, was especially evident in the life of the
Netherlands. Spanish mystic Saint Teresa of Avila (1515-1582). A nun of the

88 CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

 MAP 3.2 Catholics and Protestants
in Europe by 1560. The Reformation
Gr: 250 500 750 Kilometers Soe continued to evolve beyond the basic
hee split of the Lutherans from the Catholics.
250 500 Miles
y Several Protestant sects broke away from
4 the teachings of Martin Luther, each with
a separate creed and different ways of
worship. In England, Henry VIII broke
with the Catholic Church for political and
dynastic reasons.

Edinburgh Which areas of Europe were solidly

Catholic, which were solidly Lutheran,
and which were neither?

Atlantic
Ocean

i Mediterrane

Roman Catholic

Lutheran |

Calvinist- ‘| Lutheran- |

influenced influenced
Holy Roman aF Anabaptists
Empire boundary

Carmelite order, Teresa experienced mystical visions that she those clerics to fulfill their duties among the laity. The The-
claimed resulted in the ecstatic union of her soul with God. atines also founded orphanages and hospitals to care for the
But Teresa also believed that mystical experience should lead to victims of war and plague. The Ursulines, a new order of nuns
an active life of service on behalf of her Catholic faith. Conse- founded in Italy in 1535, focused their attention on establishing
quently, she founded a new order of barefoot Carmelite nuns schools for the education of girls.
and worked to foster their mystical experiences.
The regeneration of religious orders also proved valuable to The Society of Jesus
the reform of Catholicism. Old orders, such as the Benedictines Of all the new religious orders, the most important was the Soci-
and Dominicans, were reformed and renewed. The Capuchins ety of Jesus, known as the Jesuits, who became the chief instru-
emerged when a group of Franciscans decided to return to the ment of the Catholic Reformation. The Society of Jesus was
simplicity and poverty of Saint Francis of Assisi, the medieval founded by a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola (ig-NAY-shuss
founder of the Franciscan order. In addition to caring for the of loi-OH-luh) (1491-1556), whose injuries in battle cut short his
sick and the poor, the Capuchins focused on preaching the military career. Loyola experienced a spiritual torment similar
Gospel directly to the people and emerged as an effective force to Luther's but, unlike Luther, resolved his problems not by a
against Protestantism. New religious orders and brotherhoods new doctrine but by a decision to submit his will to the will of
were also created. The Theatines, founded in 1524, placed their the church. Unable to be a real soldier, he vowed to be a soldier
emphasis on reforming the secular clergy and encouraging of God. Over a period of twelve years, Loyola prepared for his

The Catholic Reformation ™ 89

 LOYOLA AND OBEDIENCE TO “OUR HOLY MOTHER,
THE HIERARCHICAL CHURCH”
IN HIS SPIRITUAL EXERCISES, Ignatius of Loyola pilgrimages, indulgences, jubilees, the lighting of can-
developed a systematic program for “the conquest of self dles in churches.
and the regulation of one’s life” for service to the hierarchical 7. We must praise the regulations of the Church, with
Catholic Church. Ignatius’s supreme goal was the commitment regard to fast and abstinence, for example, in Lent, on
of the Christian to active service under Jesus’s banner in the Ember Days, Vigils, Fridays, and Saturdays.
Church of Christ (the Catholic Church). In the final section 8. We ought to praise not only the building and adornment
of The Spiritual Exercises, Loyola explained the nature of of churches, but also images and veneration of them
that commitment in a series of “Rules for Thinking with the according to the subject they represent.
Church.” 9. Finally, we must praise all the commandments of the
Church, and be on the alert to find reasons to defend
Ignatius of Loyola, “Rules for Thinking them, and by no means in order to criticize them.
with the Church” 10. We should be more ready to approve and praise the
The following rules should be observed to foster the true orders, recommendations, and way of acting of our
attitude of mind we ought to have in the Church militant. superiors than to find fault with them. Though some of
the orders, etc., may not have been praiseworthy, yet to
1. We must put aside all judgment of our own, and keep the
speak against them, either when preaching in public or in
mind ever ready and prompt to obey in all things the true
speaking before the people, would rather be the cause of
Spouse of Jesus Christ, our holy Mother, the hierarchical
murmuring and scandal than of profit. As a consequence,
Church.
the people would become angry with their superiors,
2. We should praise sacramental confession, the yearly
whether secular or spiritual. But while it does harm in the
reception of the Most Blessed Sacrament [the Lord’s Sup-
absence of our superiors to speak evil of them before the
per], and praise more highly monthly reception, and still
people, it may be profitable to discuss their bad conduct
more weekly Communion... .
with those who can apply a remedy. ...
3. We ought to praise the frequent hearing of Mass, the
13. If we wish to proceed securely in all things, we must hold
singing of hymns, psalmody, and long prayers whether in
fast to the following principle: What seems to me white,
the church or outside... .
I will believe black if the hierarchical Church so defines.
4. We must praise highly religious life, virginity, and conti-
For I must be convinced that in Christ our Lord, the bride-
nency; and matrimony ought not be praised as much as
groom, and in His spouse the Church, only one Spirit holds
any of these.
sway, which governs and rules for the salvation of souls.
5. We should praise vows of religion, obedience, poverty,
chastity, and vows to perform other works of supereroga-
tion conducive to perfection... . AP® HISTORICAL THINKING SKILL: Claims and Evidence
6. We should show our esteem for the relics of the in Sources (AP® Themes: SOP, CID, SCD) What evidence
saints by venerating them and praying to the saints. ~ of reform do you see in Ignatius’s rules for “thinking with
We should praise visits to the Station Churches, the church“?

Source: Ignatius of Loyola, “Rules for Thinking with the Church,” in The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola, trans. L. J. Puhl (Baltimore: Loyola University
Press, 1951).

lifework by prayer, pilgrimages, going to school, and working out military command. A two-year novitiate weeded out all but the
a spiritual program in his brief but powerful book, The Spiritual most dedicated adherents. Executive leadership was put in the
Exercises. This was a training manual for spiritual development hands of a general, who nominated all important positions in
emphasizing exercises by which the human will could be strength- the order and was to be revered as the absolute head of the
ened and made to follow the will of God as manifested through his order. Loyola served as the first general of the order until his
instrument, the Catholic Church (see the box above). death in 1556. A special vow of absolute obedience to the pope
Loyola gathered together a small group of individuals who made the Jesuits an important instrument for papal policy.
were eventually recognized as a religious order, the Society of
Jesus, by a papal bull in 1540. The new order was grounded on ACTIVITIES OF THE JESUITS The Jesuits pursued three
the principles of absolute obedience to the papacy, a strict hier- major activities. They established highly disciplined schools,
archical order for the society, the use of education to achieve borrowing freely from humanist schools for their educational
its goals, and a dedication to engage in “conflict for God.” methods. To the Jesuits, the thorough education of young
The Jesuits’ organization came to resemble the structure of a people was crucial to combating the advance of Protestantism.

90 © CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

 A Revived Papacy
The involvement of the Renaissance papacy in dubious finances
and Italian political and military affairs had given rise to numer-
ous sources of corruption. The meager steps taken to control
corruption left the papacy still in need of serious reform, and
it took the jolt of the Protestant Reformation to bring it about.
The pontificate of Pope Paul III (1534-1549) proved to be a
turning point in the reform of the papacy. Raised in the lap of
Renaissance luxury, Paul III] continued Renaissance papal prac-
tices by appointing his nephews as cardinals, involving himself
in politics, and patronizing arts and letters on a lavish scale.
Nevertheless, he perceived the need for change and expressed
it decisively. He made advocates of reform, such as Gasparo
Contarini (GAHS-puh-roh kahn-tuh-REE-nee) and Gian Pietro
Caraffa (JAHN PYAY-troh kuh-RAH-fuh), cardinals. In 1535, Paul
took the audacious step of appointing a reform commission to
study the condition of the church. The commission’s report in
1537 blamed the church’s problems on the corrupt policies of
popes and cardinals. Paul III also formally recognized the Jesuits
and summoned the Council of Trent (see the next section).
A decisive turning point in the direction of the Catholic Ref-
ormation and the nature of papal reform came in the 1540s. In
Scala/Art
NY
Resource, 1541, a colloquy had been held at Regensburg in a final attempt
to settle the religious division peacefully. Here Catholic moder-
Ignatius of Loyola. The Jesuits became the most important new
ates, such as Cardinal Contarini, who favored concessions to
religious order of the Catholic Reformation. Shown here in a sixteenth-
century painting by an unknown artist is Ignatius of Loyola, founder of Protestants in the hope of restoring Christian unity, reached a
the Society of Jesus. Loyola is seen kneeling before Pope Paul III, who compromise with Protestant moderates on a number of doc-
officially recognized the Jesuits in 1540. trinal issues. When Contarini returned to Rome with these
proposals, Cardinal Caraffa and other hardliners, who regarded
In the course of the sixteenth century, the Jesuits took over the all compromise with Protestant innovations as heresy, accused
premier academic posts in Catholic universities, and by 1600, him of selling out to the heretics. It soon became apparent
they were the most famous educators in Europe. that the conservative reformers were in the ascendancy when
Another prominent Jesuit activity was the propagation of the Caraffa was able to persuade Paul III to establish the Roman
Catholic faith among non-Christians. Francis Xavier (ZAY-vee-ur) Inquisition or Holy Office in 1542 to ferret out doctrinal errors.
(1506-1552), one of the original members of the Society of Jesus, There was to be no compromise with Protestantism.
carried the message of Catholic Christianity to the East. After When Cardinal Caraffa was chosen pope as Paul IV (1555—
converting tens of thousands in India, he traveled to Malacca and 1559), he so increased the power of the Inquisition that even
the Moluccas before reaching Japan in 1549. He spoke highly of liberal cardinals were silenced. This “first true pope of the Cath-
the Japanese: “They are a people of excellent morals—good in olic Counter-Reformation,” as he has been called, also created
general and not malicious.” Thousands of Japanese, especially in the Index of Forbidden Books, a list of books that Catholics
the southernmost islands, became Christians. In 1552, Xavier set were not allowed to read. It included all the works of Protes-
out for China but died of a fever before he reached the mainland. tant theologians as well as authors considered “unwholesome,”
Although conversion efforts in Japan proved short-lived, a category general enough to include the works of Erasmus.
Jesuit activity in China, especially that of the Italian Matteo Rome, the capital of Catholic Christianity, was rapidly becom-
Ricci (ma-TAY-oh REE-chee) (1552-1610), was more long-last- ing Fortress Rome; any hope of restoring Christian unity by
ing. Recognizing the Chinese pride in their own culture, the compromise was fast fading. The activities of the Council of
Jesuits attempted to draw parallels between Christian and Con- Trent made compromise virtually impossible.
fucian concepts and to show the similarities between Christian
morality and Confucian ethics. For their part, the missionar-
ies were impressed with many aspects of Chinese civilization, The Council of Trent
and reports of their experiences heightened European curiosity In 1542, Pope Paul III took the decisive step of calling for a
about this great society on the other side of the world. general council of Christendom to resolve the religious differ-
The Jesuits were also determined to carry the Catholic ban- ences created by the Protestant revolt. It was not until March
ner and fight Protestantism. Jesuit missionaries succeeded in 1545, however, that a group of cardinals, archbishops, bishops,
restoring Catholicism to parts of Germany and eastern Europe. abbots, and theologians met in the city of Trent on the border
Poland was largely won back for the Catholic Church through between Germany and Italy and initiated the Council of Trent.
Jesuit efforts. But a variety of problems, including an outbreak of plague,

The Catholic Reformation ™@ 91

 The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)
The Catholic Reformation Religion was the engine that drove the French civil wars of
the sixteenth century. Concerned by the growth of Calvinism,
Pope Paul Ill 1534-1549
the French kings tried to stop its spread by persecuting Calvin-
Papal recognition of Society of Jesus Jesuits) 1540 ists but had little success. Huguenots (HYOO-guh-nots), as the
ss
Establishment of Roman Inquisition (Holy Office) 1542 French Calvinists were called, came from all levels of society:
artisans and shopkeepers hurt by rising prices and a rigid guild
Council of Trent 1545-1563
system, merchants and lawyers in provincial towns whose local
Pope Paul IV 1555-1559 privileges were tenuous, and members of the nobility. Possi-
bly 40 to 50 percent of the French nobility became Huguenots,
war between France and Spain, and the changing of popes, pre-
including the house of Bourbon (boor-BOHN), which stood next
vented the council from holding regular annual meetings. Nev- to the Valois (val-WAH) in the royal line of succession and ruled
the southern French kingdom of Navarre (nuh-VAHR). The con-
ertheless, the council met intermittently in three major sessions
between 1545 and 1563. Moderate Catholic reformers hoped version of so many nobles made the Huguenots a potentially
that the council would make compromises in formulating doc- dangerous political threat to monarchical power. Though the
trinal definitions that would encourage Protestants to return Calvinists constituted only about 10 percent of the population,
to the church. Conservatives, however, favored an uncompro-
they were a strong-willed and well-organized minority.
mising restatement of Catholic doctrines in strict opposition The Catholic majority greatly outnumbered the Calvinist
to Protestant positions. After a struggle, the latter group won. minority. The Valois monarchy was staunchly Catholic, and its
The final doctrinal decrees of the Council of Trent reaf- control of the Catholic Church gave it little incentive to look on
firmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to Prot- Protestantism favorably. When King Henry II was killed acci-
estant beliefs. The council affirmed Scripture and tradition as dentally in a tournament in 1559, he was succeeded by a series
equal authorities in religious matters; only the church could of weak and neurotic sons, two of whom were dominated by
interpret Scripture. Other decrees declared both faith and good their mother, Catherine de’ Medici (1519-1589). As regent for
works to be necessary for salvation and upheld the seven sacra- her sons, the moderate Catholic Catherine looked to religious
ments, the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, and clerical compromise as a way to defuse the political tensions but found
celibacy. The council also affirmed the belief in purgatory and to her consternation that both sides possessed their share of
in the efficacy of indulgences, although it prohibited the hawk- religious fanatics unwilling to make concessions. The extreme
ing of indulgences. Of the reform decrees that were passed, Catholic party—known as the ultra-Catholics—favored strict
the most important established theological seminaries in every opposition to the Huguenots and was led by the Guise (GEEZ)
diocese for the training of priests. family. Possessing the loyalty of Paris and large sections of
After the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church pos- northern and northwestern France through their client-patronage
sessed a clear body of doctrine and a unified church under the system, the Guises could recruit and pay for large armies and
acknowledged supremacy of the popes, who had triumphed received support abroad from the papacy and Jesuits who
over bishops and councils. The Roman Catholic Church had favored the family’s uncompromising Catholic position.
become one Christian denomination among many with an orga- But religion was not the only factor contributing to the French
nizational framework and doctrinal pattern that would not be civil wars. Resentful of the growing power of monarchical cen-
significantly altered for four hundred years. With renewed con- tralization, towns and provinces were only too willing to join a
fidence, the Catholic Church entered a new phase of its history. revolt against the monarchy. This was also true of the nobility,
and because so many of them were Calvinists, they formed an
important base of opposition to the crown. The French Wars of
Politics and the Wars of Religion Religion, then, presented a major constitutional crisis for France
in the Sixteenth Century and temporarily halted the development of the French central-
ized territorial state. The claim of the state’s ruling dynasty to a
FOCUS QUESTION: What role did politics, person’s loyalties was temporarily superseded by loyalty to one’s
economic and social conditions, and religion play in religious belief. For some people, the unity of France was less
the European wars of the sixteenth century? important than religious truth. But there also emerged in France
a group of public figures who placed politics before religion and
By the middle of the sixteenth century, Calvinism and Catholi- believed that no religious truth was worth the ravages of civil
cism had become activist religions dedicated to spreading the war. These politiques (puh-lee-TEEKS) ultimately prevailed, but
word of God as they interpreted it. Although this struggle for not until both sides were exhausted by bloodshed.
the minds and hearts of Europeans is at the heart of the reli-
gious wars of the sixteenth century, economic, social, and politi- COURSE OF THE STRUGGLE The wars erupted in 1562 when
cal forces also played an important role in these conflicts. Of the the powerful duke of Guise massacred a peaceful congregation
sixteenth-century religious wars, none were more momentous of Huguenots at Vassy. In the decade of the 1560s, the Hugue-
or shattering than the French civil wars known as the French nots held their own. Though too small a group to conquer
Wars of Religion. France, their armies were so good at defensive campaigns that

92 I CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

they could not be defeated either, despite the infamous Saint and bloodthirsty manner. According to one eyewitness account:
Bartholomew’s Day massacre. “Then they took her [Francoise Lussault] and dragged her by the
This massacre of Huguenots occurred in August 1572 at a hair a long way through the streets, and spying the gold bracelets
time when the Catholic and Calvinist parties had apparently been on her arms, without having the patience to unfasten them, cut
reconciled through the marriage of the sister of the reigning off her wrists.” Three days of killing left three thousand Hugue-
Valois king, Charles IX (1560-1574), and Henry of Navarre, the nots dead, although not Henry of Navarre, who saved his life by
Bourbon ruler of Navarre. Henry was the son of Jeanne d’Albret promising to turn Catholic. Thousands more were killed in pro-
(ZHAHN dahl-BRAY), queen of Navarre, who had been responsi- vincial towns. The massacre boomeranged, however, because it
ble for introducing Calvinist ideas into her kingdom. Henry was discredited the Valois dynasty without ending the conflict.
also the acknowledged political leader of the Huguenots, and The fighting continued. The Huguenots rebuilt their
many Huguenots traveled to Paris for the wedding. strength, and in 1576, the ultra-Catholics formed a “Holy
But the Guise family persuaded the king and his mother, League,” vowing to exterminate heresy and seat a true Catho-
Catherine de’ Medici, that this gathering of Huguenots posed lic champion—Henry, duke of Guise—on the French throne
a threat to them. Charles and his advisers decided to eliminate in place of the ruling king, Henry III (1574-1589), who had
the Huguenot leaders with one swift blow. According to one succeeded his brother Charles [X. The turning point in the
French military leader, Charles and his advisers believed that conflict came in the War of the Three Henries in 1588-1589.
civil war would soon break out anyway and that “it was better Henry, duke of Guise, in the pay of Philip II of Spain, seized
to win a battle in Paris, where all the leaders were, than to risk Paris and forced King Henry III to make him chief minister.
it in the field and fall into a dangerous and uncertain war.” To rid himself of Guise influence, Henry III assassinated the
The massacre began early in the day on August 24 when the duke of Guise and then joined with Henry of Navarre (who
king’s guards sought out and killed some prominent Huguenot meanwhile had returned to Calvinism), who was next in line to
leaders. These murders soon unleashed a wave of violence that the throne, to crush the Catholic Holy League and retake the
gripped the city of Paris. For three days, frenzied Catholic mobs city of Paris. Although successful, Henry III was assassinated in
roamed the streets of Paris, killing Huguenots in an often cruel 1589 by a monk who was repelled by the spectacle of a Catholic

Orti/Btid
Dagli
Library/G.
Images
Picture
Agostini
Lausanne/
Beaux-Art
des
Cantonal
Musée

s Da 2. Although the outbreak of religious war seemed unlikely

in Prance, the ieee of ae cae eae with the death of Henry II unleashed forces that led to a
series of civil wars. Pictured here is the Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre of 1572. This contemporary
painting by the Huguenot artist Francois Dubois vividly depicts a number of the incidents of that day
when approximately three thousand Huguenots were murdered in Paris.

Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century 93

 in every district and allowed them to retain a number of forti-
CHRONOLOGY
The French Wars of Religion
: (1562-1 598) : fied towns for their protection. In addition, Huguenots were
allowed to enjoy all political privileges, including the holding
Duke of Guise massacres Huguenot 1562 of public offices. Although the Edict of Nantes recognized the
congregation at Vassy rights of the Protestant minority and ostensibly the principle of
Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre 1572 religious toleration, it did so only out of political necessity, not
out of conviction.
Henry Ill 1574-1589
Formation of the Holy League 1576
Philip Il and Militant Catholicism
War of the Three Henries 1588-1589
The greatest advocate of activist Catholicism in the second half
Assassination of Henry Ill 1589 of the sixteenth century was King Philip II of Spain (1556-1598),
Coronation of Henry IV 1594 the son and heir of Charles V. Philip’s reign ushered in an age of
Edict of Nantes vA 1598 Spanish greatness, both politically and culturally.
The first major goal of Philip II was to consolidate and secure
the lands he had inherited from his father. These included Spain,
king cooperating with a Protestant. Henry of Navarre now the Netherlands, and possessions in Italy (see Map 3.3) and the
claimed the throne. Realizing, however, that Catholic France New World. For Philip, this meant strict conformity to Catholi-
would never accept him, Henry took the logical way out and cism, enforced by aggressive use of the Spanish Inquisition, and
converted once again to Catholicism. With his coronation in the establishment of strong, monarchical authority. The latter
1594, the French Wars of Religion finally came to an end. was not an easy task because Philip had inherited a governmen-
Nevertheless, the religious problem persisted until the Edict tal structure in which each of the various states and territories
of Nantes (NAHNT) was issued in 1598. The edict acknowl- of his empire stood in an individual relationship to the king.
edged Catholicism as the official religion of France but guar- Philip did manage, however, to expand royal power in Spain by
anteed the Huguenots the right to worship in selected places making the monarchy less dependent on the traditional landed

Spanish possessions
Holy Roman Empire
4+ and Austrian Habsburg
possessions

<— Route of the armada

MAP 3.3 The Height of Spanish Power Under Philip Il. Like his father, Charles V, Philip Il, the
“Most Catholic King,” was a champion of the Catholic cause against Protestantism. He sought
to maintain Habsburg control in the Netherlands by combating a Protestant revolt, a rebellion
eventually supported by Queen Elizabeth of England. Spain’s attempt to invade England in 1588
ended in disaster.

@) Why would England feel threatened by Spanish territory in the Netherlands?

94 §% CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

 however, as it helped set off a spiraling inflation that disrupted
the Spanish economy, eventually hurting both textile produc-
tion and agriculture. Moreover, the expenses of war, especially
after 1580, proved devastating to the Spanish economy. Ameri-
can gold and silver never constituted more than 20 percent of
the royal revenue, leading the government to impose a crush-
ing burden of direct and indirect taxes. Even then the govern-
ment was forced to borrow. Philip repudiated his debts seven
times; still, two-thirds of state income went to pay interest on
the debt by the end of his reign. The attempt to make Spain a
great power led to its decline after Philip’s reign.
Crucial to an understanding of Philip II is the importance
of Catholicism to the Spanish people and their ruler. Driven by
a heritage of crusading fervor, the Spanish had little difficulty
seeing themselves as a nation of people divinely chosen to save
Catholic Christianity from the Protestant heretics. Philip II, the
“Most Catholic King,” became the champion of Catholicism
throughout Europe, a role that led to spectacular victories and
equally spectacular defeats for the Spanish king. Spain’s lead-
ership of a holy league against Turkish encroachments in the
Mediterranean, especially the Muslim attack on the island of
Cyprus, resulted in a stunning victory over the Turkish fleet at
the Battle of Lepanto (LEH-pahn-toh or LIH-pan-toh) in 1571.
Philip’s greatest misfortunes came from his attempt to crush
the revolt in the Netherlands and his tortured relations with
Queen Elizabeth of England.

Revolt of the Netherlands

As one of the richest parts of Philip’s empire, the Spanish Neth-
erlands was of great importance to the Most Catholic King.
The Netherlands consisted of seventeen provinces (the modern
Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg). The seven northern
provinces were largely Germanic in culture and Dutch speak-
ing, while the French- and Flemish-speaking southern provinces
were closely tied to France. Situated at the commercial cross-
roads of northwestern Europe, the Netherlands had become
prosperous through commerce and a flourishing textile indus-
Resource,
Scala/Art
NY try. Because of its location, the Netherlands was open to the
This portrait by Titian depicts Philip II of Spain. religious influences of the age. Though some inhabitants had
The king’s attempts to make Spain a great power led to large debts and adopted Lutheranism or Anabaptism, by the time of Philip II,
crushing taxes, and his military actions in defense of Catholicism ended Calvinism was also making inroads. These provinces had no
in failure and misfortune in both France and the Netherlands. real political bond holding them together except their common
ruler, and that ruler was Philip II, a foreigner who was out of
aristocracy. Philip tried to be the center of the whole govern- touch with the local situation.
ment and supervised the work of all departments, even down to Philip II hoped to strengthen his control in the Netherlands,
the smallest details. Unwilling to delegate authority, he failed to regardless of the traditional privileges of the separate prov-
distinguish between important and trivial matters and fell weeks inces. This was strongly opposed by the nobles, towns, and pro-
behind on state correspondence, where he was inclined to make vincial states, which stood to lose politically if their jealously
marginal notes and even correct spelling. One Spanish official guarded privileges and freedoms were weakened. Resentment
said, “If God used the Escorial [the royal palace where Philip against Philip increased when the residents of the Netherlands
worked] to deliver my death sentence, I would be immortal.” realized that the taxes they paid were being used for Spanish
One of Philip’s aims was to make Spain a dominant power interests. Finally, religion became a major catalyst for rebellion
in Europe. To a great extent, Spain’s preeminence depended on when Philip attempted to crush Calvinism. Violence erupted
a prosperous economy fueled by its importation of gold and in 1566 when Calvinists—especially nobles—began to destroy
silver from its New World possessions, its agriculture, its com- statues and stained-glass windows in Catholic churches. Philip
merce, and its industry, especially in textiles, silk, and leather responded by sending the duke of Alva with 10,000 veteran
goods. The importation of silver also had detrimental effects, Spanish and Italian troops to crush the rebellion.

Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century 95

 The repressive policies of the duke proved counterproductive.
The levying of a permanent sales tax alienated many merchants CHRONOLOGY Philip Il and Militant Catholicism
and commoners, who now joined the nobles and Calvinists
in the struggle against Spanish rule. A special tribunal, known Philip II 1556-1598
as the Council of Troubles (nicknamed the Council of Blood by Outbreak of revolt in the Netherlands 1566
the Dutch), inaugurated a reign of terror in which even power-
Battle of Lepanto 1571
ful aristocrats were executed. As a result, the revolt now became
organized, especially in the northern provinces, where William of Spanish armada 1588
Nassau, the prince of Orange, also known as William the Silent, Twelve-year truce (Spain and Netherlands) 1609
and Dutch pirates known as the “Sea Beggars” mounted growing Independence of the United Provinces 1648
resistance. In 1573, Philip removed the duke of Alva and shifted
to a more conciliatory policy to bring an end to the costly revolt.
William of Orange wished to unify all seventeen provinces, a ended the war, virtually recognizing the independence of the
goal seemingly realized in 1576 with the Pacification of Ghent. northern provinces. These “United Provinces” soon emerged as
This agreement stipulated that all the provinces would stand the Dutch Republic, although the Spanish did not formally rec-
together under William’s leadership, respect religious differ- ognize them as independent until 1648. The ten southern prov-
ences, and demand that the Spanish troops be withdrawn. But inces remained a Spanish possession (see Map 3.3).
religious differences proved too strong for any lasting union.
When the duke of Parma, the next Spanish leader, arrived in The England of Elizabeth
the Netherlands, he astutely played on the religious differences After the death of Queen Mary in 1558, her half-sister Elizabeth
of the provinces and split their united front. The southern (1558-1603) ascended the throne of England. During Eliza-
provinces formed a Catholic union—the Union of Arras—in beth’s reign, England rose to prominence as the relatively small
1579 and accepted Spanish control. To counter this, William of island kingdom became the leader of the Protestant nations of
Orange organized the seven northern, Dutch-speaking states Europe, laid the foundations for a world empire, and experi-
into a Protestant union—the Union of Utrecht—determined to enced a cultural renaissance.
oppose Spanish rule. The Netherlands was now divided along The daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Eliza-
religious, geographic, and political lines into two hostile camps. beth had had a difficult early life. During Mary’s reign, she had
The struggle dragged on until 1609, when a twelve-year truce even been imprisoned for a while and had learned early to hide

Stapleton
Collection/Corbis

cession of
|. Intelligent and learned, Elizabeth Tudor was familiar with Latin
pa Greek and spoke cha nietes! languages. Served by able administrators, Elizabeth ruled for nearly
forty-five years and generally avoided open military action against any major power. This picture, painted
near the end of her reign, shows the queen in a ceremonial procession with her courtiers.

96 CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century

oe QUEEN ELIZABETH I: “I HAVE THE HEART OF A KING”
QUEEN ELIZABETH I RULED ENGLAND from 1558 to 1603 people, my honor and my blood, even in the dust. I know I have
with a consummate skill that contemporaries considered unusual but the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart
in a woman. Though shrewd and paternalistic, Elizabeth, like of a king, and of a king of England, too; and think foul scorn
other sixteenth-century monarchs, depended for her power on that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to
the favor of her people. When England faced the threat of an invade the borders of my realm: to which, rather than any dis-
invasion by the Spanish armada of Philip II in 1588, Elizabeth honor should grow by me, I myself will take up arms; I myself
sought to rally her troops with a speech at Tilbury, a town on will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your
the Thames River. This selection is taken from her speech. virtues in the field. Iknow already, by your forwardness, that you
have deserved rewards and crowns; and we do assure you, on the
Queen Elizabeth |, Speech to the Troops at Tilbury word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. In the mean my
My loving people, we have been persuaded by some, that are lieutenant general shall be in my stead, than whom never prince
careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to commanded a more noble and worthy subject; not doubting by
armed multitudes, for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not your obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp and
desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants by your valor in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory
fear; I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I have over the enemies of my God, of my kingdom, and of my people.
placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and
good will of my subjects. And therefore I am come amongst you AP® HISTORICAL THINKING SKILLS: Sourcing and
at this time, not as for my recreation or sport, but being resolved, Situation, Contextualization (AP® Themes: SOP, NEI)
in the midst and heat of the battle, to live or die amongst you Why did Elizabeth give this speech to her soldiers? How
all; to lay down, for my God, and for my kingdom, and for my did it show her to be brave?

Source: Elizabeth I’s Speech to the Troops at Tilbury in 1588.

her true feelings from both private and public sight. Intelligent, challenges came from her Catholic cousin, Mary, queen of Scots,
cautious, and self-confident, she moved quickly to solve the dif- who was next in line to the English throne. Mary was ousted from
ficult religious problem she had inherited from Mary, who had Scotland by rebellious Calvinist nobles in 1568 and fled for her life
become extremely unpopular when she tried to return England to England. There Elizabeth placed her under house arrest and
to the Catholic fold. for fourteen years tolerated her involvement in a number of ill-
planned Catholic plots designed to kill Elizabeth and replace her
RELIGIOUS PoLicy Elizabeth’s religious policy was based on on the throne with the Catholic Mary. Finally, in 1587, after Mary
moderation and compromise. As a ruler, she wished to prevent became embroiled in a far more serious plot, Elizabeth had her
England from being torn apart over matters of religion. Parlia- cousin beheaded to end the threats to her regime.
ment cooperated with the queen in initiating the Elizabethan Potentially more dangerous to Anglicanism in the long run
religious settlement in 1559. The Catholic legislation of Mary’s were the Puritans The word Puritan first appeared in 1564
reign was repealed, and the new Act of Supremacy designated when it was used to refer to Protestants within the Anglican
Elizabeth as “the only supreme governor of this realm, as well in Church who, inspired by Calvinist theology, wanted to remove
all spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes, as temporal.” She any trace of Catholicism from the Church of England. Eliza-
used this title rather than “supreme head of the church,” which beth managed to keep the Puritans in check during her reign.
had been used by both Henry VIII and Edward VI, because she Elizabeth proved as adept in government and foreign policy as
did not want to upset the Catholics, who considered the pope in religious affairs (see the box above). She was well served admin-
the supreme head, or radical Protestants, who thought that istratively by the principal secretary of state. The talents of Sir
Christ alone was head of the church. The Act of Uniformity William Cecil and Sir Francis Walsingham, who together held the
restored the church service of the Book of Common Prayer office for thirty-two years, ensured much of Elizabeth’s success in
from the reign of Edward VI with some revisions to make it foreign and domestic affairs. Elizabeth also handled Parliament
more acceptable to Catholics. The Thirty-Nine Articles, a new with much skill; it met only thirteen times during her entire reign.
confession of faith, defined theological issues midway between
Lutheranism and Calvinism. Elizabeth’s religious settlement FOREIGN POLicy Caution, moderation, and expediency also
was basically Protestant, but it was a moderate Protestantism dictated Elizabeth’s foreign policy. Fearful of other countries’
that avoided overly subtle distinctions and extremes. motives, Elizabeth realized that war could be disastrous for her
The new religious settlement worked, at least to the extent that island kingdom and her own rule. Unofficially, however, she
it smothered religious differences in England in the second half of encouraged English seamen to raid Spanish ships and colonies.
the sixteenth century. Two groups, however, the Catholics and Francis Drake was especially adept at plundering Spanish fleets
the Puritans, continued to oppose it. One of Elizabeth’s greatest loaded with gold and silver from Spain’s New World empire.

Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century M 97

 surely an act in accordance with the will of God. Accordingly,
Philip ordered preparations for a fleet of warships that would
@ FILM & HISTORY
rendezvous with the army of the duke of Parma in Flanders and
Watch Elizabeth (1998), which escort his troops across the English Channel for the invasion.
opens with Queen Mary
pursuing her dream of restoring THE SPANISH ARMADA The armada proved to be a disaster.
Catholicism to England as she
The Spanish fleet that finally set sail had neither the ships nor
contemplates signing a death
the troops that Philip had planned to send. A conversation
warrant for her Protestant half-
sister Elizabeth. But she refuses
between a papal emissary and an officer of the Spanish fleet
to do so before dying in 1558. before the armada departed reveals the fundamental flaw:
Collection
Kobal
NY
Resource,
Art
Polygrarn/The
at
Elizabeth becomes queen and
“And if you meet the English armada in the Channel, do you
is portrayed in her early years of rule as an uncertain
monarch who “rules from the heart instead of the mind,”
expect to win the battle?” “Of course,” replied the Spaniard.
as one adviser tells her. The strength of the movie, “How can you be sure?” [asked the emissary].
which contains numerous historical inaccuracies, is the “It’s very simple. It is well known that we fight in God’s cause.
performance of Cate Blanchett, who captures some of the So, when we meet the English, God will surely arrange matters
characteristics of Queen Elizabeth |. so that we can grapple and board them, either by sending some
strange freak of weather or, more likely, just by depriving the
What historical inaccuracies do you find in the English of their wits. If we can come to close quarters, Spanish
movie? What is convincing about the portrait of valor and Spanish steel (and the great masses of soldiers we shall
Queen Elizabeth? have on board) will make our victory certain. But unless God
helps us by a miracle the English, who have faster and handier
ships than ours, and many more long-range guns, and who know
While encouraging English piracy and providing clandestine aid their advantage just as well as we do, will never close with us at
to French Huguenots and Dutch Calvinists to weaken France all, but stand aloof and knock us to pieces with their culverins
and Spain, Elizabeth pretended complete aloofness and avoided [cannons], without our being able to do them any serious hurt.
alliances that would force her into war with any major power So,” concluded the captain, and one fancies a grim smile, “we are
(see “Film & History” above). Gradually, however, Elizabeth was sailing against England in the confident hope of a miracle.””
drawn into more active involvement in the Netherlands. This
move accelerated the already mounting friction between Spain The hoped-for miracle never materialized. The Spanish fleet,
and England. After years of resisting the idea of invading England battered by a number of encounters with the English, sailed
as impractical, Philip II of Spain was finally persuaded to do so back to Spain by a northward route around Scotland and Ire-
by advisers who assured him that the people of England would land, where it was further battered by storms. Although the
rise against their queen when the Spaniards arrived. Moreover, English and Spanish would continue their war for another six-
Philip was easily convinced that the revolt in the Netherlands teen years, the defeat of the Spanish armada guaranteed for the
would never be crushed as long as England provided support for time being that England would remain a Protestant country.
it. In any case, a successful invasion of England would mean the Although Spain made up for its losses within a year and a half,
overthrow of heresy and the return of England to Catholicism, the defeat was a psychological blow to the Spaniards.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

When the Augustinian monk Martin Luther burst onto of the Bible should be acceptable to all, others soon appeared
the scene with a series of theses on indulgences, few who also read the Bible but interpreted it in different ways.
people suspected that his observations would eventually Protestantism fragmented into different sects—Zwinglianism,
split all of Europe along religious lines. But the yearning Calvinism, Anglicanism, Anabaptism—which, though united
for reform of the church and meaningful religious in their dislike of Catholicism, were themselves divided over
experiences caused a seemingly simple dispute to escalate the interpretation of the sacraments and religious practices.
into a powerful movement. As reform ideas spread, religion and politics became ever more
Martin Luther established the twin intertwined.
pillars of the Protestant Reformation: Although the peace of Augsburg in 1555 legally acknowl-
the doctrine of justification by faith edged Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire, it had lost much
alone and the Bible as the sole author- of its momentum and outside of Scandinavia had scant ability to
ity in religious affairs. Although attract new supporters. Its energy was largely replacedbythenew
Luther felt that his revival of Chris- Protestant form of Calvinism, which had a clarity of doctrine
tianity based on his interpretation and a fervor that made it attractive to a whole new generation

98 MM CHAPTER 3 Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century