GRADE 8

NATURAL SCIENCES
WORKBOOK

MODULE 1: LIFE AND LIVING

 LIFE AND LIVING

Graphs 1

Introduction 1
Analysing graphs 1
Line graph 1
Table of contents
Line graph 3
Bar graphs (charts) and histograms 4
Pie graph 6
Assignment 1: graph exercises 6
Line graph 6
Bar graph 8
Pie graph 8
Photosynthesis and respiration 10
Introduction 10
Photosynthesis 10
The sun is the ultimate source of energy 10
The process of photosynthesis 11
Plants convert glucose into other compounds 12
Respiration 13
Respiration releases energy from food 13
Respiration and photosynthesis cycle 14
Conducting investigations 15
Observation and research question 15
Introduction 15
Aim 15
Hypothesis 16
Materials 16

Methods 16

Results 19
Discussion 19
Conclusion 19
References 20
Assignment 2: conducting investigation 21
Interaction and interdependence within the environment 22
Introduction 22
Ecology 23
Interactions between living things 24
Ecosystems 26
Biotic and abiotic factors 26
 The size of an ecosystem 28
Survival in an ecosystem 28
Feeding relationships 29
Producers 29
Consumers 30
Decomposers 31
Table of contents
Food chains, food webs and energy pyramids 32
Food chains 32
Food webs 34
Energy pyramids 36
Balance in an ecosystem 38
Human factors that disrupt ecosystem balance 39
Adaptations 45
Defining adaptation 45
Assignment 3: adaptation 47
Changing environmental conditions and adaptations 47
Lack of adaptation causes extinction 49
Adaptations of plants 49
Camouflage and mimicry 51
Symbiosis 54
Conservation of the ecosystem 59
Why conserve species? 59
Sustainable use of resources 60
How environmentalists conserve ecosystems 60
How can I contribute to conservation? 62
Microorganisms 63
Introduction 63
Types of microorganisms 64
Viruses 64
Bacteria 65
Protists 66

Fungi 67
Preventing infection with microorganisms 68
Curing disease 68
Pasteurisation 68
Vaccines 69
Antibiotics 69
Micrographs and scales 70
Homework 1 71
 NATURAL SCIENCES MODULE 1
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LIFE AND LIVING

GRAPHS

Introduction
We are going to learn how to analyse and draw four different types of graphs: line
graphs, bar graphs, histograms and pie graphs. Graphs are an important tool in maths,
science and biology to communicate information.

Analysing graphs

Line graph 1

Line graph of Jill’s maths scores from grade 7-12

What does this graph show us? You may be asked to DESCRIBE the graph or to
EXPLAIN the graph.

When you are asked to describe the graph, you need to clarify what is happening on
the graph.

So, describe the graph above:

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In some instances, it will also be important to EXPLAIN the graph. When you are asked
to explain the graph, you need to say WHY it is happening. This is not really relevant
to the graph above, but we will look at another example below where it is relevant.
In every graph that is drawn with an x-axis and a y-axis
there is an independent variable and a dependent
variable.
The x-axis is horizontal and depicts the independent
Y-as

variable. The y-axis is vertical and depicts the

dependent variable.

X-as The independent variable is the variable that the

graph is showing that does not depend on anything
else. The dependent variable is the variable that the graph is showing that depends
on the independent variable.
In the example above, what is the independent variable and what is the dependent
variable?

The maths score DEPENDS on the grade, therefore it is the dependent variable. The
grade that the learners are in DOES NOT DEPEND on the maths score, therefore it is
the independent variable.

In a graph that shows plant height over time in days, what is the independent
variable and what is the dependent variable?

This is because time does not depend on the plants growing, and plant height will
change with time, so it depends on time.

In a graph that shows how the density of water changes with temperature, what is
the independent variable and what is the dependent variable?

This is because temperature does not depend on the density of the water, and the
water density will change with temperature, so it depends on temperature.
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Line graph 2

Mr Smith recorded the temperature outside his classroom every hour during one
school day. His results are listed in the following table:

Time 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600

Temperature (OC) 8 9 11 12 12 13 10 9

He decided to plot a line graph to represent the data. Line graphs are useful for
showing how things change over time.

Line graph showing the temperature

outside Mr Smith’s class in a day
Temperature (OC)

Time (hourds)

Describe the graph:

What is the independent variable and what is the dependent variable? Explain.

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Based on the graph:

What is the temperature outside the classroom at 10:30?
What is the temperature at 11:30?
What is the temperature at 13:00?
What is the temperature at 13:30?
When the temperature is 8 °C, what time is it?
When the temperature is 10 °C, what time is it?

Now let’s try to explain the graph:

Bar graphs (charts) and histograms

Bar graphs and histograms are useful for grouping information. The difference
between a bar graph and a histogram is that a bar graph represents categories and
there are gaps between the bars. A histogram shows a continuous range of numbers
and there are no gaps between the bars. This is shown below :

USA

In a bar graph, we put the categories/groups on the x-axis. The categories/groups are
always the independent variable.

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Look at the bar graph below:

Bar graph of birthday of students

per month

Describe the graph:

Look at the histogram below:

Histogram of points scored on a test by a group of students

Describe the graph:

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Pie graph showing energy consumption Pie graph

sources in Michigan in 2008, measured in
trillion thermal units (ttu)
Renewable
151,2 Oil
A pie graph (also known as a pie
880,6 chart) also groups information, like
Nuclear a bar graph or a histogram, but it is
329,1
represented like a pie with slices.

Natural gas
797,3 Coal
800,0

Describe the graph:

Note that every graph has a title. You need to mention what type of graph it is and
explain in brief what the graph is showing. Go back to the graphs above and note the
titles.

Assignment 1: Graph exercises

Complete the three graph exercises and answer the questions. The line graph and bar
graph should be completed on graph paper.

Line graph

In the pancreas, there are glands that produce insulin. Insulin is a hormone that gets
released when there is a high level of glucose (a type of sugar) in the blood. This
happens after a meal. Insulin will stop being released once the blood sugar level is
normal.

The pancreas of a person with diabetes does not produce insulin, or it only produces
very little insulin. If there is not enough insulin being produced by the glands of the
pancreas, the amount of glucose in the blood will remain high.

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A blood glucose level above 140 mg/dL for an extended period is not considered
normal. This disease, if not brought under control, can lead to severe complications
and even death.

1. Draw a line graph of blood glucose level over time in persons A and B based on
the data below. Use the graph paper provided. You need to plot two sets of
data separately on the same graph. (16)

Time after eating (hours) Glucose of blood in Person Glucose of blood in

A (mg/dL) Person B (mg/dL)
0,5 170 180
1 155 195
1,5 140 230
2 135 245
2,5 140 235
3 135 225
4 130 200
(mg is a milligram, which is a thousandth of a gram; a dL is a decilitre, which is a tenth
of a litre)

Assessment grid for line graph

Title 2 marks
X-axis label 2 marks
Y-axis label 2 marks
X-axis scale 1 mark
Y-axis scale 1 mark
Check 4 points (2 on each graph) to see that they are plotted 4 marks
correctly
Key 2 marks
Neatness 1 mark
Size 1 mark

2. What is the dependent variable? Explain. (2)

3. What is the independent variable? Explain. (2)

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4. Which, if any, of the above individuals (A or B) has diabetes? Explain. (2)

Bar graph

In the Kruger National Park, the elephant population is unstable. This is due to culling
or removing of the elephants from the park to other ecosystems when their numbers
become too large. Elephant culling was stopped in 1994.

5. Draw a bar graph of the elephant population size in the Kruger

National Park over time based on the data below. Use the graph
paper provided. (15)

Year Elephant population size

1947 560
1960 1 250
1967 6 500
1985 8 200
2004 11 500
2010 13 000

Assessment grid for bar graph

Title 2 marks
X-axis label 2 marks
Y-axis label 2 marks
X-axis scale 1 mark
Y-axis scale 1 mark
Check that the 6 bars are plotted correctly 3 marks
Check that the 6 bars are labelled correctly 2 marks
Neatness 1 mark
Size 1 mark

6. What is the dependent variable? Explain. (2)

7. What is the independent variable? Explain. (2)

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Pie graph

In 2012, 70% of South Africa’s total primary energy consumption came from coal,
followed by oil (22%), natural gas (4%), nuclear (3%) and renewables (1%, primarily
from hydropower), according to the BP Statistical Review of Energy 2013. South
Africa’s dependence on coal has led the country to become the leading carbon
dioxide emitter in Africa and the 14th largest in the world, according to the latest
(2011) estimates by the American Energy Information Administration
(source: [Link]).

8. Draw a pie graph based on the information provided above. Remember to

provide a relevant title and to show all your calculations. (9)

Instructions for drawing a pie graph

You need to draw the pie graph using a compass to get a perfect circle. Now you need
to get the correct division.

The total percentage is 100%. For coal your calculation will be:

70/100 × 360° = 252° – if your answer is not a whole number, round off the number
to the nearest whole number. This number is the angle that you will divide your pie
graph into to represent the coal usage.

You use the same calculation for all the other energy types, e.g. 22/100 × 360° = 79°.

You now need to divide your pie graph using a protractor, as shown below:

You need to make sure that the person reading the

79 O graph can see which section represents which energy
type. You may use labels inside the graph, or a key.

The pie graph should never indicate the degrees that

you worked out. The labels or the key should show the

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real values (e.g. 70%, NOT 252°).

Assessment grid for pie graph
Title 2 marks
Pie graph was drawn with a protractor 1 mark
Correct division of the pie graph 2 marks
Key or label of the portions of the pie graph 2 marks
Neatness 1 mark
Size 1 mark

Total = 50 marks
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
Introduction
Living organisms need energy to sustain life. We are going to learn where this energy
comes from and how it is made available to living things.

Photosynthesis

Living organisms interact with one another and are interdependent. What does this
mean?

What is the most important way that organisms interact with one another?

For example, the buck eats the grass and the lion eats the buck. The interactions
and interdependence between organisms in an ecosystem is driven by the need for
energy to sustain life. We are going to learn about where this energy comes from.

The Sun is the ultimate source of energy

The Sun is the ultimate source of energy for all living things. The Sun provides light
energy. energy is also known as energy.

All living organisms are dependent on energy in order to live. However, the light
energy from the Sun cannot be used by living organisms directly. It needs to be
converted into a form that can be used by living organisms.

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What is the basic principle of energy?

During the process of photosynthesis, green plants convert energy

from the Sun into energy, which living organisms can use.

The process of photosynthesis

Photo means . Synthesis means . So, during the

process of photosynthesis, plants use the Sun’s light to make their own food in a series
of chemical reactions.

Plants require the following resources in order to photosynthesise:

• Sunlight – plants are green in colour because they have a green pigment inside
their cells. This pigment is called . Chlorophyll absorbs the
radiant energy from the Sun.
• Water – the of the plant absorb water from the .
• Carbon dioxide – plants absorb carbon dioxide from the , which is absorbed
through plant leaves.

In the process of photosynthesis, is made by the plant. Oxygen

is also produced
in the process of
photosynthesis. What
happens to the oxygen?

The chemical reaction for

photosynthesis is:

Chlorophyll
Carbon dioxide + water
+ light Water

Glucose + oxygen
The process of photosynthesis
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The energy in the Sun is converted into energy. The

chemical energy that is stored in the plant is energy.
When animals eat the plants, they consume the potential chemical energy that the
plants produced during photosynthesis.

Plants convert glucose into other compounds

Glucose is a simple sugar that is made by plants during the process of photosynthesis.
Glucose is used by plants for food. Food gives plants energy. This energy is used for
life processes such as .

Not all the glucose is used by the plant in its life processes. Some of the glucose is
stored in the plant as . Starch is a more complex sugar made of strands
of glucose molecules joined together. These are stored in the leaf and other parts of
the plant such as the (e.g. apples), (e.g. rice), (e.g.
potatoes) and (e.g. carrots). These starches are food to animals, including
humans.

Starch is made of a strand of glucose

Glucose is also converted into cellulose. Every

cell in a plant is surrounded by a cell wall made
of cellulose. Cellulose is a structural material that
provides support for the plants so that they can
grow tall without falling over. Cellulose is what
provides fibre in our diet. (Fibre cannot be broken
down in our bodies, but help in healthy digestion.)

Plant cell wall

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Glucose, starch and cellulose are all types of . Glucose is a simple

carbohydrate, while cellulose is a complex carbohydrate.

Respiration

Respiration releases energy from food

Living organisms require to survive. In the process of ,

food is made by the plant. This food contains energy. This
energy can then be released from the in a series of
. In the process of respiration, the glucose is broken down inside
cells to release energy.

Note that although it is only plants that photosynthesise, all living organisms respire.
Although plants make their own food, they also need to break down glucose to
release energy when energy is needed. Respiration takes place in every of
every living organism.

Oxygen is required for the process of respiration. Plants absorb oxygen from
. Animals the oxygen. During the process
of respiration, plants and animals require glucose and oxygen to produce energy,
carbon dioxide and water. The energy is used by the living organism. The carbon
dioxide and water are both . Plants release the carbon
dioxide and water via their . Animals t the carbon
dioxide and water.

The chemical reaction for respiration is:

The process of
respiration in the cell

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Respiration and photosynthesis cycle

Look at the diagram below, which shows the cycle of respiration and photosynthesis.

Respiration and photosynthesis cycle

The cow eats the grass. Grass contains the stored after photosynthesis.
The grass is digested by the cow and broken down into molecules.
The glucose molecules are transported by the cow’s bloodstream to every in
the cow’s body, where takes place. The cow uses the
that is released by the respiration process for its
(e.g. ).

Respiration and photosynthesis may be thought of as opposite processes.

• During photosynthesis, plants use energy from the Sun to produce food for
themselves and for animals. is used and is
released.
• During respiration, food is broken down and energy is released. is
used and is released.

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Conducting investigations

Every investigation is set out as follows:

Observation and research question

We start off by being curious about how nature works. That leads us to ask questions.
For example, let’s say you have a plant growing in your garden in full sunlight. This
plant is large and healthy. You have the same plant species growing under a tree in
your garden, and that plant does not look quite as vigorous. You might then start to
question why a plant growing in the shade is smaller than a plant growing in the sun.
You may then develop a research question:

Introduction

Scientists investigate and report the results of their investigations so that other
scientists can share research. We build new research on previous research. Before
designing an experiment, a scientist must research previous findings to see whether
the work has already been researched. It is important to give credit to previous
research by referencing any research. For example:

Plants make their own food during the process of photosynthesis (reference). When
food molecules are broken down in the cells of plants during respiration, energy is
produced (reference). It would follow that the more photosynthesis occurs, the more
food is made, and the more energy the plant has for growth. Plants seem to grow
more in full sun than in shade, so it would seem that the level of light intensity could
play a role in the amount of food produced by photosynthesis.

Aim

Next, you outline your aim. This is a statement declaring the intentions of the
investigation. It is linked to the hypothesis.

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Hypothesis

You now need to develop a hypothesis. The hypothesis is the predicted answer to the
research question. It is written as a statement, not as a question.

The hypothesis will be written in an if … then format, for example:

Every experiment has a dependent and an independent variable. Both the dependent
and the independent variable appear in the hypothesis.

The independent variable is the cause and is not dependent on anything.

The dependent variable is the effect and is dependent on the independent variable.

In our experiment, what is the independent variable? Explain.

What is the dependent variable? Explain.

Materials

In the materials section, you list all the materials that you need in order to conduct
your experiment.

What materials will you need for this experiment?

Methods

In the methods section, you give step-by-step instructions on how to conduct the
experiment. Provide pictures or diagrams where relevant.

The purpose of an investigation that uses the scientific method is to gather EVIDENCE.
This evidence is gathered in the form of MEASUREMENTS that are objective (not

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opinions that are subjective).

The reliability of the evidence depends on how much evidence the scientist gathers.

How will we make sure that the test is reliable?

The way the evidence is gathered determines the validity of the experiment.

How will we make sure that the test is valid?

For example, in the experiment we use the same-sized pots, the same type of soil, the
same plant species, and we provide each plant with the same amount of water.

We also need to set up a control.

In the experiment, all the variables are controlled. All of the variables are kept the
same, but only one is changed (i.e. ). This means that if there
is a change in the dependent variable (i.e. ),
then it has to be caused by the independent variable (i.e. ).

We therefore set up a control. The reason for the control is to make sure that the
independent variable (i.e. ) is causing a change in the dependent
variable (i.e. ). For the control,
.

The control is set up with a known outcome. We expect the plant will not to grow in
the dark. If the results of the experiment and control are the same (i.e. the plant grows
in the light and in the dark), then the independent variable we have chosen is NOT
causing the dependent variable to change, and so we must redesign the experiment.

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This is an example of how to present the methods:

Place an equal amount of soil into each container. Plant a seedling of the same size
and species into the soil in each container.

Label the containers A to F.

A B C D E F

Place container A in a dark cupboard. This will be the control.

Place container B in a dark cupboard with a lamp directly above the plant.

Place container C in a dark cupboard with a lamp 1 m away from the plant.
Place container D in a dark cupboard with a lamp 2 m away from the plant.
Place container E in a dark cupboard with a lamp 3 m away from the plant.
Place container F in a dark cupboard with a lamp 4 m away from the plant.
Water all the seedlings daily with three tablespoons of water.
Measure the height of the seedlings using a ruler every day for 14 days.

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Results

In the results section, we record the observations. We usually tabulate the data, and
draw a graph if possible. This makes the results easier to analyse.

Days Average height of the seedlings in mm

Container Container Container Container Container Container
A B C D E F
1
2
3
…
…
13
14

Discussion

In the discussion section, you explain your observations in words and explain what
your observations tell you. You have to be able to discuss possible errors by discussing
reliability and validity.

Can you see any reliability issues with this experiment? Explain.

Can you see any validity issues with this experiment? Explain.

Conclusion

In the conclusion section, you say whether you reject or accept your hypothesis based
on your results. You simply say

“I accept the hypothesis that if light intensity increases, then the rate of
photosynthesis will increase” OR “I reject the hypothesis that if light intensity
increases, then the rate of photosynthesis will increase”.

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References
You need to reference the sources that you used to get all the background
information. There are many ways to reference, but you will be using the Harvard
method:

In-text referencing
Use the author’s surname and year of publication, and include a page number if you
are quoting an author. For example, in your introduction you say:

Plants make their own food during the process of photosynthesis (Smith, 1992:250).
When food molecules are broken down in the cells of plants during respiration,
energy is produced (Johnson, 2001:12).

Where there are two authors, reference as follows: (Smith & Johnson, 1983:145).

Where there are more than two authors, write out all author surnames in the first
reference to the source. In subsequent references, write as follows: (Smith et al.,
2009:356).

Remember that you have to give a reference for every statement that you make that
you sourced from somewhere. Also remember that plagiarism is not allowed. This
means that you cannot copy word for word the information that you find in a source.
You have to write the information in your own words.

The references list

Every reference that you refer to in the text needs to be shown in full in the reference
list.

You would reference a text book like this:

Author, A.A. 1994. Title of work. Location: Publisher.

You would reference an article like this:

Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. 1994. Title of article. Title of Periodical,
volume(issue):first–last page.

You would reference an internet article like this:

Author, A.A., Author, B.B. & Author, C.C. 1994. Title of article. Title of Periodical,
volume(issue):first–last page. Retrieved from web address [Accessed day month year].

You would reference an internet website like this:

Author, A.A. 2000. Title of work. Retrieved from web address [Accessedday month
year].
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Assignment 2: Conducting an investigation

We will be looking at the research question: Does the amount of water that a plant
gets affect the growth of the plant?

You will work in pairs, but you will present your own investigation report, which must
include the following:
• Introduction
• Aim
• Hypothesis
• Materials
• Methods (make sure that your experiment is valid and reliable. Include pictures
and/or photos)
• Results (to include a table and a graph)
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• References

The report may be typed or handwritten.

Your investigation will be assessed as follows:

Criteria Achieved Partially achieved Not achieved

The investigation All the headings Not all the Inadequate setting
was set out present and in the headings present out of the report
correctly. correct order(2) / not in the correct (0)
order (1)
Introduction The introduction The introduction The introduction
was relevant and was not entirely was not outlined
well written (6) relevant (3) correctly (0)
Aim The aim was The aim was The aim was not
outlined correctly outlined in its outlined correctly
(2) entirety (1) (0)
Hypothesis The hypothesis was The hypothesis was The hypothesis was
outlined correctly outlined incorrectly not outlined (0)
(2) (1)
Materials All the materials Not all the The materials were
were listed (2) materials listed (1) not listed correctly
(0)

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Methods The methodology The methodology The methodology

was correctly was not outlined was not adequately
outlined with all with all the outlined. The
the relevant detail relevant detail methodology
and pictures. The and pictures. The was not valid and
methodology was methodology was reliable. (0)
valid and reliable. not entirely valid
(6) and reliable. (3)
Results The results The results were The results were
were collected, not presented in not presented
tabulated and their entirety (5) correctly (0)
graphed correctly
(10)
Discussion The discussion was The discussion The discussion
relevant and well was not entirely was not outlined
written (6) relevant (3) correctly (0)
Conclusion The conclusion was The conclusion was The conclusion was
outlined correctly outlined incorrectly not outlined (0)
(2) (1)
References Done correctly in Completed but not Not done in text/
the text and in the entirely correctly reference list (0)
reference list (6) (3)
Neatness of The presentation The presentation The presentation
presentation was neat (2) was adequate (1) was inadequate (0)
Peer review Highly involved (4) Partly involved (2) Not involved (0)
TOTAL 50

INTERACTION AND INTERDEPENDENCE WITHIN THE ENVIRONMENT

Introduction

Plants and animals live together and interact in ecosystems. They interact with one
another and with non-living components in the ecosystem.

Organisms rely on their ecosystem to satisfy their need for shelter, food and space for
breeding and for hiding from predators.

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There are different types of relationships between living organisms in an ecosystem.

What is the most common relationship between living organisms?

What are some other types of relationships?

Provide three examples of interactions between living organisms

Provide three examples of interactions between living organisms and their non-living
environment.

Ecology

What is ecology?

What are living organisms?

Living organisms have been

divided into five kingdoms:
bacteria, protists, fungi, plants
and animals. We will learn more
about bacteria, protists and fungi
later.

The five kingdoms

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What are some examples of the non-living components?

Interactions between living things

When scientists study living things in an ecosystem, they classify the interactions at
different levels:
• Populations
• Communities
• Ecosystems
• Biosphere

What is a population?

Consider the diagram below. There are two prides of lion in the south of the Kruger
National Park and one pride of lion in the north of the Kruger National Park. Is one
pride a population? Do all three prides make a population? Do two prides make a
population? Explain.



In the north of the Kruger
National Park

In the south
of the Kruger
National Park

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To be a population, the individuals of the same species need to interact with one
another.

What is a community?

For example, in a wetland community, there may be a population of fish, a population

of frogs, a population of algae and a population of reeds.

Wetland
What is an ecosystem?

In an ecosystem there are populations and communities. There are also

where organisms live.

What is the biosphere?

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The biosphere consists of the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere

Ecosystems

There are many different types of ecosystems found on land and in water. Examples of
ecosystems are: .

All of the Earth’s ecosystems make up the .

The non-living parts of the ecosystem influence which living organisms can live there.
For example, in a specific temperature and soil type, certain types of plants can thrive.
Based on the plants that grow in an area, certain animals will be able to thrive.

The living and non-living parts of the ecosystem interact with one another.

Biotic and abiotic factors

An ecosystem consists of two parts:

• The , known as the biotic factors
• The , known as the abiotic factors.

Biotic factors include all the living organisms that interact with one another. They
feed on one another, compete with one another and benefit from one another. For
example, zebras and impalas compete for food; plants compete with one another for
light; male giraffes will fight for a mate; barnacles on a rock compete for space.

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Barnacles on a rock compete for space Giraffes fighting for a mate

Abiotic factors are the non-living component of the ecosystem. Abiotic factors
include, among other things:

The table below shows how each one of these abiotic factors affects the biotic
environment:

Temperature Most organisms on Earth live in temperatures of between 0 °C

and 40 °C. Each organism grows most optimally at a certain
temperature range. For example, a yak is adapted to living in very
cold temperatures and a camel is adapted to living in very hot
temperatures.
Temperature varies with season as well as the time of day.
Wind Wind can stunt the growth of plants and affect the migration
patterns of birds. Wind is also important in pollination and seed
dispersal.
Water Water is essential for the survival of living organisms. Some plants
and animals are aquatic or semi-aquatic, meaning that they live in
water. In ecosystems where water is scarce, plants and animals need
to be able to store water and reduce their water loss.
Water cycles through the biosphere in the water cycle.
Light Plants need light in order to photosynthesise. Some plants grow
intensity better in shade and other plants grow better in full light. The
amount of sunlight received during the day will vary with the time
of day and with seasons.

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Soil There are different soil types, namely sand, loam and clay. Each type
of soil has different properties, such as the amount of nutrients that
it can hold. These properties influence which plants can grow in
them.
Slope Slope describes the steepness of the land. When a slope is steep, it is
less likely to support plant life because water runs off it quickly and
there is more soil erosion.

The size of an ecosystem

The size of an ecosystem varies. It needs to be defined by the scientist that is studying
the particular ecosystem. An ecosystem may be large, such as the entire savanna
biome in South Africa, or the Knysna forest. An ecosystem may be small, such as a
rotting log, a puddle of water, or your back garden.

Survival in an ecosystem

For plants and animals to survive in an ecosystem, they need to be able to cope with
changes to their habitat. Such changes may be gradual or sudden.

What are examples of gradual changes?

What are examples of sudden changes?

Some organisms are able to cope by adapting quickly to these changes. Why are
some organisms able to adapt quickly to changes?

Rats, starlings and weeds are examples of species that are able to survive in many
ecosystems and survive well when the ecosystem changes.

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Rat Starling Weed

Feeding relationships

We may classify living organisms into groups according to what they eat. This helps us
to determine feeding relationships within an ecosystem.

Producers

What are producers?

Plants trap sunlight and use it to make food during the process of photosynthesis.
Some protists, such as algae and seaweed, are also able to photosynthesise. Some of
this food is used by the plant/protist and some of it is stored as .

Plants are essential to animals as a food source. Plants are also important to people
for other reasons. For example, the marula tree is indigenous to South Africa. The
marula tree is very important to local communities. These trees produce a yellow fruit
the size of a plum in large numbers. The fruit and seeds are eaten; oil can be derived
from the seeds; the bark is used to treat malaria, stings and bites; the leaves are used
to treat heartburn; and ink is made from the gum.

Marula tree Marula fruit

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Baobab trees occur in South Africa and are also important to local communities. The
fruit is eaten and is highly rehydrating, has medicinal value and is used to alleviate
stomach aches and fevers.

Baobab tree Baobab fruit

Consumers

What are consumers?

Animals, fungi, bacteria and some protists cannot make their own food.

Some animals get food by eating plants. They are known as .

Examples include cows, elephants, giraffes, sparrows, locusts and aphids.

Some animals get food by eating other animals. They are known as .
There are three types of carnivores: predators, scavengers and insectivores.

Predators are carnivores that . The animals being hunted

are known as . Examples of predators include lions (with zebras and
wildebeest as examples of prey) and eagles (with meerkats and lizards as examples of
prey).

Scavengers are carnivores that . Examples of

scavengers include vultures, hyenas, wild dogs and jackals.

Some predators, such as lions, will scavenge if the opportunity arises. Some
scavengers, such as hyenas and wild dogs, also hunt and kill their own prey.

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Insectivores are carnivores that . For example, ladybirds feed on

aphids and small insects, the anteater feeds on ants, and the aardwolf eats termites.

Anteater Aardwolf

Some animals get food by eating both plants and animals. They are known as
. Examples of omnivores include humans, warthogs and baboons.
Many bird species eat insects and plant materials and are considered omnivores.

Decomposers

What are decomposers?

Examples of decomposers include bacteria, fungi, beetles and earthworms.

Decomposers vary from being microscopic to macroscopic.

Decomposers digest and in turn break down dead matter and waste into simpler
substances, which are then released into the soil. These simpler substances are
that can then be taken up by . In this
way, nutrients are recycled in the ecosystem by decomposers.

For example, dung beetles are decomposers that feed on the dung of large
herbivores. They break down the large parts of dung as they collect and feed on the
dung. This broken-down dung mixes with the soil and enriches it with nutrients (like
fertiliser). This improves plant growth.

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Fungi are decomposers that digest food outside of

their body. They release digestive enzymes onto
the dead matter. The digestive enzymes break
down the dead matter into simpler nutrients.
The fungi take up some of these nutrients, but
some remain in the soil. Examples of fungi are
mushrooms and mould.
Dung beetle

Mushrooms Mould

Decomposers are essential in an ecosystem. Why?

Without decomposers, soil nutrients would eventually run out and plants would not
be able to grow. Decomposers are also important to people, as they are used to treat
human sewage. Sewage contains human waste, bits of food and chemicals. Bacteria
are used to break down the sewage into simpler substances. This purifies our water.

Food chains, food webs and energy pyramids

Plants and photosynthetic protists such as algae play a crucial role in the ecosystem.
They are . They capture the light energy from the Sun and use
this energy to produce food in the process of photosynthesis. This energy is passed
along a food chain in an ecosystem.

Food chains

A food chain represents a feeding relationship between living organisms. A food

chain will always start with a producer, because they can make their own food. A food

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chain may end with decomposers that return nutrients to the soil. Decomposers are
not always shown in simple food chains such as the one below:

What does this food chain show?

The eats the . The eats the

. The eats the .

The flower is a . The butterfly, chameleon and hawk are

. Consumers are named based on their position in the food chain:
• Primary consumer: This is the first consumer in the food chain that feeds on a
producer. Example: .
• Secondary consumer: This is the second consumer in the food chain and feeds on
the primary consumer. Example: .
• Tertiary consumer: This is the third consumer in the food chain and feeds on the
secondary consumer. Example: .
• A food chain may include a quaternary (fourth level) consumer, and may even
include higher levels. We will only go up to quaternary consumers.

Consider the food chain below:

Slang

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Producers get energy from the to . The

eats the . The eats the .
The eats the . When the hawk dies, it gets
by . The nutrients from the hawk are then returned to
the to be taken up by the .

What is the difference between the first and the second food chains above?

A food chain is the feeding of organisms on one another in a sequence. What does it
show?

What do the arrows represent?

Energy is passed through an ecosystem along a food chain from the producers to the
consumers. When an impala ( ) eats grass
( ), energy is transferred from the
. When a lion ( ) eats an
impala, energy is transferred from . Decomposers are
the last link in the transfer of energy when they break down dead plants and animals
in each link in the food chain.

A food chain in an ecosystem ends with a top predator – an animal with no natural
enemies, such as an alligator, polar bear or elephant.

Each link in the food chain relies on the one before. The links are all dependent on
one another. What will happen if one link is removed?

Remember that food chains are simple feeding relationships. You will see now how
this is different from a more complex food web.

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Food webs

In any habitat there are many different food chains that are cross-linked.
This is because most animals do not eat only one kind of food. This cross-linking of
food chains is known as a food web. This is a more complex feeding relationship than
the food chain, because it shows many relationships that go on at the same time.

See the diagram below on the food web in a marine environment. Let’s explain some
of what we see.

In the case of the producers, there will not be an arrow coming towards it, only going
away from it. Why?

Which are the two producers in this food web?

Give three examples of primary consumers in this food web.

What does the fish eat?

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What eats the fish?

Is the octopus a primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary consumer? Provide two

examples.

When is the shark a secondary consumer? Explain.

When is the shark a tertiary consumer? Explain.

The human is a quaternary consumer when it eats the shark. Explain.

[Link]
[Link]

Energy pyramids

Each step in the food chain or food web is called a trophic level. The first trophic level
is made of . The second trophic level is made of
. The third trophic level is made of and so
on. Each consumer depends on the trophic level below it for energy.

See the energy pyramid below that shows the different trophic levels in a typical
ecosystem. Explain what you see. Note that in an energy pyramid we do not include
decomposers in a trophic level, but they feed at each level .
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The eats the . The eats the .

The eats the .

This is very similar to a food chain. However, there is a lot of significance in the
pyramid shape. At which level is there the most energy and mass?

When the grub eats the bamboo, only a fraction of the energy that the grub gets from
the bamboo becomes new body mass in the grub ( ). The rest of the energy is
used by the grub in .

When the gorilla eats the grub, the grub passes only a small amount of total energy
that it contains in its body for the gorilla to grow (1%). The rest of the energy will be
used up by the gorilla in its life processes.

Energy gets lost at each link, and therefore we cannot have the same mass of plants as
lions. The total mass of producers will always be than the total mass
of consumers. The total mass of primary consumers will always be
than the total mass of secondary consumers. It is not about the size or the number
of the individual organisms, but about the total mass of the population in the
ecosystem.

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Balance in an ecosystem

In an ecosystem, the living organisms and the non-living environment that supports
them are in fine balance. The number of organisms that an ecosystem can support
depends on the resources available.

What are resources?

If there are lots of resources in an ecosystem, it can support different

types of individuals and populations. For example, in a
there are many resources.

If there are few resources in an ecosystem, it can support only a types of

individuals and populations. For example, in a there are few
resources.

If food is in short supply, animals will compete with one another for the food. The
animals will survive. If soil nutrients are in short supply, plants will
compete with one another for the nutrients. The plants will survive.
When there is a shortage of food, e.g. if there is a drought, the number of organisms
will . When there is a lot of rain and plants are plentiful, the
number of organisms will .

All living organisms in an ecosystem interact with one another. What happens to one
population affects the whole community. For example, if there is a lot of rain, lots of
berry bushes can grow.

So, the population of mice (that eat the berries) will . In turn, the
population of owls (that eat the mice) will .

If rain is scarce, few berry bushes can grow. So, the population of mice (that eat the
berries) will . In turn, the population of owls (that eat the mice) will
.

There is a balance between predators and prey. The size of the populations changes
so that they are in balance. If an ecosystem does not remain in balance, it will fail.

The balance in an ecosystem can be disrupted by:

• Natural factors
• Human factors.
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What does it mean when an ecosystem is disrupted?

Natural factors that disrupt ecosystem balance

Sometimes there are large disruptions to the ecosystem so that it is unable to cope.
A natural disruption would be a natural cause that results in an interference with the
normal process of an ecosystem.

Ecosystems may recover from major disruptions, but if the disruption is severe, the
damage may be so bad that the ecosystem cannot recover and living organisms may
be permanently lost from the ecosystem.

Natural disruptions include things such as .

Human factors that disrupt ecosystem balance

Pollution

When humans create pollution in the environment, they release toxic substances into
the environment.

What are some common pollutants?

Pollution from factories Pollution from cars.

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Farmers add large quantities of fertiliser to

soil. Fertiliser contains nitrogen, sulphate
and phosphate, which are plant nutrients
and help crops to grow well. However, when
it rains, a lot of these nutrients get washed
into rivers. This pollutes the water and
causes harm to aquatic organisms.

Fertiliser running off into a water body

Above , it was already mentioned that harmful gases are released by power stations
when are burnt to make electricity.

Three of these harmful gases are carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide. These react with water when it rains to produce carbonic acid, sulphuric acid
and nitric acid. This results in acid rain. Acid rain can damage crops, it can change
the pH of rivers and lakes and in turn damage aquatic life and the animals that drink
the water. Some aquatic species cannot survive the acidic conditions. Many aquatic
organisms die and the biodiversity of the water decreases. Acid rain also damages
infrastructure, especially when made of stone.

Leaf affected by acid rain. Damage to a statue due to acid rain.

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Gases are carried by

the wind

Carbon dioxide,
sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide
is released from
factories as a smoke Gases dissolve in
pollutant rainwater to make acid
rain

Acid rain damages living organisms,

pollutes water sources and dissolves
stone infrastructure

Process of acid rain.

Factories often release outflows of warm water into rivers. The increase in water
temperatures is known as thermal pollution. It results in less oxygen content in the
water, which many aquatic organisms cannot tolerate. Many aquatic organisms die
and the biodiversity of the water decreases.

Sugar factory releasing warm water into a river.

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Poaching

Poaching is the illegal removal of animals and plants from their habitat. Many of
South Africa’s plants and animals are under threat from poaching. Species of orchid,
cycad, tortoises, lizards and abalone (a mollusc considered a delicacy in certain
countries, especially Chile) are taken or caught and illegally exported to other
countries where they can be sold for a lot of money. Rhinos and elephants are killed
for their horns or tusks and exported, mainly to Asia.

Orchid Cycad Abalone

If poaching continues at a high rate and for a long time, eventually the population
reaches a point where it cannot recover, and populations die out. In severe cases, the
entire species may even become extinct.

Think of this as a full biscuit jar in a room full of hungry people. The more people that
take biscuits, the fewer are left in the jar. It takes time to bake more biscuits and if the
biscuits in the jar are eaten faster than they can be made, soon you run out of biscuits.
This is an analogy to understand why eventually a population may get too small to
recover.

This can affect the ecosystem balance. For example, if a carnivore population is
removed from the ecosystem, there will be an in the herbivore
population, as it lost a predator. This will result in a higher demand for the plants that
the herbivores eat and the plant population is likely to .

Habitat destruction

One of the biggest man-made threats to ecosystem balance is the destruction of

habitat. For example, large portions of the Amazon have been cut down to make
way for crops and cattle farming. Firstly, the size of the ecosystem decreases, so
competition for resources .

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. Some living organisms cannot adjust to the loss of habitat. Why?

Secondly, habitat destruction changes water patterns and availability, which affects
all living organisms. This changes the entire ecosystem balance in very complex ways.
A portion of the Amazon jungle in Brazil that has been cut down. There is a single
tree growing in the field, because ironically it is illegal to cut down the Brazil nut tree.

Invasion of alien species

Plants, animals and

other living things may
intentionally or accidentally
be introduced by humans to

a place where they have not lived before. They become invasive species when they
out-compete the native (naturally occurring) species. They may be bigger, stronger,
faster-growing or more aggressive than the native species.

If they are, then they spread quickly and take over an ecosystem. The native species
are often driven out or killed. Invasive species upset the balance of an ecosystem.

For example, jacaranda trees are native to north-eastern Argentina. The tree was
brought to South Africa in 1888, where the tree was planted in Pretoria due to its
beauty. People liked the look of it so much that they planted it all over Pretoria, to the
extent that it became known as the Jacaranda City.

This plant has adapted well to warmer parts of the country. It is very resilient. It can
survive drought and heat. It is believed that jacaranda trees are water-hungry and
out-compete native species in the fight for water, eliminating native species from
areas where they previously grew naturally. The papery, winged seeds also disperse
easily and over large distances.

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Overharvesting

Humans often take too many of one species

from their natural habitat. Typically, this
involves a species used as a food source.
When a species is harvested in large
numbers and at a fast rate, the population
gets too small and cannot recover. It is then
considered overharvested. Remember our
biscuit jar analogy.
Jacaranda trees lining the streets of Pretoria

One example is the overharvesting

of fish. Humans have caused the
population decline of hundreds
of fish species by overfishing or
overharvesting them.
The bluefin tuna is a predator in
the ocean. It eats small fish and
invertebrates such as sardines,
herrings, squids and crustaceans.
Thereby, these populations are Leaves, flowers and seeds of the jacaranda

kept under control. Remember

that ecosystems work in balance; one small change can have drastic effects for the
ecosystem as a whole. For example, we said that the bluefin tuna eats small fish. These
small fish eat algae and other small plants.

Overharvesting of fish in a village Bluefin tuna

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If the bluefin tuna were extinct, then the number of small fish would drastically
. This means these fish would need to eat algae,
which is a producer and important to maintain the ecosystem. This means that
hundreds of species of aquatic plants and animals would die due to the lack of
producers in the ecosystem.

ADAPTATIONS
Defining adaptation

What is an adaptation?

The polar bear lives in the coldest place on earth, the Arctic. The polar bear has very
thick fur. The hairs are hollow and they trap and warm the air. The skin of the polar
bear is black to absorb more light and warm up the skin. It also has many layers of
fat under its skin. This keeps the polar bear warm. Is this a behavioural or physical
adaptation?

While the polar bear is swimming, it actually stays dry with the help of guard hairs.
Guard hairs maintain a layer of dry air next to the skin and repel liquid water. This
keeps the polar bear dry and warm while it is swimming. Is this a behavioural or
physical adaptation?

Some animals are nocturnal, which means that they hunt for food at night. They have
adapted as such because there is less competition at night. Is this a behavioural or
physical adaptation?

Some frogs hibernate in winter by burying themselves in the mud. This means that
they ‘sleep’ through cold weather. They do this because in cold weather their body
temperature would drop too low for them to survive. When the weather warms
up again, their body returns to a temperature at which they can function. Is this a
behavioural or physical adaptation?

Cheetahs are predators. They have good eyesight and can run very fast. They have
sharp teeth and claws to hold onto the prey and to tear into the flesh of the prey. Is
this a behavioural or physical adaptation?

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Cheetahs are well camouflaged, meaning that they blend in well with their
environment. Is this a behavioural or physical adaptation?

Sharks are also predators. They have a good sense of smell and are fast swimmers to
catch their prey. They have a muscular tail to propel them through the water. Is this a
behavioural or physical adaptation?

Sharks hold their prey with sharp teeth and shake their head from side to side to tear
it into pieces. Is this a behavioural or physical adaptation?

In extreme environments, living organisms display more characteristic adaptations.

Here are the camel and polar bear as examples:

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Assignment 3: Adaptation
Research a living organism and provide at least five adaptions of this organism
that help it to survive in its environment. For each adaptation, say whether it is a
behavioural or a physical adaptation.

You cannot choose a tree or a dolphin. This is too broad. You need to choose an actual
species. For example, for a tree you need to choose a white pine tree or a scarlet oak
tree. For a dolphin you may choose the freshwater dolphin or the bottlenose dolphin.

You will present this to the class and then hand it in. You will also include references.

Changing environmental conditions and adaptations

The conditions in the environment of living organisms may change. For example, the
environment may become hotter and drier, or there may be a shortage of resources.
Living things that are able to adapt well are . The living
organisms that are best adapted will have a better chance of getting the
such as food, water and shelter. This will
allow them to .

Living things adapt by chance. Adaptations are passed on from the parents to the
offspring. These differences are known as .

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Humans have variations. Some of us are shorter and some are taller. Some have
brown eyes and some have blue eyes. Often, if we have two tall parents we will also
be tall. If both our parents have brown eyes, we are more likely to have brown eyes. In
the wild, there are also variations in living organisms that are passed on from parents
to offspring.

Look at the picture below. This young zebra was born darker and with very few
stripes.
The question is: Will this variation help
the zebra to survive in the wild? If this
variation makes it easier for predators to
spot the zebra and eat it, then this zebra
will die before it has a chance to pass on its
variation to its own offspring.

If this variation makes it harder for

predators to spot the zebra and eat it,
then this zebra is more likely to survive
A zebra darker than the rest of the population to adulthood, have babies and pass on
its variation to its own offspring. If this variation is really a good one, then over
generations, more and more zebras will be born darker and with fewer stripes.

Over many, many years, eventually all the zebras will be darker and with fewer stripes.

(It so happens that this zebra was eaten by hyenas at six months of age. Zebras
are sometimes born with this variation, and none of them survive past six months
because they are more visible to predators.)

Say a giraffe is born with an especially long neck

and another one with an exceptionally short neck. Eet

This is not an issue when there is a lot of rain, trees

are growing and food is plentiful. But now there is Ly honger
a drought. Food is limited. All the lower leaves have
been consumed because they are easier to reach. The
short-necked giraffe will starve and die. The long-
necked giraffe will survive the drought, and have
babies that are more likely to have long necks too.

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Lack of adaptation causes extinction

Some organisms are unable to adapt where there is a change in their environment,
especially when it is a sudden change. Such organisms may be eliminated from their
ecosystem. If there are no more species of that organism in another ecosystem on
Earth, then that species will be considered .

The dodo was a flightless bird found in Mauritius only. When sailors came to the
island, they hunted the dodo for food. The sailors introduced
rats and pigs to the island and these animals ate the dodo’s
eggs and young. The dodos had no way of escaping the
predators and there were no dodo populations anywhere else
in the world, so the dodo became extinct.

[Link]

Adaptations of plants

Some plants are adapted to hot and dry environments. Such plants are called
.

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Cactus plant Agave species

Xerophytes therefore have adaptations that

Xerophyte roots are short and widely branched out. They spread out just below the
soil. Why?

The roots are thick and fleshy. Why?

Their stems and leaves are thick and fleshy. Why?

Some plants are adapted to living in water. Such plants

are known as .

Water lily

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Their roots tend to be short and poorly developed. Why?

The leaves are large and flat and float on the water. Stomata are tiny holes in the
leaves where gasses enter and leave.
Hydrophytes have many stomata on the
upper surface of the leaves. Why?

Mesophytes are plants that live in moderate

conditions. In other words, they cannot grow
in areas of extreme drought and excessive
water. They get an average and regular
supply of water. Like every other living
organism, each plant will have its own set of
Stomata on leaf surface adaptations. However, there are no general
adaptations that we can learn about.

Camouflage and mimicry

In order to survive, predators need to find prey and prey needs to hide from predators.
Camouflage and mimicry help animals to hide and stay hidden.

What is camouflage?

For example, This stick insect

this toad has is shaped,
patterns, patterned and
shapes and coloured like
colours like the leaf that
the rocks surrounds it.
surrounding it.

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A chameleon has
skin pigmentation
that allows it to
change colour with
its surrounding
environment.

In winter, the arctic hare has white fur to match its snowy surroundings, but in
summer, when plants are flourishing, the fur turns brown.

Arctic hare in winter. Arctic hare in summer.

[Link]
watch?v=RBdbGPK1ZlQ&t=2s

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What is mimicry?

The mimic is usually .

The animal that is being mimicked (known as the model) is usually

.
The mimic relies on the fact that
.

For example, the monarch butterfly has black and orange wings. It tastes bad and
birds avoid eating it. The viceroy butterfly tastes good to the birds. However, the
birds have learnt that butterflies with black and orange wings should be avoided. The
viceroy butterfly is the and the monarch butterfly is the .
The owl butterfly has huge ‘eye’ spots on its wings, which resemble owls’ eyes. Lizards

Koningvlinder Onderkoningvlinder

and birds that would want to eat the butterfly are mistaken into believing that it is an
owl and leave it alone. The butterfly is the , the owl is the .

Owl butterfly Owl

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Symbiosis

Living organisms interact with one another all the time. Symbiosis is a type of
interaction between living organisms of different species that helps one or both
organisms to survive.

There are three symbiotic relationships: mutualism, commensalism and parasitism.

Mutualism

What is mutualism?

Lichen is made up of fungus and algae that grow

together.
The algae photosynthesise and make food for
themselves and for the fungus.
The fungus protects the algae from drying out and
shades them from strong sunlight.
Lichen – fungus and algae

Butterflies get food from pollen in flowers. The

flowers get pollinated.

Butterflies and flowers

The oxpecker gets food by picking food (ticks and

lice) off the giraffe. The giraffe stays disease-free.

Oxpecker and giraffe

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Bats live in baobab trees and eat its fruit. In turn, the
seeds of the baobab fruit are dispersed.

Bats and baobabs

A special, mutually beneficial, relationship exists

between a small bird, the honey guide, and the
honey badger. Both derive food from bee nests.
The bird has no trouble finding these nests, but it
cannot get inside them.
The honey badger, on the other hand, has difficulty
finding the nests, but with its strong claws and
muscular jaws, the honey badger can easily rip the
hives open to get at the honey.
So the bird and the badger join forces. When the bird
discovers a wild bees’ nest, it searches out a badger
and chatters loudly and persistently. The badger
answers by moving towards the bird, replying with
chuckling and hissing sounds.
The bird leads the way to the hive. On arrival at the
hive, the badger breaks into it and begins to feast on
the honey and larvae. The bird waits patiently for its
turn at the left overs and beeswax.
Honey guide (bird) and honey
badger

Commensalism

What is commensalism?

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Oysters are often found attached to the aerial

roots of mangrove trees. Thereby, the oyster
has a place to live and grow, and the mangrove
tree is not harmed.

Oysters and mangrove tree roots

Cattle egrets accompany cattle while they

forage. As the cattle feed, they disturb the grass
and expose insects and small vertebrates. The
egrets therefore feed more easily when they
accompany the cattle. The cattle neither gain
nor are they harmed.

Cattle egrets and cattle

Remora fish attach themselves to sharks. This

means that the fish uses up less energy to
move around and gains protection. It also
catches the food that the shark drops. The
shark does not gain or lose.

Sharks and remora fish

Birds gain a safe nesting place in a tree, and the

tree does not gain and is not harmed.

Birds and trees

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Parasitism

What is parasitism?

Internal parasites are called endoparasites. They live inside the body of the host.

External parasites are called ectoparasites. They live outside the host.

The host is harmed but usually not killed. Why?

Ticks attach themselves to a host, such as

cattle or humans, and feed on the blood.
Ticks sometimes carry bacterial infections and
transmit the bacterial infection to the host, e.g.
tick bite fever. The tick benefits by getting food
and the host is harmed.

Ticks – ectoparasites

Dogs and cats are prone to flea infestations.

Fleas use their host’s blood as food. If
untreated, the host will become anaemic due
to blood loss and develop skin problems. The
flea benefits by getting food and the host is
harmed.

Fleas – ectoparasites

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Tapeworms are flattened worms that live in the

small intestine of the host, such as a human.
The eggs of a tapeworm enter the host through
raw or undercooked pork.
People who have a tapeworm initially
experience no symptoms. Later, they
experience tiredness, abdominal pain, weight
loss and diarrhoea.
Tapeworms - endoparasites The tapeworm benefits by getting food that
the host ingests, and the host is harmed.

Malaria is a parasitic microorganism that is

carried by a certain type of mosquito. When
a person is bitten by a malaria-carrying
mosquito, the malaria parasite enters the
bloodstream. Malaria needs to live in red blood
cells and it damages them in the process.
The malaria parasite benefits by finding a place
to live, and the host is harmed.
Malaria – endoparasites

A dodder plant looks like pale yellow

spaghetti. A dodder plant seed germinates and
immediately looks for a host plant.
There are many different types of host plants
for a dodder plant, such as several vegetable
plants.
The dodder plant has root-like branches that
penetrate the stem of the host plant. This is
how the dodder plant gets food and water.
The dodder plant benefits by getting
nourishment from the host plant, and the host
is harmed because its growth slows down.

Dodder – plant ectoparasites

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CONSERVATION OF THE ECOSYSTEM

Many ecosystems are destroyed due to human activities. We have already discussed
above “human factors that disrupt ecosystem balance”. We are now going to discuss
why it is important for us to conserve our species.

Why conserve species?

What does conservation mean?

Natural ecosystems carry out many important processes. For example:

• Regulating temperature and climate: This occurs as a result of gas emission
from plants of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour from the processes of
photosynthesis and respiration.
• Filtering and cleaning water: The
vegetation prevents water from running
off into rivers. Instead, the water goes
into the soil and gets purified by
microorganisms.
• Improving the quality of soil: Dead
organic matter contributes to soil fertility and quality.
• Recycling waste: Decomposers break down dead plant and animal material and
return nutrients to the soil.
• Producing wood: Wood is used for building material and fuel (burning firewood).
• Providing a home: The ecosystems offer a home to all the species that we depend
on for pollination, food and medicine.
• Providing high biodiversity: The more natural ecosystems we have, the higher
the biodiversity. Having high biodiversity means that if one food source becomes
unavailable, we can use others in its place. This has been especially important
to people in some rural areas and developing countries. Say there is a disease
that affects rice in a rice field in China. If there is a high biodiversity, only
some of the rice paddies will be impacted by the disease, not others, because
a high biodiversity means that the different rice fields are genetically different,
and some are resistant to the disease.

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Sustainable use of resources

What does sustainable use of resources mean?

For example, when collecting wood for firewood or fish from a lake for food, only a
certain amount should be taken. There should be enough of the resource remaining
to allow the population to keep on growing.

Rural villagers cutting down wood for firewood

Rural villagers catching fish

How environmentalists conserve ecosystems

What is the best way to conserve ecosystems?

This includes parks, reserves and marine protected areas such as the Kruger National
Park, the Karoo National Park, the Addo Elephant National Park and the Table
Mountain National Park. These places are managed in an ecologically sound way. By
law, no one is allowed to collect wild plants or remove wild animals, no one is allowed
to build on the land and no one is allowed to clear the land.

Alien species have to be removed from ecosystems, because they create an imbalance
of the ecosystem and eradicate natural species. Controlling alien animals and plant
species is very difficult once they are well established in the ecosystem, but there are
three methods that may be introduced:

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Biological control – Living things are used to control the population of the
alien species. Ecologists look for natural enemies of the alien species in its native
environment.

For example, red sesbania is a shrub that produces reddish orange flowers. This
species is native to Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay. It has spread to parts of
Africa, other parts of South America, and many coastal areas in the southern USA.

Red sesbania

The South American weevil was introduced to South Africa to control the red
sesbania. This weevil eats the leaves and flowers of the red sesbania. Thereby, fewer
seeds can be formed. The weevil has not prevented new red sesbania from growing,
but has radically slowed down their rate of spread.

Considerable research is needed before a biological

control species may be let into the environment.
What is the biggest worry to ecologists when they
introduce a biological control species?

South American weevil eating a leaf

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The biological control species needs to be entirely dependent on the alien species
that it is meant to eliminate.

Chemical control – This is used only for alien

plants (not animals). Chemical poisons are applied
to the alien plants. The chemical needs to be
applied in such a way that it does not spread and
affect other plants. However, the poisons will
eventually enter the ecosystem, either when it rains
or when the plant dies and it gets decomposed.
This needs to be repeated every year because
seeds may continue to germinate for many years.

Chemical control

Mechanical control – This involves the killing

of alien plants or animals. Plants may be burnt,
cut down or uprooted. This needs to be repeated
every year because seeds may continue to
germinate for many years.

Mechanical control

Sometimes, a combination of these methods is used.

How can I contribute to conservation?

The most practical and simple thing that you can do to help to conserve our natural
environment is to recycle.

are recyclable.

Also, never place batteries or electronic equipment in the bin. Take them to a special
disposal station.

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Recycling means that people produce less waste. Why is this a good thing?

In turn, there will be less damage to the environment.

Landfill site

MICROORGANISMS
Introduction

What are microorganisms?

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These microorganisms are all around us, but we are unaware of them. We only
become aware of them when they make us sick or when our food decays. Before
microscopes were invented, people had no idea that microorganisms existed.

Types of microorganisms

There are many different types of microorganisms. They include bacteria, fungi
and protists. Viruses are also included when we talk about microorganisms, but
viruses are not considered to be living things because they do not display all seven
characteristics of living things.

Most microorganisms are unicellular, meaning that they are made of one cell.
(Organisms that are made of many cells are multicellular.)

Viruses

Viruses are microscopic particles that attack the healthy cells of living organisms. They
are not categorised into any of the five kingdoms of living organisms. This is because
they are not able to reproduce on their own. They need to use material from the
healthy cell that they have infected in order to reproduce. In this process, they destroy
the host cell.

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Here are some examples of viruses and their shapes:

Bacteria

Bacteria are living organisms that are unicellular. There are millions of species of
bacteria, but the basic bacterial shapes are rods, spheres or spirals.

Basic bacterial shapes. From left to right: rod, sphere, spiral

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Below is a diagram of a simple bacterial cell that is rod-shaped.

Flagellum for movement

Cilia for movement

DNA contains all the
information about the
bacterium

Bacteria may be bad for us or good for us. For example, there are bacteria in our
mouth that cause cavities. We may get a bacterial infection in our bodies such as a
throat or ear infection. But there are also good bacteria. Good bacteria in our bodies
help digest our food. Good bacteria are used in making some of the dairy products
we like to eat, such as yoghurt, and also some types of medicines. Bacteria are also
responsible for decomposing dead organic matter and returning nutrients to the soil.

Protists

Protists are living organisms that may be unicellular or multicellular, and their cell
has a more complex structure than that of bacteria. Some of them display more
animal-like characteristics and some of them display more plant-like characteristics.
Organisms in the protist kingdom include amoebae, red algae, seaweed, green algae,
dinoflagellates and diatoms.

Amoeba Red algae Seaweed

Green algae Dinoflagellate Diatoms

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Fungi

Fungi are living organisms that are mostly multicellular (with the exception of yeast,
which is unicellular) and cannot make their own food. They digest food outside of
their body. Fungi may be microscopic or macroscopic.

The largest living organism ever found is this honey mushroom, found in a forest in
Oregon in the western part of the USA. It covers about 10 km2 in its underground
structure.

The largest living organism

Most fungi grow on a food source and spread branching filaments called hyphae.
These filaments excrete an enzyme that digests the food. The filaments then absorb
the digested food.

Hyphae of fungi
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Preventing infection with microorganisms

Disease-causing microorganisms are found everywhere and it is impossible to

prevent exposure. Things you touch, eat and drink are filled with microorganisms.
There are, however, some steps that may be taken to reduce the risk of being infected:
• Wash your hands with soap before eating.
• Cover your mouth when you cough or sneeze.
• Keep food in the fridge to prevent rapid growth of microorganisms.
• Wash fruit and vegetables before eating.
• Do not share personal items such as toothbrushes, drinking glasses or dining
utensils.

Remember that we have an immune system that fights off diseases. The more
diseases it fights off, the stronger it gets. It is also important to be exposed to harmful
microorganisms in order to strengthen the immune system.

Curing disease

In the early 1900s, the average life expectancy was 47 years. Today, the average life
expectancy is 78 years. This is due to the development of vaccines and antibiotics.
Scientists such as Louis Pasteur and Alexander Fleming made discoveries that led to
new ways of preventing infectious diseases.

Pasteurisation

Louis Pasteur was born in France in 1822. In 1864, Pasteur conducted research that
proved that microorganisms in liquids such as milk and wine caused them to spoil,
making people ill when they drank them. He invented a process that heats liquid so
that most of the microorganisms are killed. This process is known as pasteurisation.

Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)

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Vaccines

When viruses or bacteria enter your body, your immune system generates antibodies
to try to fight it off (a special antibody is made against each harmful microorganism).
Some of the antibodies that are created will remain in your body playing watchdog
after you are no longer sick. If you are exposed to the same virus or bacterium in the
future, the antibodies will recognise it and fight it off.

A vaccine is . This is
injected into the person and so the person’s body make antibodies against this
microorganism. In the case of a real infection, the antibodies are there, ready to fight.

Vaccines can be made against viruses such as measles, mumps and chickenpox.
Vaccines can also be made against bacteria such as tetanus and tuberculosis.

Vaccines are not 100% effective. People’s bodies respond differently to the vaccines
and in some cases not enough antibodies are generated to prevent reinfection. For
example, the chickenpox vaccine is only 85% effective, but the measles vaccine is
99,7% effective.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are medicines (such as penicillin) that .

Alexander Fleming was born in Scotland in 1881.

In 1928, he was studying staphylococci bacteria. He noticed that mould had

developed accidentally on a set of culture dishes

being used to grow the staphylococci germ. The
mould had created a bacteria-free circle around
itself.

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Bacteria-free circle

Bacteria-free circles caused as a result of the mould that accidentally grew on the
dishes

Fleming experimented further and named the active substance penicillin. Penicillin is
an acid produced by the mould during its metabolic processes (breaking down food
molecules). Many incurable diseases at the time could now be cured with penicillin
because penicillin inhibits the growth of many harmful bacteria. Penicillin prevents
the cell wall of the bad bacteria from forming, so the bacteria die.

Antibiotics do not work against viruses, only bacteria!

Micrographs and scales

We already learnt that microorganisms are not visible to the naked eye. We use a
microscope or a micrograph to see them. A micrograph is a photograph of an object
viewed under a microscope. By just looking at a micrograph, we cannot estimate the
real size of the organism. Usually, a micrograph has a scale bar. This scale bar allows us
to calculate the actual size of the organism in the micrograph.

Look at the micrographs below:

(a) (b) (c)

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Micrograph of (a) sphere-shaped bacteria, (b) rod-shaped bacteria and (c) spiral-
shaped bacteria

Consider micrograph (a). You can see the scale bar on each micrograph. This means
that the length of the bar is actually equal to 200 μm in real life.
Micrographs will display a bar that’s in μm or nm.
• 1 μm = 0,001 mm
• 1 nm = 0,00001 mm

If the bar itself is 6 mm, then anything that is 6 mm long in the micrograph is 200 μm
in real life.

To calculate the real length of the organism from a micrograph, follow the steps
below:
• Step 1: Measure the length of the scale bar in mm.
• Step 2: Measure the length of the microorganism in mm.
• Step 3: Divide the length of the organism by the length of the scale bar, then
multiply your answer by the length printed on the scale bar. Add the unit of the
scale bar to your answer.

Let’s do this for micrograph (a):

• Step 1: Measure the length of the scale bar in mm: 6 mm

• Step 2: Measure the length of the microorganism in mm. We will use the diameter
of the organism in this example: 27 mm
• Step 3: Divide the length of the organism by the length of the scale bar, then
multiply your answer by the length printed on the scale bar. Add the unit of the
scale bar to your answer.

x = 27 mm × 200 μm
6 mm
= 900 μm

Homework 1
Complete this exercise to calculate the actual size of the organism in micrograph (b)
and (c). For micrograph (b), use the length of the circled bacterium. For micrograph
(c), use the height of the circled spiral bacterium.

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