WAVES

INTRODUCTION

 A wave is a period disturbance which transfers energy from

one place to another.
 There are two types of waves:

1. Mechanical waves

2. Electromagnetic waves

1. MECHANICAL WAVES

The mechanical waves are the waves which propagated through

material medium such as solid, liquid or gas a speed which
depends on the elastic and inertia properties of the material
medium.

There are two types of mechanical wave;

(a)Longitudinal waves

(b)Transverse waves

(a). LONGITUDINAL WAVES

A longitudinal wave is a mechanical wave whose particle

displacement is parallel to the direction of the wave’s
propagation .The particles in the medium are forced to oscillate
along the same direction as that in which the waves is traveling.

Example;

If a horizontal loose stinky spring is set into vibration

horizontally the waves travels horizontally.
NOTE: The regions along the material medium with the high
pressure are called compression and the region with pressure is
called Rarefactions.

(b). TRANSVERSE WAVES

 A transverse wave is a wave in which the direction of the

wave’s propagation is perpendicular to the direction of the
particles displacement.

Example;

A loose horizontal slinky spring vibrates perpendicular to the

waves which travels horizontally.

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic wave is a wave which does not necessary

requires a material medium for its propagation and own also
travel through vacuum. Examples of electromagnetic waves are
radio waves, light waves, TV waves, x- ray, gamma rays, mobile
phone waves etc.
The electromagnetic waves involves electric and magnetic field
of the empty space vacuum acting perpendicular to each other

NB: The speed of all electromagnetic waves is 3.0x108m/s

DIFFERENT BETWEEN MECHANICAL WAVES AND

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

MECHANICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES WAVES
Can not be transmitted Can be transmitted even
through a vacuum. through vacuum.
They require material
They do not require material
medium (solid liquid or
medium for propagation.
gas) for propagation.
Are causes by the Are caused by the effect of
vibrations of the electric and magnetic field in
particles of the material the space.
media through which
they can pass.
Mechanical waves have Electromagnetic waves have
low speed. high speed.
Have long waves
Have short waves length.
lengths.
Can be longitudinal or
Only transverse in nature.
transverse waves.

WAVE PARAMETERS

A wave can be described fully by the following terms;

-Wave length

-Amplitude
 -Time period

-Velocity

 Consider transverse waves ABCDE and EFGHI formed by a

rope which one and is fixed to a pole and the other and is
being moved up and down continuously.

1. Wavelength

 The distance between two nearest points on a waves which

are in the same phase of vibration is called wavelength
denoted by a Greek latter Lambda (λ) measured in meters
(m).
 Points B and F are crests, the distance between them is the
wavelength.
 Points D and H are trough the distance between them is the
wavelength.

NOTE

 A wavelength is the distance between two consecutive

crests trough of a wave.
  A wavelength is the horizontal distance completed by one
cycle of waves.

2. Amplitude

 An amplitude of a waves is a maximum displacement of

particles of the material medium from their original
undisturbed position.
 The amplitude of the wave denoted by the letter A
measured in maters (m).
 This quantity (amplitude) tells us about the size of the
waves (big or small).
 The amplitude of a waves can be also defined as the height
of the crest or depth of the trough (refer the diagram)

• The BP, FR are the amplitude of the waves the (the

height of the crest).

• The QD, SH are the amplitudes of the waves (the depth

of the through).

3. Time period

 Time period is the time neared to produce one complete

waves or vibration or oscillation or cycle or to and fro
motion.
 The time period of a waves is denoted by T measured in
second (s)

4. Frequency
  The frequency of waves is the number of complete waves or
vibration or oscillation or cycle produce in one second.
 It is denoted by f measured in hertz (Hz)
 If 5 complete cycles / waves / vibrations are produces in one
second then the frequency is 5Hz, if 100 complete
vibrations are produces in one second then the frequency is
100Hz.

NB: 100Hz mean there are 1000 complete waves being

produced in one second.

Example:

 Tuning forks are often marked with numbers like 512 Hz,
384 Hz, 256Hz, etc. These numbers signify the frequency
of vibration oscillation or cycles or waves of the tuning
forks. Tuning forks of 512 Hz will make 512 vibrations per
second and emit 512 Hz complete sound waves per second.
When it is hit on hard surface.

5. VELOCITY

 The velocity or speed of waves is the distance traveled or

moved by waves in one second.
 The velocity or speed of a waves is denoted by V measured
in meter per second (m/s)
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VELOCITY, TIME PERIOD,
FREQUENCY, AND WAVES LENGTH

 If the distance traveled by a waves is numerically equal to

its wavelength (λ), Then the time taken by the wave is
equivalents to time period (T)

From; V = λ x f

Hence; V= λxf

V= λf

Where V = velocity

λ = wavelength
 f = frequency

This equation is known as WAVE EQUATION

Example;

1. Calculate the velocity of the wave whose wavelength is 1. 7

x10-2m and frequency 2x1014Hz

Solution

Data given

λ = 1.7 X 10-2m

f = 2x1014Hz

From;

V = λf

= 1.7 x 10-2 x2 10 14

= 3.4 x 1012m/s

The velocity of the wave is 3.4 1x1012m/s

2. Find the wavelength of sound wave whose frequency is

550Hz and speed is 330m/s

Solution

Data given

f = 550Hz

V = 330m/s
 From

V = λf

The wavelength is 0. 6m

NB: The higher the frequency of a wave, the shorter the

wavelength and the lower is the frequency on the wave, the
longer is the wavelength.

3. The radio waves have a velocity of about 3.0 x108m/s and

the wavelength of 1500m. Calculate the frequency of these
waves?

Solution

Data given

V = 3.0 x 108m/s

λ= 1500m

f = ?

From: V = λf

f= 2.0 x 105 Hz

4. The frequency is 2. 0 x 105 Hz

The figure illustrates part of a wave traveling across the water at
a particular place with velocity of 2m/s. Calculate;

1. The amplitude of the wave.

2. The frequency of the wave.
3. The wavelength of the wave.

(a) The amplitude of the wave is 0.2cm

The wavelength is 0. 2m
 5. The wavelength of signals from a radio transmitter is
1500m and the frequency is the 200KHz. What speed to the
radio wave travel?

•What is the wavelength of a transmitter operating at

1000KHz?

Solution

λ= 1500m

f = 200 KHz= 2, 00,000Hz

From;

V =λf

= 1500 x 200, 000

= 300, 000, 000 m/s

The velocity of the wave length is 3.0 x 108m/s

f= 1000KHz = 1,000,000 Hz = 1.0 x 106 Hz

V = 3.0 x108m/s

λ=?

V = λf

= 3. 0 x 102m

The wavelength is 3. 0 x 102m

6. A certain wave has time period of 0.04 second and travels at,
30 X 107 m/s Find its wavelength.

Solution

Data:

T = 0.04 sec

V = 30 x107m/s

=λ ?

From;

λ = VT

= 30 x 107 x 0.04

= 3.0 x108 x 4.0 x10-2

= 1.2 x107m

It is wavelength is 1.2 x107m

7. A personal with deep voice singing a note of frequency

200Hz is producing sound waves whose velocity is 330m/s.find
the sound's wave length.

Solution

Data

f = 200Hz

V = 330m/s

From;
V=λ f

λ = 1.65m

8. The frequency of oxygen is 20 x 1013Hz. find it's wavelengths.

Solution

Data

f = 20 x1013Hz

V = 3.0 x 108m/s

From: V= λf

= 1.5 x 10-6m

The wavelength is 1.5 x 10-6m

THE BEHAVIOR OF WAVES

All waves are general have similar properties (mechanical and

electromagnetic). These behaviors include;

 Reflection of waves
 Refraction of waves
 Interference of waves
 Diffraction of waves
 1. THE REFLECTION OF WAVES

 The Reflection of waves is the bouncing of waves or the

sending back of waves on hitting the barriers.

NB: The bouncing back of waves (example Sound waves) when

striking hard surface, results onto the reflected sound known as
echo.

An echo sound is the repetition of sound by the reflection of

sound waves. An echo occurs when shouting in forests, in fronts
of the tall buildings. In front of an escarpment, in front of
mountain and in front of obstacles .

When an echo sound joins up with the original sound which then
seems to be prolonged is known as reverberation ( the multiple
reflection of sound wave ) this phenomena occur in large halls
such as concert halls mosque, temples , cathedrals . In order to
remove the reverberation in such hall they have to be equipped
with acoustic material e.g. Papered walls, blankets, carpet,
curtain, clothes, sponge material or any other material which can
absorb the sound waves easily.

NOTE: The reflection of waves can be produce in strings. The

standing waves or stationary waves formed when two or more
traveling or progressive waves of the same frequency and
amplitude travel in opposite direction.

N = Nodes

A = Anti nodes

 A standing wave or stationary wave is formed when an

incident wave meet its reflection when in the medium. On
the wave there are nodes and anti nodes.
 A node is point on a stationary wave which is completely at
rest.
 Anti nodes is a point on a stationary wave which has a
maximum displacement.
 The distance between two successive nodes;

Also the distance between two successive anti nodes;

 The standing waves is formed by the process of

interference
 Interference is a pattern formed when two wave overlap or
meet in a medium.

2. DIFFRACTION

 Diffraction is the spreading of waves when they pass

through a narrow opening or a sharp edge.
  A clearly diffraction is observed when the opening is about
the size of the wave length of wave.
 In diffraction light spreads into the geometrical shadow.
 Sound can be heard round corners due to diffraction and
the wavelength is comparable to the openings.

3. INTERFERENCE

 Interference is the pattern formed when two or more

waves overlap in medium.
 Two waves overlap when they meet in a medium. They also
superpose to superpose on each other.
 The pattern formed by interference is called an
Interference pattern

CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

 Constructive interference occurs when a trough meets a

trough or a crest meet crest producing maximum amplitude.
In this case the two waves are vibrating in the same phase/
direction

 Destructive interference occurs when a trough meet a

crest. The resulting amplitude is smaller than the amplitude
of the waves.
 The waves have equal amplitude , they cancel each other.

THE SONOMETER EXPERIMENT

 The sonometer is a device used to study the frequency and

the velocity of the wave obtained from string instruments.
 The experiment have shown that the velocity of the wave
produced from a string is directly proportional to the square
root of the tension T of the string.

 The velocity of a waves produce from a string instrument is

directly proportional of the squares root of the length of the
string

 The velocity of wave produce from a string instrument is

inversely proportional to the squares roots of the mass of
the string

 The combination of expression (i) , (ii), and (iii) gives;

Hence

Example1;

A string has a length of 75cm and a mass 0f 8.2g. The tension in

the string is 18N. Calculate the velocity of the sound wave in the
string.

Solution

Data given

Length L = 75cm = 0.75m

Mass M = 8.2g = 8.2 x 10-3kg=

Tension T = 18N

The velocity of the sound wave in the string was 40.5m/s.

2. Given that the velocity of the sound wave emitted from a

string is 50m/s the Length of the string is 40cm and the mass of
the string is 0.0004kg calculate the tension of the string.

Data given;

V = 50m/s

L = 40cm=0.4m
 M = 4.0 x 10-4kg

T=?

From;

The tension of the string is 2.5N

NB: From the wave equation

For the fundamental note (minimum frequency)

THE FIRST OVERTONE

Solution
SECOND OVERTONE

Solution

• Suppose that the tension on the liner density of the string are
kept constant then
When two experiments conducted such that the lengths of the
string are varied their corresponding frequency also varies.

Experiment1;

Experiment2;
Examples:

1. A sonometer wire of length 50cm vibrate with frequency

384Hz. Calculate the length of the sonometer wire so that it
vibrates with frequency of 512Hz.

Solution

Data given:

L1= 50cm

F1 = 384Hz

F2= 512Hz

L2 = ?
From;

L2=37.5cm

The length of the sonometer wire is 37.5m

2. A sonometer wire of length 40cm between two bridges

produces a note of frequency 512Hz when plucked at
midpoint. Calculate the length of the wire that would
produce a note of frequency 256Hz with the some tension.

Data:

L1 =40cm

f1 =512Hz

L2 =?

f2 =256Hz

From;

L2 = 80cm

The length of the wire is 80cm

NB: Suppose that a frequency a wave produced from a string or

wire is varied with tension (length and the linear density of the
string or wire are kept constant).
When two experiment is conducted to show the relationship
between the frequency and the tension of the string.

Experiment 1: High tension , T

Example1;

The frequency obtained from a plucked string is 400Hz when the

tension is 2 Newton. Calculate;
a) The frequency when the tension is increased to 8N

b) The tension needs to produce a note of frequency 600HZ.

Data:

F1 = 400Hz

T1 = 2N

T2 = 8N

From;

The frequency is 800Hz

 T2 = 4.5N

The Tension is 4.5N

1. Given that the frequency obtained from a plucked string is

800Hz when the tension is 8N. Calculate;

a) The frequency when the tension is doubled

b) The tension required when the frequency is halved

Data:

T2= 16N

T1 = 8N

From

F2 = 800 x 1.414

F2 = 1131.2Hz
CLASS WORK

1. Under constant tension the note produced by a plucked

string is 300Hz when the length 0.9m;

a)At what length is the frequency 200Hz?

b)What frequency is produce at 0.3m

Data

F1 = 300Hz

L1 = 0.9m

a) F2= 200Hz
L2=

From;

F1 L 1 = F 2 L 2

300 x 0.9 = 200 x L2

L2 = 1.35m
 f = 90Hz

2. A string fixed between two supports that are 60cm a part.

The speed of a transverse wave in a string is 420m /s.
Calculate the wavelength and the frequency for;

i)Fundamental note

ii)Second overtone

iii)Fifth overtone

Data

L = 60cm

V = 420m/s
 The second overtone is 1050Hz and the wavelength is 0.
4m

The fifth overtone is 2100Hz and the wavelength is 0.2M

 3. A string is fixed two ends 50cm a part. The velocity of a
wave in a string is 600m/s. Calculate;
1. The first five over tone
2. The tenth five overtones

Data:

L = 50cm = 0.5m

V = 600m/s
• The first overtone is 1200Hz, 1800Hz, 2400Hz, 3000Hz, and
3600Hz.

• The tenth overtone is 6600Hz and the tenth overtone is

7800Hz.
NOTE: In stationary wave a string does note compose up to ten
overtones, though mathematically is possible. In real practical of
the sonometer by using turning, is possible for the second and
third overtone.

CLASS ACTIVITY

1. Given that the refractive index of glass is 1.52. The

wavelength of the radio waves in vacuum is 1.5 x 103m .
Calculate the wavelength of the radio waves in glass.
 The wavelength is 986.8m

1. A guitar wire fixed between two supports 60cm a part

produced wave of frequency 500Hz. Calculate;

(a)The frequency of a wave when the length of the guitar

wire is reduced to quarter

(b)The length of the guitar wire when the frequency of the

wave produced is 2000Hz

Data

L =60cm

F = 500Hz

(a)From

F1 = 500Hz

L1 = 60cm

L2 = 15cm
 = 2000Hz

 The frequency is 2000Hz

1. F1 = 500Hz

L1 = 60cm

L2 = ?

F2 = 2000Hz

From;

L2 = 15cm

 The length of the wire is 150m

Difference between sound wave and radio waves

Sound waves Radio waves

 Are mechanical  Are electromagnetic
waves waves
 Have low  Have high frequency
 frequency  Have high velocity
 Have low velocity
•Do not required
•Required material material medium to
medium to prorogate prorogate

Difference between longitude waves and transverse waves

Longitudinal waves Tran serves waves

•Particle displacement is  Particle displacement is

parallel to the direction of wave perpendicular to the
propagation direction of wave
propagation

Describe briefly the phenomenon REVERBERATION

 When an echo sound Joins up with the original sound which

then seems to be prolonged is known as
REVERBERATION.

SOUND WAVES

 Sound waves are due to vibration of the particles of air or

any other media in which they travel.
 An isolating body like a stretched string violin, drum, guitar,
piano, vocal cords of human beings is disturbed to produce
sound. The sound requires material media or matter in
which they travel or propagate.

PROOF:

Sealing an electronic bell in a bell jar. Starting the bell ringing

and then pumping out the air, the sound gravelly dies down. But
the clapper can still be seen striking the gong. Allow the air to
return the sound is heard again. This shows that sound needs
medium of travel.

THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR

 Sound takes some time to travel from the sound producing

body to our ears.
 Consider A to be a sound producing body and B is the tall
vertical wall some meters away from A.

 When the sound is produced A it travels X meter to the wall

and then back to point A covering the some distance XM in
time sec. (To and from motion). The total distance moved by
 the sound wave in air is 2x ( to and from motion ) if velocity
is given by;

Example;

1. Sound travelling towards a cliff 700m away takes 4.2

seconds for an echo to be heard. Calculate the velocity of
sound in air.

Data

d = 700m

t = 4.2sec

From;

= 333.33m/s

 The speed of sound is 333.33m/s

2. A boy standing 100m from the foot of a high wall claps

his hands and the echo reaches him 0.5 second later.
Calculate the velocity of sound in air using this observation.

Data

d = 100m
t = 0. 5sec

From;

v = 400m/s

 The velocity of sound in air is 400m/s

3. A student standing between two vertical walls and 480m

from the nearest wall, shouted. She heard the first echo after 3
seconds and the sound two second later use this information to
calculate;

i) Velocity of sound in air

ii) Distance between the two walls.

Data

1. Velocity of sound in air

d = 480m, t =3 sec and v =?

From;

= 320m/s

 The velocity of sound in air is 320m/s

2. Distance between two walls

V = 320m/s, T = 5sec, d =?
 d =800m

Distance = d1 + d2

= 480 + 800

= 1280m

 The distance between the two wall is 1280m

4. An old woman sitting in a gorge between two large cliffs

gives a short sharp sound. She hears two echo, the first after 1
second and the next after 1.5sec. The speed of sound is 340m/s
what is the distance
between the two cliffs?

Data

T1 = 1sec

T2 = 1.5sec

V = 340m/s

From;
 d2 = 255

Distance = d1 + d2

=170 + 255

=425m

 The distance between the cliff is 425m

5. A sonar signal (a high frequency sound wave) sent

vertically downwards from the ship is refracted from the ocean
floor and detected by a microphone on the keel. 0.4 sec after
transmission. If the speed of
sound in water is 1550m/s. What is the depth of the ocean
in maters?

Data

T = 0.4sec

V = 1500m/s
From;

d = 300m

 The depth of the ocean is 300m

6. A man sees steam coming out from a factory whistle and 3

seconds later he hears the sound. The velocity of sound in air is
360m/s. Calculate the distance from the man to the factory.

Data

T = 3second

V = 360m/s

D=?

d = 1080

 The distance from the man to the factory is 1080m

THE FACTOR AFFECTING THE VELOCITY OF SOUND

WAVES IN DIFFERENT MATERIAL MEDIA

- The following are the factor influencing the velocity of sounds

wave

1. The velocity of sound depends on the nature of material

medium through which it travels. The speed of sound in air
 is about 340m/s. The speed of in water is about 1500m/s.
The speed of sound in iron is about 5130m/s. Thus sound
travels slowest in gases, faster in liquid and fasted in solids.
2. The velocity of sound depends on the temperature. As the
temperature of the material media rises air. The speed of
sounds at 00c is about 332m/s. At 200c the velocity of sound
is about 340m/s. The speed of sound in air on a hot day is
more than the speed of sound in a cold day.
3. The speed of sound depends on the humidity of air. The
speed of sound is less in dry air. The speed of sound in air is
more in humidity air as the humidity of air increases, the
velocity of sound increases.

AUDIBILITY RANGE

- Human beings can hear sounds with frequency from about

20Hz to 20,000Hz (or 20Hz to 20 KHz). These are the limits for
audibility, the upper limit decreases with age. The sound with
frequency below 20Hz is known as infrasonic sound and the
sound with the frequencies above 20 KHz are known as
ultrasonic sounds.

- A bat can hear sounds with frequency above 20 KHz

(ultrasonic frequency). Rats can hear sound with frequency
below 20Hz (infrasonic frequency).

ECHO – LOCATION PRINCIPLE

- A bat has an acute vision in darkness. A bat emits the infrasonic

sound from its mouth and noise which it holds open as it flies. It
travels through air as a wave and the energy of this waves
bounces off any object it comes a cross. A bat emits sound waves
and listens very carefully to the echo. That returns to it. The bats
brain processes the returning information by determining how
long it takes the noise to return, the bats brain figures out how
far away an object is. The bat can also determine where the
object is how big it is and in what direction it is moving. The bat
can tell if the object is to the right or left. By comparing the
sound which reaches its right ear and left ear. It can easily turn
according to avoid hitting the obstacles.

PROPERTIES OF MUSICAL SOUNDS

- The sound waves which produce pleasant sensation to our ears

and are acceptable are called musical sound. The sound waves
which produce troublesome sensations and are unacceptable are
called noise. (Non – musical sounds).

- The sound waves which are produced by regular period

vibration are musical in character while the sound waves which
are produced by irregular non periodic vibration are non musical
in character. There are three main characteristics by which one
musical note is differentiated from other musical notes. These
include:

 Pitch
 Loudness and intensity
 Quality of sound or timber of sound

1. PITCH

Pitch is the property of sound waves which helps us to

differentiate between two sounds with equal loudness coming
from different sources with different frequency. The pitch of
sound depends on frequency. I.e. high frequency (high pitch) low
frequency (low pitch).

2.LOUDNESS OR INTENSITY

The loudness of the sound is the magnitude of the

auditory sensation. The intensity sound is the time rate at which
the sound energy follows through a unit area. The loudness
depends on the amplitude of the vibration. The intensity depends
on the energy per unity area of the wave.
 3.QUALITY OF SOUND

- The same note on different instrument sound differently.

They differ in quality of sound or timber. The quality of sound
depends on the number of frequency produced. The notes consist
of main or fundamental frequency mixed with the overtones (the
multiples of fundamental notes).

A note played on piano.

FORCED VIBRATIONS AND RESONANCE

Forced vibrations are the vibration that occurs in a system as a

result of impulses received from another system vibration
nearby.

Example; when a tuning fork a sounded and placed on a bench

or a hollow box, the sound produce is quite loud the box or bench
is set into forced vibration by the vibration tuning fork.
Resonance is the phenomena where by the response of the
system that a set into forced vibration when the driving
frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the responding
system.

NB: A resonance is said to occur when a body or system a set

into vibration or oscillation at its own natural frequency as a
result of impulses received from another system which is
vibration at the same frequency.

Example

1. A group of troupes was marching towards bridge the bridge

collapsed even before it s approached.

2. If a very loud sound is produced near the mouth of the glass

bottle, the glass is likely to break.

3. The buildings are likely to collapse following the occurrences

of the earth quake

RESONANCE IN PIPES

When a turning fork is sounded at the top of a tube with one end
open and the other closed, the air in the tube vibrate freely
(resonates) at a certain length of a tube. The resonance is
observed as a loud sound produced in the tube when the proper
length obtained
FIRST OVERTONE
Using equation (i) and (ii)

By using wave equation

NB: The first resonance occurs when the air vibrates its
fundamental frequency or first harmonic. The vibration at the
open end of the pipe extends into the free air just above the open
end of the pipe. The distance of extension is known as end-
correction denoted by C or e. Thus the effective length of the
pipe b is L1+C

From V = 2F(L2 - L1)

V is the speed of sound in air column

ƒ is frequency of sounds in air

Example:

1. The length of a closed pipe is 160mm. calculate the

wavelength and the frequency of;

i) The first overtone ‘

ii) The third harmonic

Given that the speed of waves in air is 320m/s

 λ = 0.213

f = 1502.34Hz

f= 2500Hz
 2. A pipe closed at one and has a length of 100m. If the
velocity of sound in air of the pipe is 340m/s. Calculate the
frequency of;

a) The fundamental

b) The first overtone

First harmonic or fundamental note

2nd harmonic or 1st overtone
The comparison between f1 and f0

 Where 3 indicates the number of harmonics

2nd overtone or 5th harmonic

3rd overtone or 7th harmonic

Generally;

f0 = 1f0

f1 = 3f0

f2 = 5f0

f3 = 7f0

Where n = 0,1,2,3 …………… (Overtone)

Example 1; The speed of sound waves in air is found to be

340m/s. Find;

(a) The fundamental frequency

(b) The frequency of the 3rd harmonic

(c) The frequency of 9th harmonic

(d) The frequency of 51st harmonic

Given that the sound waves are probating in a closed pipe of

length 700m.

Solution

(a) The fundamental frequency

= 121.5Hz

(b) The frequency of the 3rd harmonic

(c) The frequency of 9th harmonic

(d) The frequency of 51 harmonic

The frequencies are 12.5Hz, 850.5Hz, 2308.5Hz and 12514.5Hz

RESONANCE IN OPEN PIPES

 Both ends are open

Fundamental note or first harmonic

First overtone

So L= λ

V = λf1

Comparing f1 and f0
Second overtone

Third overtone
Generally

f0 = 1f0

f1 = 2f0

f2 = 3f0

f3 = 4f0

fn = (n + 1 )
f0

Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…

Example;
 1. Find the length of an open and air column required to
produce fundamental frequency (first harmonic) of 480Hz.
Take the speed of sound in air to be 340m/s.

From;

Length = 0.35m

2. Imani is playing an open end pipe. The frequency of the

second harmonic is 880Hz. The speed of sound through the
pipe is 530m/s.

•Find the frequency of the first harmonic and length of the pipe.

f1 = 2f0

L = 0. 398m

3. On a cold day Mathews blows a toy flute causing resonating

in an open and air column. The speed of sound through the
 air column is 336m/s. The length of the air sound is 300m.
Calculate the frequency of the 1st, 2nd , 3rd, 4th, 5th, harmonics.

DATA GIVEN

V = 336m/s

L = 30cm=0.3m

From;

= 560Hz

The first harmonic is 560Hz

f1 = 2f0

=2 x 560

= 1120Hz

The second harmonic is 1120Hz

f2 = 3f0

= 3 x 560

= 1680Hz

The third harmonic is 1680Hz

f3 = 4f0
 = 4 x 560

= 2240Hz

The forth harmonic is 2240Hz

f4 = 5f0

= 560

= 2800Hz

The fifth harmonic is 2800Hz

1. A flute is played with first harmonic of 196Hz. The length of

the air column is 89.2cm. Find the speed of the wave
resonating in the flute.

From;

V = 196 x 2 x 0.892

V = 349.664m/s

= 350m/s

The speed of the wave is 349.664m/s 350m/s

Revision Questions
 1. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 10cm. If the
velocity of sound in the air of the pipe is 340m/s. Calculate
the frequency of;

(a) The fundamental

(b) 1st overtone

Data given;

L = 10cm = 0.1m and V = 340m/s

= 850Hz

(b) fn = (2n +1) f0

1. f1 = (2x1+1) x 850

= 3 x 850

= 2550Hz

The fundamental note is 850Hz and the first overtone is 2550Hz

2. A pipe closed at one and has a length of 2.46m. Find the

frequency of the fundamental and the first two overtones. Take
343m/s as the speed of sound in air.

i) L = 2.46m

V = 343m/s

= 34.85Hz
 ii) fn = (2n+1) f0

f1 = (2 x 1 + 1) 34. 85

= 3 x 34.85

104. 55Hz

f2 = (2 x 2 +1)34.85

= 5 x 34.85

174.25Hz

The frequency is 34.85Hz, 104.44Hz, and 174.25Hz

5. When a tuning fork of 512Hz is sounded at the top of the

measuring cylinder which contains water. The first resonances
are observed when the length of the air column (the distance
from the mouth to the level of the water is 50Cm) and the second
resonance is observed when the length of the air column (the
distance from the mouth to the level of water) is 80Cm; using
these observations. Calculate the velocity of water in air.

From;

v = 2f (L2 –L1)

= 2 x 512(0.8 – 05)

= 2 x 512 x 0.3

307 .2m/s

The velocity of water in air is 307 .2m/s

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous band of all

electromagnetic waves arranged in order increasing or
decreasing frequencies or wavelength change.

The electromagnetic spectrum includes wavelength such as;

1. Visible light
2. Infrared radiations
3. Radio waves
4. Ultraviolet radiations
5. X – rays
6. Gamma rays
7. Microwaves etc

NB: All the transverse waves traveling at the speed of 3 x

108ms-1 and can travel through vacuum are the members of the
electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are characterized by
different frequency and wavelength.

The electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into seven major

region or bands

Table 1.0 The electromagnetic spectrum

GAMMA RAYS (γ-rays)

 Gamma rays are the rays which have short wave length
and high frequency. Gamma rays can be used to kill
dangerous cell in humans but care is needed in their use,
because they also attack and kill healthy cells. The gamma
rays can be detected by Geiger Miller Tube (G-Tube) and
photographic plates or film

X - RAYS

 X–Rays are produced when fast moving electrons are

stopped by a metal target. X-Rays are used in Radiology (is
the science of applying x-rays to medicine to produce
pictures of internal organs in the body). They are also used
to kill dangerous cells and tumors (abnormality) in the body
it should be noted that healthy cell is also killed when the x-
rays are used. They can be detected by photographic
plates.

ULTRA VIOLET RADIATIONS (U V)

 Ultra violet radiations are just beyond the violet of the

visible spectrum. They have longer wavelength than those
of x-rays. UV radiations provide vitamin D from the sun.
Excessive UV radiation can be harmful to the eyes and skin
(recall albino). They are also used to detect forged bank
notes.

VISIBLE SPECTRUM
  Visible spectrum is a narrow band of radiation of
wavelength from pad to violet. The visible spectrum can be
detected by human eye, light dependent resistor (LDR) such
as photoelectric cell (solar cell and solar panels)

ROYGBIV

Where;

R=red

O=orange

Y=yellow

G=green

B=blue

I=indigo

V=violet

INFRARED SPECTRUM

 Infrared radiation is a band of radiations characterized by

warmth. These heat radiations are produced from hot
bodies such as, electric fires. The infra red radiations can be
detected by thermophile and thermometer. All bodies
emit infra red radiations.

MICROWAVES

1. The microwaves are produced by the oscillation of charges.

These are used in cooking (oven) and in telecommunication,
the beams of microwaves carry much more information that
telephone wires.
2. Huge concave dishes are used to send and receive
microwave signals.
 3. The microwave are also used in the operation of RADAR
(Radio waves detect and Ranging) and in TV waves

RADIO WAVES

1. Radio waves are produced by electrical oscillations in the

circuit. They are used for communication purposes.

NB: Lightning also produce radio waves. That is why radio

programmers crackle when there is a thunderstorm. The
radio waves have the longest wavelength.

Properties of electromagnetic spectrum

All forms of electromagnetic radiation have the following

properties;

1. They are all transverse waves traveling in free space at 3

x108m/s.
2. They can be refracted , diffracted and exhibit the
phenomena if interference.
3. They do not need material media for travel , they can even
pass through vacuum.
4. They carry no electric charge.
5. They obey wave equation , c=fλ
6. They transfer energy from a source to a receiver in the form
of oscillating electric and magnetic field.

BEAT FREQUENCY

 Beat frequency is a regular rise or fall of sound waves which

have nearly equal frequencies.

The beat frequency or the number of beats is given as the

difference between two frequencies of sound.

Beat frequency = f1 - f2 or f2 - f1

Beat frequency = | f2 — f 1 |

Examples
1. Two sounds are emitted at the same time with frequencies
512Hz and 518Hz. Calculate the beat frequency.

Solution

from; | f2 — f1|

Beat frequency = |518 — 512|

= |6|

= 6Hz

2. Given that the beat frequency is 4Hz. One of the sound

waves has a frequency of 20Hz. Calculate the possible
values of the frequencies of the other sound wave.

Let the frequencies be f1 and f2

Beat frequency = | f2 — f1|

4Hz = |f2 — 20Hz|

4Hz = f2 —20Hz

4Hz + 20Hz = f2

24Hz = f2

f2 = 24Hz

4 = — |f2 —20Hz|

4 = — f2 +20Hz

4—20Hz = —f2

—16Hz = —f2
f2 = 16Hz

The possible values are 24Hz and 16Hz

Question

A 256Hz turning work produces sound at the same time with a,

249Hz. What is the beat frequency?

Ans: 7Hz