CHAPTER TWO

Stress and Strain—Axial Loading

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Normal Strain Under Axial Loading
2.3 Stress-Strain Diagram
2.4 Hooke’s Law: Modulus Of Elasticity
2.5 Deformation Of Members Under Axial Loading
2.6 Statically Indeterminate Problems
2.7 Problems Involving Temperature Changes
2.8 Poisson’s Ratio
2.9 Multi-Axial Loading: Generalized Hooke’s Law
2.10 xDilatation: Bulk Modulus
2.11 Shearing Strain
2.12 Further Discussion: Relation Among E, 𝜈 And G
2.13 xSaint-Venant’s Principal
2.14 xStress Concentrations
Review and Summary

2.1 INTRODUCTION
 Stress State Analyis
 Deformation Analysis—Strain
 Stress-Strain Relations
1
2.2 NORMAL STRAIN UNDER AXIAL LOADING
 Strain: define the normal strain in a rod under axial loading as the
deformation per unit length of the rod



L

∆x, ∆δ,

 Normal strain at point Q:

∆𝛿 𝑑𝛿
𝜀 = lim =
∆ → ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜎 >𝜎 >𝜎

Fig. 2.3

 Unit of strain: dimensionless quantity

𝟏𝟎 𝟔
(micron, 𝝁) for example: 𝜀 = 250𝜇
or 𝐱𝐱 %, such as 𝟏. 𝟓%, 𝟑%
2
 2.3 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
 Tensile test:
Video: [Link]
 Gage length
 Ductile and brittle materials
 Concept of yield
 Yield strength, ultimate strength and breaking strength

𝑮𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 − 𝐿
𝐿>𝐿

Ductile Materials: σ = ,𝜀 =

3
一。
Common Features of Stress-Strain Relationship 疵



Proportional limit:
Yield point (𝝈𝒀 )
Plastic deformation
也 0

E
S 30

 Ultimate stress (𝝈𝑼 ) 恕

 Breaking stress (𝝈𝑩 )

 Shear is primarily
responsible for the
ductile failure.
𝜺𝒎𝒂𝒙 ≈ 20% − 40%

Brittle Materials:

𝜺𝒎𝒂𝒙 < 1%

4
 Normal stresses are primarily responsible for the failure of brittle
Materials.
 Rupture occurs without noticeable any prior change in the rate of
elongation.
 No difference between the ultimate stress and the breaking stress.

Practical way to determine the yield point/yield stress

2.4 HOOKE’S LAW: MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

 Hooke’s Law:
  E (2.4)

 E—Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus)

5
 Proportional Limit; Yield Point

Fig. 2.10

Design Consideration:

To ensure elastic deformation

𝛔 < 𝝈𝒀
To ensure no failure
𝛔 < 𝝈𝑼

6
2.5 DEFORMATION OF MEMBERS UNDER
AXIALLOADING
 Homogeneous Rod

From and

We have

And

Fig. 2.12
Conditions:
 Loads are applied at ends only
 Uniform cross section
 Homogeneous material
 Inhomogeneous Rod
Fig. 2.13

Fig. 2.14

7
  Relative displacement

𝑃𝐿
𝛿 / =𝛿 −𝛿 =
𝐴𝐸

Fig. 2.15
Exercise: 2.9, 2.13, 2.16, 2.29, 2.30

2.6 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS

 Statically Determinate:
Free-Body-Diagram Equilibrium
Internal Forces Stresses Strains

 Statically Indeterminate:
1 Static Equilibrium Considerations
Free-Body-Diagram Equilibrium

2 Geometry Considerations
Deformation constraint Forces

8
 Example:
a) By equilibrium analysis
𝑃 +𝑃 =𝑃 (1)
b) By deformation constraint

Combine (1) and (2), we obtain

𝑃 = 𝑃 =
Fig. 2.16

 Superposition Method
Replace the redundant constraint in a statically indeterminate
problem by an unknown load, which, together with other load,
must produce deformations which are compatible with the original
constraints. Then by superposition, the results are obtained.

9
 Example

Determine stresses at portions AC and BC

(1) By the free-body-diagram of the bar,

We have
𝑅 +𝑅 =𝑃 (Equilibrium)

(2) The geometric constraint of the bar at

the two end requires

δ=𝛿 +𝛿 =0 𝜎 ,𝛿 ,𝜀

𝑃𝐿 𝑅 𝐿
𝛿 = =
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝜎 ,𝛿 ,𝜀
𝑃𝐿 −𝑅 𝐿
𝛿 = =
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

𝑅 𝐿 −𝑅 𝐿 = 0
Fig. 2.17

Combine (1) and (2), finally we have

Key: finding the geometric constraints

10
2.7 PROBLEMS INVOLVING TEMPERATURE
CHANGES

 Thermal Expansion
T   T L
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion,
Unit: /C Fig. 2.18

 Thermal Strain
𝛿
𝜀 = = 𝛼∆𝑇
𝐿
 Thermal Stress: an example
(1) Let rod elongate freely under ∆𝑇

T   T L Fig. 2.19

(2) Applying the force P representing the

redundant constraint
PL
P 
AE
(3) Superposition: (1) + (2)

  T   P  0
P
P   AE T  ,     E T 
A
Exercise: 2.33—2.37, 2.43, 2.51, 2.52
Fig. 2.20
11
 Example
A bar is fixed between two walls. Find the stress inside the bar
when the temperature is decreased about ∆T
EAl  Al AAl LAl
ESteel Steel ASteel LSteel
F.B.D.

Ax  Bx  0  Ax   Bx 1


Deformation:   AL   steel  0 
 Ax  LAL 
 AL   ALP
  AL
T
  AL
P
  AL  T   LAL    AL T  LAL 
E AC  AAL 
Bx  LS Bx  LS 
 steel   SP   ST    S  T   LS    S T  LS 
ES  AS ES  AS 
 Ax  LAL Bx  LS
   AL T  LAL    S T  LS  0  2
EAC  AAL ES  AS

 AL  LAL   S  LS  T  A
1   2   Bx   Ax 
LA LS

E A ES

  AL  LAL   S  LS  T  EA ES
 AL 
 ES LA  E A LS
  S   AL


12
2.8 POISSON’S RATIO
 Lateral Strain, Poisson’s Ratio
P
(1)  x  , y z  0
A

x

(2) x  y  z  0
E ,

Lateral Strain
(3) Poisson’s Ratio:

ν=−
Fig. 2.21
𝜀 𝜀
ν=− =−
𝜀 𝜀
 Example:
A  r 2  201  10 6 m 2
P Fig. 2.22
 x   5.97 MPa
A
x
x   600  10 6
L
y
y   150  10 6
d
x
 E  99.5 GPa
x
y Fig. 2.23
    0.25 Determine E and ν
x
13
2.9 MULTI-AXIAL LOADING: GENERALIZED
HOOKE’S LAW

 Multi-axial Loading
x y z
x x x
x  
E E E
y y y
y  
E E E
z z z
z  
E E E
Fig. 2.24

x 
1
E

 x   y   z  
1

 y   y   x   z 
E


 z   z   x   y 
1
E

 Deformation—Principle of superposition
First consider separately the effect (strains) of each stress
component, then combine (superpose) the results obtained
together.

14
2.10 DILATATION: BULK MODULUS

 Volume Change of a Cube of Unit Volume

Before deformation: 𝑉 = 1

After deformation:

𝑉 = (1 + 𝜀 ) 1 + 𝜀 (1 + 𝜀 )

=̇ 1 + 𝜀 + 𝜀 + 𝜀

𝜺𝒙
e = Volume strain: Change in volume 𝜺𝒚
per unit volume
𝜺𝒛
 Bulk Modulus
Fig. 2.25
Expressing Eq. (2.30) in terms of
stresses, we have

x  y z 2  x   y   z  1  2
e    x   y   z 
E E E
In case of hydrostatic pressure p, we have

31  2 
e p ( x   y   z   p)
E
E p
k  e  
Denote 31  2  as bulk modulus, then k
15
2.11 SHEARING STRAIN
 Shearing Strain
Shearing stress tends to deform a cubic element into an oblique
parallelepiped (Rhomboid)

Fig. 2.26

 The shearing stresses have no effect on the normal strains

 Sign of shearing strain (Unit: radians, L/L)

𝜏 𝝉𝒙𝒚

𝛾 𝜸𝒙𝒚

Fig. 2.27 Fig. 2.28

 The shearing strains have the same sign as the shearing stresses
 Shearing Stress—Strain Diagram
16
 Hooke’s Law for shearing Stress and strain
 xy  G  xy  yz  G  yz  zx  G  zx
Modulus of rigidity/Shear Modulus: G

 Shearing strain is proportional to shearing stress

Fig. 2.29

 Generalized Hooke’s Law for Homogeneous Isotropic

Material
x 
1
E
 
 x   y   z 
1
 
 y   y   x   z 
E
 
 z   z   x   y 
1
E
  
 xy  xy  yz  yz  zx  zx
G G G
Fig. 2.30

 Three constant E, ν and G must be determined experimentally

Exercise: 2.66, 2.68, 2.70, 2.76, 2.82, 2.84

17
2.12 FURTHER DISCUSSION OF AXIAL LOADING:
RELATION AMONG E, ν AND G
 Deformation of a bar under axial tensile loading:
Shearing Strain and Normal Strain

Fig. 2.31

Fig. 2.31 Fig. 2.32

 Relation between
Maximum shearing strain 𝜸𝒎 and normal strain 𝜺𝒙

Fig. 2.33

(1) 𝜸𝒎 corresponds to 𝝉𝒎 , 𝛾 = 𝜏 /G
18
 𝜋 𝛾
∵β= −
4 2
𝜋 𝛾 𝛾
tan 4 − tan 2 1 − tan 2
∴ tanβ = 𝜋 𝛾 = 𝛾
1 + tan 4 tan 2 1 + tan 2
𝛾
1− 2
∵ 𝛾 ≪ 1, ∴ tanβ = 𝛾 (2.39)
1+ 2

At the same time, we observe that

1 − ν𝜀
tan𝛽 = (2.40)
1+𝜀
Eq. (2.39) = Eq. (2.40), we finally solve for 𝛾

m 
1   x ,
1  since  x  1,  m  1   x
1 x
2

 Relation among E, ν and G

From the relation:  m  1    x by Hooke’s Law
m x
We have  1    ,
G E
x
Using the relation  m  ,
2
E E
 1   or G 
We have
2G 21   

i.e. among E, ν and G, only two of them are independent

19
2.13 SAINT-VENANT’S PRINCIPLE
 Deformation and Stress under Uniform And
Concentrated Loads

Fig. 2.34 Fig. 2.35

Loads transmitted through rigid Concentrated loads result in
plates result in uniform distribution large stresses in the vicinity
of stress and strain. of the load application point.

 Saint-Venant’s Principal:
Except in the immediate vicinity of the points of application of the
loads, the stress distribution may be assumed independent of the
actual mode of the application of the loads.

Fig. 2.36

 Note: the actual loading and the loading used to compute the
stress must be statically equivalent
20
2.14 STRESS CONCENTRATIONS

 Near the holes and corners, the stresses are much

higher the average value

Fig. 2.35 Fig. 2.36

 Stress Concentration Factor K

 max
K
 ave
K depends on the ratios of geometric parameters
r/d —in the case of circular hole
r/d and D/d —in the case of fillets

21
 REVIEW AND SUMMARY
 Normal Strain
Deformation per unite length of a rod



汽
L
For variable cross section
∆𝛿 𝑑𝛿
𝜀 = lim =
∆ → ∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥

 Stress-Strain Diagram

Ductile and Brittle Material

Concept of Yield

Yield Strength

Ultimate Strength and Failure

Strength

22
 Hooke’s Law & Modulus of Elasticity
  E
 Elastic Limit G =
EE

 Elastic Deformation Under Axial Loading

For uniform cross section and homogeneous
materials
δ= 瓷
For variable cross section and different
materials
L
PL Pdx
  i i or   
i Ai Ei 0
AE

 Statically Indeterminate Problems

(1) Static Equilibrium + (2) Geometric Constraint

23
 Problems With Temperature Changes,
Thermal Stress (Statically Indeterminate)

2 CTL
8
T   T L
=

Elongation of bar under T

𝛿
𝜀 = = 𝛼∆𝑇
𝐿
Coefficient of thermal expansion
 Lateral Strain & Poisson’s Ratio
lateral strain
 
axial strain
For a bar under axial loading
x
x  ,  y   z   x
E
 Multi-axial Loading
0

1 UG
 x   x   y   z 
E
0

1

 y   y   x   z 
E


 z   z   x   y 
1
E

24
 Dilation And Bulk Modulus
Dilation—Change in volume per unit volume
1  2
e  x   y   z 
E
p E
e k
k 31  2  Bulk Modulus
Shear Stresses have no effect on the volume change

 Shearing Strain, Shear Modulus, Generalized

Hooke’s Law
 xy  yz  zx
 xy   yz   zx 
G G G

x 
1
E

 x   y   z  
1

 y   y   x   z 
E


 z   z   x   y 
1
E

 Relation among E, ν and G
E
G
21   
 Saint- Venant’s Principal


 Stress Concentrations K  max
 ave
*Exercise: 2.120 2.121
25