Section 11

Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc

Welding
11 Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW)
Manual metal arc (MMA) welding was invented in Russia in 1888 and involved a
bare metal rod with no flux coating to give a protective gas shield. Coated
electrodes weren’t developed until the early 1900s when the Kjellberg process
was invented in Sweden and the quasi-arc method was introduced in the UK.

The most versatile welding process, MMA is suitable for most ferrous and non-
ferrous metals, over a wide range of thicknesses. It can be used in all positions,
with reasonable ease of use and relatively economically. The final weld quality
is primarily dependent on the skill of the welder.

When an arc is struck between the coated electrode and workpiece, both
surfaces melt to form a weld pool. The average temperature of the arc is
approximately 6000°C, sufficient to simultaneously melt the parent metal,
consumable core wire and flux coating. The flux forms gas and slag which
protect the weld pool from oxygen and nitrogen in the surrounding atmosphere.
The molten slag solidifies, cools and must be chipped off the weld bead once
the weld run is complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited). The
process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new electrode
needs to be inserted in the holder.

Electrode angle
75-80o to the horizontal

Consumable electrode
Filler metal core

Flux coating
Direction of electrode
travel

Solidified slag Arc

Gas shield

Molten weld pool

Parent
metal

Weld metal

Figure 11.1 MMA welding.

WIS5-90516b
Manual Metal Arc/Shidlded Metal Arc Welding
(MMA/SMAW) 11-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
11.1 MMA basic equipment requirements

10 1

9 2

3
8

6 5

1 Power source transformer/rectifier (constant current type).

2 Holding oven (holds at temperatures up to 150°C).
3 Inverter power source (more compact and portable).
4 Electrode holder (of a suitable amperage rating).
5 Power cable (of a suitable amperage rating).
6 Welding visor (with correct rating for the amperage/process).
7 Power return cable (of a suitable amperage rating).
8 Electrodes (of a suitable type and amperage rating).
9 Electrode oven (bakes electrodes at up to 350°C).
10 Control panel (on/off/amperage/polarity/OCV).

11.2 Power requirements

MMA welding can be carried out using either DC or AC current. With DC welding
current either positive (+ve) or negative (-ve) polarity can be used, so current
is flowing in one direction. AC welding current flows from negative to positive
and is two directional.

Power sources for MMA welding are transformers (which transform mains AC-AC
suitable for welding), transformer-rectifiers (which rectify AC-DC), diesel or
petrol driven generators (preferred for site work) or inverters (a more recent
addition to welding power sources). A power source with a constant current
(drooping) output must be used.

WIS5-90516b
Manual Metal Arc/Shidlded Metal Arc Welding
(MMA/SMAW) 11-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 The power source must provide:

 An OCV.
 Initiate the arc.
 Welding voltage between 20 and 40V to maintain the arc during welding.
 Suitable current range, typically 30-350 amps.
 Stable arc-rapid arc recovery or arc re-ignition without current surge.
 Constant welding current. The arc length may change during welding but
consistent electrode burn-off rate and weld penetration characteristics must
be maintained.

11.3 Welding variables

Other factors or welding variables which affect the final quality of the MMA
weld, are:

Current (amperage)
Voltage
Travel speed Affects heat input
Polarity
Type of electrode

Figure 11.2 Examples of the MMA welding process.

11.3.1 Current (amperage)

The flow of electrons through the circuit is the welding current measured in
amperes (I). Amperage controls burn-off rate and depth of penetration. Welding
current level is determined by the size of electrode and manufacturers
recommend the normal operating range and current.

Amperage too low

Poor fusion or penetration, irregular weld bead shape, slag inclusion unstable
arc, arc stumble, porosity and potential arc strikes.

Amperage too high

Excessive penetration, burn-through, undercut, spatter, porosity, deep craters,
electrode damage due to overheating, high deposition making positional
welding difficult.

WIS5-90516b
Manual Metal Arc/Shidlded Metal Arc Welding
(MMA/SMAW) 11-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
11.3.2 Voltage
The welding potential or pressure required for current to flow through the circuit
is the voltage (U). For MMA welding the voltage required to initiate the arc is
OCV, the voltage measured between the output terminals of the power source
when no current is flowing through the welding circuit.

For safety reasons the OCV should not exceed 90V and is usually 50-90V. Arc
voltage that is required to maintain the arc during welding and is usually 20-
40V and is a function of arc length. With MMA the welder controls the arc length
and therefore the arc voltage which in turn controls weld pool fluidity.

Arc voltage too low

Poor penetration, electrode stubbing, lack of fusion defects, potential for arc
strikes, slag inclusion, unstable arc condition, irregular weld bead shape.

Arc voltage too high

Excessive spatter, porosity, arc wander, irregular weld bead shape, slag
inclusions, fluid weld pool making positional welding difficult.

OCV 90V

Normal Normal arc length

arc voltage
range

Welding amperage

Figure 11.3 Constant current (drooping) output characteristic.

Large change in arc voltage = small change in welding amperage.

WIS5-90516b
Manual Metal Arc/Shidlded Metal Arc Welding
(MMA/SMAW) 11-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
11.3.3 Travel speed
The rate of weld progression, the third factor that affects heat input and
therefore metallurgical and mechanical conditions.

Travel speed too fast

Narrow thin weld bead, fast cooling, slag inclusions, undercut, poor fusion,
penetration.

Travel speed too slow

Cold lap, excess weld deposition, irregular bead shape undercut.

11.3.4 Polarity (type of current)

Polarity will determine the distribution of heat energy at the welding arc. The
preferred polarity of the MMA system depends primarily on the electrode being
used and the desired properties of the weld.

Direct current (DC)

Direct current is the flow of current in one direction and for MMA welding it
refers to the polarity of the electrode.

Direct current/electrode positive (DCEP/DC+ve)

When the electrode is on the positive pole of the welding circuit, the workpiece
becomes the negative pole. Electron flow direction is from the workpiece to the
electrode.

When the electrode is positively charged (DC+ve) and the workpiece is

negatively charged the two thirds of the available heat energy is at the tip of
the electrode, with the remaining third being generated in the parent material,
resulting in an increase in weld penetration.

Direct current/electrode negative (DCEN/DC-ve)

When the electrode is on the negative pole of the welding circuit, the workpiece
becomes the positive pole, electron flow direction is from the electrode to the
workpiece. The distribution of energy is now reversed. One third of the available
heat energy is generated at the tip of the electrode, the remaining two thirds in
the parent material.

Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DC-ve) causes heat to build
up on the electrode, increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the
depth of the weld penetration depth.

When using DC the welding arc can be affected by arc blow, the deflection of
the arc from its normal path due to magnetic forces.

Alternating current (AC)

The current alternates in the welding circuit, flowing first in one direction then
the other. With AC, the direction of flow changes 100-120 times per second,
50-60 cycles per second (cps). AC is the flow of current in two directions.

Therefore, distribution of heat energy at the arc is equal, 50% at the electrode,
50% at the workpiece.

WIS5-90516b
Manual Metal Arc/Shidlded Metal Arc Welding
(MMA/SMAW) 11-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
11.3.5 Type of consumable electrode
For MMA welding there are three generic types of flux covering:

Rutile electrodes
Contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating which
promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation and low spatter. These
electrodes are general purpose with good welding characteristics and can be
used with AC and DC power sources and in all positions. The electrodes are
especially suitable for welding fillet joints in the horizontal/vertical (HV)
position.

Features
 Moderate weld metal mechanical properties.
 Good bead profile produced through the viscous slag.
 Positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride).
 Easily removable slag.

Basic electrodes
Contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride
(fluorspar) in the coating, making the slag coating more fluid than rutile
coatings. This is also fast freezing which assists welding in the vertical and
overhead positions. These electrodes are used for welding medium and heavy
section fabrications where higher weld quality, good mechanical properties and
resistance to cracking due to high restraint are required.

Features
 Low hydrogen weld metal.
 Requires high welding currents/speeds.
 Poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile).
 Slag removal difficult.

Cellulosic electrodes
Contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and are characterised by a
deeply penetrating arc and rapid burn-off rate giving high welding speeds. Weld
deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging can be difficult. These
electrodes are easy to use in any position and are noted for their use in the
stovepipe welding technique.

Features
 Deep penetration in all positions.
 Suitable for vertical-down welding.
 Reasonably good mechanical properties.
 High level of hydrogen generated, risk of cracking in the HAZ.

Within these three generic groups sub-groups of covered electrodes provide a

wide range of electrode choice.

MMA electrodes are designed to operate with AC and DC power sources.

Although AC electrodes can be used on DC, not all DC electrodes can be used
with AC power sources.

Operating factor: (O/F) The percentage of arc on time in a given time.

WIS5-90516b
Manual Metal Arc/Shidlded Metal Arc Welding
(MMA/SMAW) 11-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 When compared with semi-automatic welding processes MMA has a low O/F of
approximately 30%. Manual semi-automatic MIG/MAG O/F is about 60% with
fully automated in the region of 90%. A welding process O/F can be directly
linked to productivity.

Operating factor should not be confused with the term duty cycle which is a
safety value given as the % of time a conductor can carry a current and is
given as a specific current at 60 and 100% of 10 minutes, ie 350A 60% and
300A 100%.

11.4 Summary of MMA/SMAW

Equipment requirement
 Transformer/rectifier, generator, inverter (constant amperage type).
 Power and power return cable (of a suitable amperage rating).
 Electrode holder (of a suitable amperage rating).
 Electrodes (of a suitable type and amperage rating).
 Correct visor/glass, safety clothing and good extraction.

Parameters and inspection points

 Amperage.
 OCV.
 AC/DC and polarity.
 Speed of travel.
 Electrode type and diameter.
 Duty cycles.
 Electrode condition.
 Connections.
 Insulation/extraction.
 Any special electrode treatment.

Typical welding imperfections

 Slag inclusions caused by poor welding technique or insufficient inter-run
cleaning.
 Porosity from using damp or damaged electrodes or when welding
contaminated or unclean material.
 Lack of root fusion or penetration caused by incorrect settings of the amps,
root gap or face width.
 Undercut caused by amperage too high for the position or by a poor welding
technique. eg travel speed too fast or slow, arc length (therefore voltage)
variations particularly during excessive weaving.
 Arc strikes caused by incorrect arc striking procedure or lack of skill. These
may also be caused by incorrectly fitted/secured power return lead clamps.
 Hydrogen cracks caused by the use of incorrect electrode type or baking
procedure and/or control of basic coated electrodes.

WIS5-90516b
Manual Metal Arc/Shidlded Metal Arc Welding
(MMA/SMAW) 11-7 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Successful welding with the MMA process is reliant on a number of factors, not
least of which is the skill required to produce a sound weld. This is dependent
on the welder’s ability to match the arc length (distance from the tip of the
electrode to the workpiece), to the burn-off rate (rate at which the electrode is
consumed).

Advantages
 Field or shop use.
 Range of consumables.
 All positional.
 Very portable.
 Simple equipment.

Disadvantages
 High skill factor required.
 Arc strikes/slag inclusions.
 Low operating factor.
 High level of generated fumes.
 Hydrogen control.

WIS5-90516b
Manual Metal Arc/Shidlded Metal Arc Welding
(MMA/SMAW) 11-8 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Welding Processes Objective

When this presentation has been completed you

will have a greater understanding of the differences
in processes and their key characteristics and why
we choose one over another.
Welding Processes and Equipment –
Power Source
Sections 11-14

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Power Sources MMA - Principle of Operation

FILM MMA
Electrode angle 75-80°
to the horizontal
Consumable electrode
Filler metal core
Manual Metal Arc Welding Flux coating
Direction of
electrode travel
Solidified slag Arc Gaseous shield
Welding Process Film
Molten weld pool

Parent metal

Weld metal

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

MMA Welding MMA Basic Equipment

Main features:
 Shielding provided by decomposition of flux.
 Consumable electrode. Control panel Power source
 Manual process. (amps, volts)

Electrode Holding oven

Welder controls: oven
 Arc length.
Electrodes Inverter power
 Angle of electrode.
source
 Speed of travel.
Return lead
 Current setting. Electrode holder
Welding visor
filter glass Power cables

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-1
 MMA Welding Variables MMA Welding Parameters

Open circuit voltage (OCV) Current

 Value of potential difference delivered by set  Range set by electrode, diameter, material type
with no load. Must be enough for specific and thickness.
electrode.  Approx 35A per mm diameter.
 Electrodes labelled with min OCV, usually ~80V.  Too low – poor start, lack of fusion, slag
inclusions, humped bead shape.
Voltage  Too high – spatter, excess penetration,
 Measure arc voltage close to arc. undercut, burn-through.
 Variable with change in arc length.
 Too low, electrode stubs into weld pool. Polarity
 Too high, spatter, porosity, excess penetration,  Can be DCEP, DCEN, AC.
undercut, burn-through.  Determined by operation and electrode type.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Constant/Drooping
The Effects of Polarity on Penetration
Current Characteristics
DC + DC - AC
Amperage range
OCV
+/- 5 amps
50-90
70% 30% 50%
- Voltage +

Operational Heat Heat Heat

range 20-40V generated generated generated

30% 70% 50%

Dotted line denotes

- Amperage +
As arc length increases - + penetration depth
voltage increases and
= ion greater density (heavier = increased surface impact).
amperage decreases
= electron generates greater heat.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

MMA Welding Parameters MMA – Parameter Setting

Travel speed Left to right

 Controlled by welder.  Good conditions.
 Often measured as run-out length as time to  Current too low.
burn single rod fairly standard at constant
current.  Current too high.
 Too low – wide bead, excess penetration, burn-  Arc length too short.
through.  Arc length too long.
 Too high – narrow bead, lack of penetration,  Travel too slow.
lack of fusion, difficult slag removal.  Travel too fast.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-2
 Operating Factor for MMA Typical Welding Defects

 Welder needs time to change electrodes. Most caused by:

 Also has to de-slag weld bead and grind any  Lack of welder skill.
imperfections.  Incorrect settings of equipment.
 May be required to observe interpass  Incorrect use or treatment of electrodes.
temperatures.
 Inspection will be required. Typical defects:
 On long runs welder has to reposition.  Slag inclusions.
 Arc strikes.
 All reduce time weld metal is deposited.
 Porosity.
 Arc time % to total time is operating factor. For  Undercut.
MMA this is rarely above 30%.  Shape defects (overlap, excessive root
penetration, etc).

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Advantages and Disadvantages MMA Welding Consumables

Advantages Disadvantages Plastic foil sealed cardboard box

 Field or shop use.  High welder skill.  Rutile electrodes.
 Range of  High levels of fume.  General purpose basic electrodes.
consumables.  Hydrogen control
 All positions. (flux). Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
Tin can
 Portable.  Stop/start problems.  Cellulosic electrodes.

 Simple equipment.  Low productivity.

Vacuum sealed pack

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

 Extra low hydrogen
electrodes.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Cellulosic Electrodes Rutile Electrodes

 Use industrially extracted cellulose powder or  High amount of TiO2, (rutile sand or ilmenite).
wood flour in the formula.  Coatings often coloured.
 Characteristic smell when welding.  AWS type E6012 are DC: E6013 run on AC.
 Slag remains thin and friable.  Many designed for flat position.
 Strong arc action and deep penetration.  Fluid slag, smooth bead, easy slag removal.
 AWS E6010 types DC: E6011 run on AC.  Need some moisture to give gas shield.
 Gas shield principally hydrogen.  Not low hydrogen.
 Only used on C- and C-Mn steels.  Available for ferritic and austenitic steels.
 High arc force allows V-D stovepiping.  Fair mechanical properties.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-3
 Rutile High Recovery Electrodes Basic Electrodes

 High amount Fe powder added.  CaCO3 and CaF2 main ingredients.

 More weld metal laid at the same current.  AWS E7015 first modern basic rods. Ran DC.
 Coating much thicker, forms deep cup.  Superseded by E7016 or E7018 – AC and DC.
 End of coating can rest on workpiece.  E7018 has Fe powder to help stabilise arc.
 Slag easy release, sometimes self-releasing.  E7016 good rooting and all-positional.
 Only for flat position.  Both can give good mechanical properties.
 These AWS E7024 have recovery between 150  Often hybrid; small dia. no Fe powder, larger
and 180%. dia. increasing amounts.
 Recovery = Weld metal wt x100/core wire wt.  Used for ferritic, stainless steels, Ni and Cu.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes BS EN 2560 MMA Covered Electrodes

E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10 Electrodes classified as follows:

 E 35 - Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm2
Covered electrode
Tensile strength 440-570 N/mm2
Yield strength N/mm2
 E 38 - Minimum yield strength 380 N/mm2
Toughness
Tensile strength 470-600 N/mm2
Chemical composition  E 42 - Minimum yield strength 420 N/mm2
Flux covering Tensile strength 500-640 N/mm2
Weld metal recovery  E 46 - Minimum yield strength 460 N/mm2
and current type Tensile strength 530-680 N/mm2
Welding position  E 50 - Minimum yield strength 500 N/mm2
Hydrogen content Tensile strength 560-720 N/mm2

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes MMA Welding Consumables

E 60 1 3 TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)

Covered electrode BS EN 2560 AWS A5.1

Tensile strength (p.s.i)  Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
Welding position
 Rutile E XX X R EXX12
Flux covering EXX13
 Rutile heavy coated E XX X RR EXX24
 Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-4
 Any Questions

?
TIG Welding

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

TIG Basics Equipment for TIG

Film TIG
Gas nozzle Power control Transformer/
panel Rectifier
Non-consumable tungsten electrode
Power return
cable
Gas shield
Arc Inverter
Filler rod power source
Weld pool Torch
Weld metal assemblies Power
Parent metal control panel
Tungsten
electrodes Power cable

Flow-meter

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Arc Starting Polarity

Scratch start DCEN

 Tungsten touched on workpiece.  Most used.
 Short-circuit starts current.  Tungsten cooled by electron emission.
 Arc established as torch lifted.  Workpiece receives more heat.
 Can leave tungsten inclusions.
DCEP
Lift Arc  Will clean oxide from Al and Mg.
 Electronic control very low short-circuit current.  Heat tends to melt tungsten.
 Builds to operational current as torch lifted.  Can be done with water cooled torch.

HF AC
 Superimposition of HF high voltage spark.  Usual way to weld Al and Mg to get cleaning.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-5
 Constant/Drooping Cathodic Cleaning
Current Characteristics Square Wave Maximum
AC
OCV Amperage range
50-90 +/- 5 amps
- Voltage +

Operational
range 20-40V
Cleaning cycle

70 70

- Amperage +
As arc length increases
30 30
voltage increases and
amperage decreases

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Square Wave Maximum Penetration

AC

Penetrating Cycle

30 30
+

-
70 70

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Polarity

Current DCEN AC DCEP

type/polarity
Heat balance 70% at work 50% at work 30% at work
30% at electrode 50% at electrode 70% at electrode
Weld profile Deep, narrow Medium Shallow, wide
+ Cleaning action Yes – every Yes
Negative cycle Positive cycle No
half cycle
0
Electrode Excellent Good Poor
- capacity (3.2mm/400A) (3.2mm/225A) (6.4mm/120A)

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-6
 Manual TIG Ideal for Root Runs

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

DC Arc AC Arc

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

GTAW Torch GTAW Torch

Torch types: Tungsten

electrode
Torch cap / tungsten Electrode
housing collet Collet
holder

Torch
body Ceramic
 Gas cooled: Cheap, simple, large size, short life nozzle
for component parts.
 Water cooled: Recommended over 150A, On/off
expensive, complex, longer life of parts. switch

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-7
 TIG Welding Sequence Purpose of These Functions

3 4 5
1
2 4 2
1 5

1. Purges the line, protect weld area, improve ionization.

1. Slope
2.
3.
4.
5. Postwelding
Pre
Main gas
welding
up
down
supply
current
gas
current
current
to
supply
protect 2. Prevent thermal shock to tungsten electrode.
Timeline
molten pool
prevents burn
upon
craterthrough,
cooling
cracks 3. Main welding current.
tungsten inclusions 4. Prevents thermal shock and crater cracking.
5. Protects weld and tungsten electrode from contamination.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Shielding Gas Selection Gas Lens

Argon (Ar) He/Ar mixes Stainless steel

 Suitable for welding  Suitable for welding wire sieve
C-steel, stainless C-steel, stainless
Thread for gas
steel, Al and Mg. steel, Cu, Al and Mg.
ceramic
 Lower cost, lower  High cost, high flow
flow rates. rates. Thread for
torch body
 More suitable for  More suitable for
thinner materials thicker materials and
and positional materials of high  Reduces eddies in gas flow.
welding. thermal conductivity.  Extends length of laminar flow
prevents contamination.
 Highly recommended for reactive
metals (eg Ti, Al).

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Commercially Available
Special Shielding Methods
Trailing Shields

Torch trailing shield Welding in protective tent

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-8
 Pipe Backing Gas Dams Purging Methods

 There are many ways to purge a pipe or void,

the easiest being to displace all the air with
inert gas by pumping it in and capping the end
of the pipe allowing the heavier inert gas to
push the oxygen up through the top of the
butt.
 Soluble dams and tapes can also be used as
well as the chain and bung method.
 Calibrated purge monitors should record the
oxygen content in the pipe and confirm that
welding can commence.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Tungsten Types Electrode Tip for DCEN

Pure W – green band Penetration

increase
Cheap, but short life. Poor arc start.
electrode diameter

W +ThO2 – yellow (1%), red (2%)

2-2.5 times

 High current carrying but slightly radioactive. Increase

W + CeO2 – grey (Europe), orange (USA) Vertex
 Good for low current DC work.
angle
W + La2O3 – black
 Increasing use to replace thoriated. Decrease
W + ZrO2 – white (Europe), brown (USA)
 Used for AC. Bead width
Electrode tip for low increase Electrode tip for high
current welding current welding

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Electrode Tip for AC Autogenous Welding and Fillers

 TIG can be used autogenously.

 Can mechanise and use more than one head.
 Can add filler from reel for mechanised.
 Manual filler – 1m rods in 5kg pack.
 Stamped for identity:

Electrode tip ground Electrode tip ground

and then conditioned

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-9
 Orbital TIG Orbital TIG

Click for Orbital TIG video….

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Orbital TIG Potential Defects

Click to play Tungsten inclusions

 Thermal shock splinters W.
 Touch start fuses spots to workpiece.
 Spitting and melting can throw pieces into pool.
 Very visible on radiograph but not critical defect.

Solidification cracking
 Some compositions inherently crack sensitive.
 Impurities often make eutectics.
 Fillers designed with elements to react with
impurities, eg Mn used to give high MPt MnS.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Potential Defects Advantages of TIG

Oxide inclusions  No spatter, high cleanliness.

 Oxides contribute to lack of fusion.  Good welder easily produces quality welds.
 No fluxing to absorb oxides.  Good for penetration beads in all positions.
 Need to keep good gas cover to avoid oxidation  Wide range metals, including dissimilar.
of reactive metals.  Good protection for reactive.
 Very good for joining thin materials.
 Very low levels of diffusible hydrogen.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-10
 Disadvantages of TIG

 Low deposition rates.



Higher dexterity and co-ordination.
Less economical for thicker sections.
Any Questions
 Not good in draughty conditions.

?
 Low tolerance of contaminants.
 Tungsten inclusions can occur.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

MIG/MAG Welding

 Also known as Gas Metal Arc Welding.

 Uses continuous wire electrode.
 Weld pool protected by shielding gas.
 Classified as semi-automatic – may be fully
MIG/MAG Welding automated.
 Wire can be bare or coated solid wire, flux or
metal cored hollow wire.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

MIG/MAG - Principle of Operation Process Characteristics

 DCEP from CV power source.

Gas nozzle  Wire 0.6 to 1.6mm diameter. Gas shielded.
Consumable  Wire fed through conduit. Melt rate maintains
flux/metal cored wire constant arc length/arc voltage.
electrode
Contact Tube
 WFS directly related to burn-off rate.
Gas shield
Weld Pool Arc  Burn-off rate directly related to current.
Slag  Semi-automatic – set controls arc length.
Parent Metal Weld Metal
 Can be mechanised and automated.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-11
 MIG/MAG Equipment Wire Feeding

External wire Transformer

feed unit / Rectifier

Internal wire
feed system Power cable &
hose
assembly
Power control
panel
Liner for wire
Separate wire feeder Wire feeder in set
15kg wire spool
Welding gun
Power return assembly
cable

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Feeder Drive Rolls Types of Wire Drive System

Internal wire drive system Plain top roller

Two roll Four roll

Half grooved Wire guide

bottom roller
Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Roll Grooves Liners for MIG/MAG

 Often have plain top roll.

 Bottom, and sometimes top, roll grooved.
 V shape for steel.
 U shape for softer wire, eg Al.
 Knurled for positive feed.
 Care needed on tightness of rolls.
 Too light – rolls skid, wire stalls.
 Too tight – rolls deform wire, wire can jam.
Close wound Teflon liner
 If wire stops arc burns back to contact tube. stainless
steel wire

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-12
 The Relationship Between
Torch Components
Amps and Volts
Welding gun assembly Welding gun body
(less nozzle) Voltage Dial on
On/Off switch weld machine

Spatter Hose

- Voltage +
protection port

Arc
Length
Nozzles or Spot welding
- Amperage +
shrouds spacer

Gas diffuser Contact tips

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Self-Adjusting Arc Self-Adjusting Arc

Arc and wire feed Arc length increased Wire feed rate is Arc and wire feed Arc length is decreased Arc length returns to
rate in equilibrium. momentarily, burn constant so original arc rate in equilibrium. momentarily, burn off original condition.
off reduces. length is re established. increases.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Example: Self-Adjusting Arc Welding Parameters

Wire feed speed:

 Increasing wfs automatically gives more current.
Wire feed at Voltage:
constant speed
 Controls arc length and bead width.
CTWD is increased
which momentarily Current:
increases arc length
 Wire feed sets, Mainly affects penetration.
As wire feed is Inductance:
constant, the original
arc length is re  In dip, controls rise in current. Lowers spatter. Gives
established. hotter or colder welding.
More info on several websites, eg:
www.millerwelds.com/resources/articles/MIG-
GMAW-welding-basics

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-13
 The Effect of Increasing Arc Voltage Shielding Gas

Argon:
 OK for all metals weldable by MIG.
 Supports spray transfer, not good for dip.
 Low penetration.
Carbon dioxide:
 Use on ferritic steel.
Arc Length @ Arc Length @  Supports dip and globular, not spray.
28 V – 250A 34 V – 230A
Ar based mixtures:
 Add He, O2, CO2 to increase penetration.
 >20Ar + He, >80Ar + O2, CO2 can spray and
dip.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

MIG and MAG Shielding Gases Metal Transfer Modes

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Depending on shielding gas and voltage, metal
 Usually Ar shielding. crosses from wire to work in:
 Can be Ar + He mixture – gives hotter action.  Spray mode – wire tapers to a point and very
fine droplets stream across from the tip.
 Used for non-ferrous alloys, eg Al, Ni.
 Globular mode – large droplets form and drop
Metal Active Gas (MAG) under action of gravity and arc force.
 Has oxidising gas shield.  Short-circuiting (dip) mode – wire touches pool
 Can be 100% CO2 for ferritic steels. surface before arc re-ignition.
 Often Ar + 12 to 20% CO2 for both dip and  Pulsed mode – current and voltage cycled
spray. between no transfer and spray mode.
 Ar + O2 for stainless steel.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Use of Transfer Modes Droplet Growth and Detachment

Spray Transfer: V > 26; i > 220  Current heating wire causes melting and
 Thicker material, flat welding, high deposition. droplet formation.
Globular Transfer: between dip and spray  Droplet held by surface tension and viscosity.
 Mechanised MAG process using CO2.  Droplet detachment by electromagnetic forces
Dip Transfer: V < 24; i < 200 (Lorentz and arc forces), gravity.
 Thin material positional welding.  Electromagnetic forces proportional to current
– hence dip at low current.
Pulse Transfer: spray + no transfer cycle
 Frequency range 50-300 pulses/second.
 Positional welding and root runs.
These values will depend on gas mixture.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-14
 Dip Transfer Dip Transfer

 Droplet stays attached and touches pool causing

short-circuit.
 Current rises very quickly giving energy to
pinch-off droplet violently.
 Akin to blowing a fuse – causes spatter.
 Droplet detaches, arc re-establishes and current
falls.
 Cycle occurs up to 200 times per second.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

The Effect of Inductance Practical Effect of Inductance

Controls the rate of current rise Maximum inductance Minimum inductance

 Reduced spatter.  Colder arc used for wide
Current (A)
 Hotter arc more gaps.
Short circuit Excessive current,
current high spatter penetration.  Convex weld, more
 Fluid weld pool flatter, spatter.
No inductance
smoother weld.  Good pool control.
 Good for thicker materials  Recommended on thin
and stainless steels. materials.

Desired current for good

stability, low spatter

Time (sec)

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Dip Transfer Attributes Globular Transfer

Advantages  Transfer by gravity or short

 Low energy allows welding in all positions. circuit.
 Good for root runs in single-sided welds.  Requires CO2 shielding.
 Good for welding thin material.  Drops larger than electrode
hence severe spatter.
Disadvantages  Can use low voltage and bury
arc to reduce spatter.
 Prone to lack of fusion.
 High current and voltage, so
 May not be allowed for high-integrity
applications. high distortion.
 Tends to give spatter.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-15
 Gas Metal Arc Welding Spray Transfer

Spray transfer  Continuous transfer

When current and voltage are raised together higher energy of metal.
is available for fusion (typically > ~ 25 volts & ~ 250 amps).  High voltage long
This causes a fine droplets of weld metal to be sprayed from arc.
the tip of the wire into the weld pool.  High heat input.
Transfer-mode advantages  Fluid weld pool.
 High energy gives good fusion.  High deposition.
 High rates of weld metal deposition are given.  No spatter.
 These characteristics make it suitable for welding thicker
joints.
 Transfer-mode disadvantages.
 It cannot be used for positional welding.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Dip, Globular and Spray Transfer Spray Transfer

 Tapered tip as anode

climbs wire.
 Small droplets with free
flight from pinch effect.
Dip, Globular and Spray Film  Requires Ar-rich gas.
 High current and
voltage, high distortion.
 Large pool, not
positional.
 Used for thick material
and flat/horizontal weld.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Pulsed Transfer Pulsed Transfer Attributes

Advantages
 Good fusion.
 Small weld pool allows all-position welding.

Disadvantages
 More complex and expensive power source.
 Difficult to set parameters.
Amps

Back Peak current  But synergic easy to set, manufacturer

Current provides programmes to suit wire type, dia.
and type of gas.
Time

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-16
 Pulse Transfer The Effect of Increasing CTWD

The self adjusting arc

quickly re adjusts to
Pulse Transfer Film
establish equilibrium.

AMPS 190 AMPS 170

VOLTS 23 VOLTS 23

Although the arc length remains the same, the current will decrease
due to the increased resistance of lengthening the CTWD.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

The Effect of Decreasing CTWD Contact Tip to Nozzle Distance

Metal transfer mode Contact tip to nozzle

Dip +/- 2mm
The self adjusting arc Spray 4-8mm inside
quickly re adjusts to Spray (Al) 6-10mm inside
establish equilibrium.

Contact tip Electrode

Contact tip
Electrode recessed extension
extension
AMPS 170 AMPS 190 (0-3.2mm)
extension (3-5mm) 19-25mm
6-13mm
VOLTS 23 VOLTS 23

Although the arc length remains the same, the current will increase
due to the decreased resistance of shortening the CTWD. Set up for Dip transfer Set up for Spray transfer

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Filler Wire Potential Defects

 Similar composition to base material.  Most defects caused by lack of welder skill, or
 Solid, flux cored or metal cored. incorrect settings of equipment.
 FCW run in spray, gives good fusion. FCW  Worn contact tip causes poor power pick up
allows all-positional welding, slag formation. and this causes wire to stub into work.
 Metal cored wires similar to solid wires, but  Silica inclusions build in steels if poor inter-run
better deposition rate. cleaning.
 Some FCW are self-shielded.  Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer).
 Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc).
 Cracking, centerline pipes, crater pipes on
deep narrow welds.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-17
 MIG/MAG Attributes

Advantages Disadvantages
 High productivity.  Lack of fusion (dip).
 Easily automated.  Small range of Any Questions
 All positional (dip consumables.

?
and pulse).  Protection on site.
 Material thickness  Complex equipment.
range.  Not so portable.
 Continuous
electrode.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Gas Shielded Principle of Operation

Flux Core Welding

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Self-Shielded Principle of Operation Benefit of Flux

 Flux assists in producing gas cover, more

tolerant to draughts than solid wire.
 Flux creates slag that protects hot metal.
 Slag holds bead when positional welding.
 Flux alloying can improve weld metal
properties.
 Reduced cross-section carrying current gives
increased burn-off at any current, higher
resistance.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-18
 FCAW - Differences from MIG/MAG Self-Shielded Welding Gun

 Usually operate DCEP

but some self-shielded Close wound stainless steel
Handle
24V insulated
spring wire liner (inside switch lead
wires run DCEN. welding gun cable)
 Some hardfacing wires Conductor
are larger diameter – tube
need big power source.
 Don't work in dip. Welding
Trigger
gun cable
 Need knurled feed rolls.
 Self-shielded wires use Thread protector
Hand shield
a different torch.
Contact tip

Courtesy of Lincoln Electric

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Backhand (Drag) Technique Forehand (Push) Technique

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

 Preferred for flat or  Produces higher weld  Preferred method for  Produces low weld
horizontal with profile. vertical up or profile, with coarser
FCAW.  Difficult to follow overhead with ripples.
 Slower travel. weld joint. FCAW.  Fast travel gives low
 Deeper penetration.  Can lead to burn-  Arc gives preheat penetration.
through on thin effect.  Amount of spatter
 Weld hot longer so
gasses removed. sheet.  Easy to follow weld can increase.
joint and control
penetration.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

FCAW Advantages Deposition Rate for C-Steel

 Less sensitive to lack of fusion.

 Smaller included angle compared to MMA.
 High productivity, up to 10kg per hour.
 All positional.
 Smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut.
 Basic types produce excellent toughness.
 Good control of weld pool in positional welding
especially with rutile wires.
 Ease of varying alloying constituents gives
wide range of consumables.
 Some can run without shielding gas.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-19
 FCAW Disadvantages

 Limited to steels and Ni-base alloys.

 Slag covering must be removed.
 FCAW wire is more expensive per kg than solid
wires (except some high alloy steels) but note
may be more cost effective. Submerged Arc Welding
 Gas shielded wires may be affected by winds
and draughts like MIG.
 More fume than MIG/MAG.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

SAW Principle of Operation SAW FILM

Flux recovery Contact tube

Consumable Weld pool

electrode
Flux feed SAW Film
Weld metal Arc Parent metal
Slag

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Process Characteristics Process Characteristics

 Arc between bare wire and parent plate.  Flux fed from hopper in continuous mound
 Arc, electrode end and the molten pool along line of intended weld.
submerged in powdered flux.  Mound is deep to submerge arc. No spatter,
 Flux makes gas and slag in lower layers under weld shielded from atmosphere, no UV light.
heat of arc giving protection.  Un melted flux reclaimed for further use.
 Wire fed by voltage-controlled motor driven  Only for flat and horizontal-vertical positions
rollers to ensure constant arc length. in most cases.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-20
 SAW Basic Equipment Types of Equipment

Transformer/
Power return Rectifier
cable
Power control Welding carriage Hand-held gun
panel control unit
Tractor
Welding carriage

Granulated Electrode wire

flux reel

Granulated
flux
Column and boom Gantry

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

SAW Equipment Tractor Units

Wire reel  For straight or gently

curved joints.
Slides  Ride tracks alongside
Flux
joint or directly on
hopper workpiece.
Wire feed  Can have guide
Feed roll motor wheels to track.
assembly  Good portability, Courtesy of ESAB AB

used where piece

Torch
assembly cannot be moved.

Tracking
Contact tip
system Courtesy of ESAB AB

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Column and Boom Gantry

 Linear travel only.  2D linear movement

 Can move in 3 axes. only.
 Workpiece must be  For large production.
brought to weld  May have more than
station. one head.
 Mostly used in
workshop.

Courtesy of ESAB AB

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-21
 Power Sources Constant Voltage Power Supply

Power sources can be:  Most commonly used.

 Transformers for AC.  Can be mechanised or automatic welding.
 Transformer-rectifiers for DC.  Self-regulating arc so simple WFS control.
 WFS controls current, power supply controls
Static characteristic can be: voltage.
 Constant Voltage (flat) – most popular.  DC limited to 1000A by severe arc blow.
 Constant Current (drooping) – used for high
current.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Constant Current Power Wire

 Preferred >1000A.  Usually 2 to 6mm diameter.

 Can be mechanised or automatic welding.  Copper coated to avoid rusting.
 Not self-regulating arc so must have voltage-  25 or 30kg coils.
sensing WFS control.  Can be supplied in bulk 300 to 2000kg.
 More expensive.
 Voltage from WFS control, power source
controls current.
 Not for high-speed welding of thin steel.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Fused Fluxes Bonded or Agglomerated Flux

 Original Unionmelt design – manganese,  Powdered minerals pelletised with silicate.

aluminium and calcium silicates.  Baked to high temperature but hygroscopic.
 Non-hygroscopic, no need to bake.  Flexible composition, can alloy, make basic.
 Good for recycling, composition doesn’t vary.  Can add de oxidants for good properties.
 Some can accept up to 2000A.  Composition can vary as particle breakdown.
 Very limited alloying and property control.  Needs to be filtered when recycling.
 Cannot make basic fused flux.  Can add Mn and Si flux.

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-22
 SAW Operating Variables Starting/Finishing the Weld

 Welding current.
 Current type and polarity.
 Welding voltage.
 Travel speed.
 Electrode size.
 Electrode extension why?
 Width and depth of the layer of flux. Extension bars Run off plate Extension bars
simulating
identical joint
preparation

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Any Questions

?
Copyright © TWI Ltd

11-23