Chapter 2: Representation of

power system components

 Single Phase Solution of Balanced
Three Phase Systems
Balanced Three Phase Circuits
 Balanced-Y Connections
 Balanced Line-to-Neutral Voltages
 The source line-to-neutral voltages Ean, Ebn and Ecn are
balanced when these voltages have equal magnitudes
and an equal 120o phase difference between any two
phases.
 Example: positive sequence (abc)
 Balanced Line-to-Line Voltages
 The voltages Eab, Ebc and Eca between phases are called
line-to-line
 Similarly:

 The line-to-line voltages are √3 times the line-to-

neutral voltages and lead by 30o.
 The sum of the three line-to-line voltages is zero, even
if the system is unbalanced.
 The sum of the three line-to-neutral voltages for a
balanced system is zero.
 Balanced Line Currents

 Example:
 Balanced Δ Loads
 Example:

 The line currents:

 Δ-Y Conversion for Balanced Loads
 Equivalent Line-to-Neutral Diagrams
 Power in Balanced Three Phase Circuits
 Instantaneous and Complex Power for Balanced Three
Phase Generators
 Instantaneous voltage and current

 The instantaneous power delivered by phase a

 Similarly:
 The total instantaneous power delivered by a three
phase generator is the sum of the instantaneous
powers delivered by each phase.
 The total instantaneous power delivered by a three
phase generator under balanced operating conditions
is not a function of time, but a constant,

 The equations for instantaneous powers delivered by

phases of a generator are valid for instantaneous
powers absorbed by phases of a balanced three phase
motor and balanced three phase impedance loads.
 Therefore, the equation for the total instantaneous
power is valid for these loads.
 Complex Power: Generators, Motors and Y-loads
 In terms of the total real and reactive powers

 Where

 The total apparent power is:

 Complex Power: Δ-loads
 Advantages of Balanced Three phase versus Single
Phase

 Less capital and

operating cost
 Avoids shaft vibration
and noise
 The three neutral conductors can be removed in three
phase systems.
 The balanced three phase system, while delivering the
same power, requires half the number of conductors
required for the three separate single phase systems.
 The total instantaneous power delivered by a three-
phase generator under steady state conditions is
constant. The input mechanical power will be
constant.
 The shaft mechanical torque is nearly constant.
 The mechanical input power and the mechanical shaft
torque in single-phase generators under steady state
condition have double frequency components that
create shaft vibration and noise, which could cause
shaft failure in large machines.
 Accordingly, most generators and motors rated 5KVA
and higher are constructed as three-phase machines in
order to produce nearly constant torque thereby
minimize shaft vibration and noise.
One-Line Diagram and Impedance or
Reactance Diagram
One-Line Diagram
 Impedance Diagram
 Reactance Diagram
Per Unit Representation
 A key problem in analyzing power systems is the large
number of transformers.
– It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the transformers
 This problem is avoided by a normalization of all
variables.
 This normalization is known as per unit analysis.
actual quantity
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity
 Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1f
1. Pick a 1f VA base for the entire system, SB
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
VB. Voltage bases are related by transformer turns
ratios. Voltages are line to neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Note, per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not
the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)
Per Unit Solution Procedure
1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems are
already in per unit)
2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary
Per Unit Example
Solve for the current, load voltage and load power
in the circuit shown below using per unit analysis
with an SB of 100 MVA, and voltage bases of 8 kV,
80 kV and 16 kV.

Original Circuit
 8kV 2
Left
ZB   0.64
100 MVA
80kV 2
Z BMiddle   64
100 MVA
16kV 2
Z BRight   2.56
100 MVA
Same circuit, with
values expressed
in per unit.
 1.00
I   0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8  
    p.u.
2
VL
SL  
VL I L*  0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00  0.2230.8  30.8p.u.
To convert back to actual values just multiply the
per unit values by their per unit base

VLActual
 0.859  30.8  16 kV  13.7  30.8 kV
S LActual  0.1890  100 MVA  18.90 MVA
SGActual  0.2230.8  100 MVA  22.030.8 MVA
100 MVA
I Middle
B   1250 Amps
80 kV
Middle  0.22  30.8  Amps  275  30.8
I Actual
Three Phase Per Unit
Procedure is very similar to 1f except we use a 3f
VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
1. Pick a 3f VA base for the entire system, S B3f
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level,
VB. Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base

VB2, LL ( 3 VB , LN ) 2 VB2, LN
ZB   
S B3f 3S 1Bf S 1Bf
Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!
4. Calculate the current base, IB
S B3f 3 S 1Bf S 1Bf
I3Bf     I1Bf
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN
Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!

5. Convert actual values to per unit

Three Phase Per Unit Example
Solve for the current, load voltage and load power
in the previous circuit, assuming a 3f power base of
300 MVA, and line to line voltage bases of 13.8 kV,
138 kV and 27.6 kV (square root of 3 larger than the 1f
example voltages). Also assume the generator is Y-
connected so its line to line voltage is 13.8 kV.

Convert to per unit

as before. Note the
system is exactly the
same!
 1.00
I   0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8  
    p.u.
2
VL
SL   *
VL I L  0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00  0.2230.8  30.8p.u.

Again, analysis is exactly the same!

Differences appear when we convert back to actual values
VLActual
 0.859  30.8  27.6 kV  23.8  30.8 kV
SLActual
 0.1890  300 MVA  56.70 MVA
SGActual  0.2230.8  300 MVA  66.030.8 MVA
300 MVA
I Middle
B   1250 Amps (same current!)
3 138 kV
Middle  0.22  30.8   Amps  275  30.8
I Actual
3f Per Unit Example 2
Assume a 3f load of 100+j50 MVA with VLL of 69 kV is
connected to a source through the below network:

What is the supply current and complex power?

Answer: I=467 amps, S = 103.3 + j76.0 MVA

Per Unit Change of MVA Base
 Parameters for equipment are often given using
power rating of equipment as the MVA base
 To analyze a system all per unit data must be on a
common power base

Z OriginalBase
pu  Z actual  Z NewBase
pu
2 2
Vbase Vbase
Hence ZOriginalBase
pu  OriginalBase
/ NewBase
 Z pu
NewBase
S Base S Base
NewBase
S Base
ZOriginalBase
pu  OriginalBase
 Z pu
NewBase
S Base
Per Unit Change of Base Example
A 54 MVA transformer has a leakage reactance of
3.69%. What is the reactance on a 100 MVA base?

100
X e  0.0369   0.0683 p.u.
54
Transformer Reactance
 Transformer reactance is often specified as a
percentage, say 10%. This is a per unit value (divide by
100) on the power base of the transformer.
 Example: A 350 MVA, 230/20 kV transformer has
leakage reactance of 10%. What is p.u. value on 100
MVA base? What is value in ohms (230 kV)?

100
X e  0.10   0.0286 p.u.
350
2
230
0.0286   15.1 
100
Three Phase Transformers
There are 4 different ways to connect 3f transformers

Y-Y DD
D-Y Y-D
Y-Y Connection

Magnetic coupling with An/an, Bn/bn & Cn/cn

VAn VAB IA 1
 a,  a, 
Van Vab Ia a
Y-Y Connection: 3f Detailed Model
Y-Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis of Y-Y connections is exactly the

same as analysis of a single phase transformer.
Y-Y connections are common in transmission systems.
Key advantages are the ability to ground each side
and there is no phase shift introduced.
D-D Connection

Magnetic coupling with AB/ab, BC/bb & CA/ca

VAB I AB 1 I A 1
 a,  , 
Vab I ab a I a a
D-D Connection: 3f Detailed Model

To use the per phase equivalent we need to use

the delta-wye load transformation
D-D Connection: Per Phase Model

Per phase analysis similar to Y-Y except

impedances are decreased by a factor of 3.
Key disadvantage is D-D connections can not be
grounded; not commonly used.
D-Y Connection

Magnetic coupling with AB/an, BC/bn & CA/cn

D-Y Connection V/I Relationships
VAB VAB
 a,  Van  Vab  3 Van30
Van a
VAB 30 VAn30
Hence Vab  3 and Van  3
a a
For current we get
I AB 1
  I a  a I AB
I ab a
1
I A  3 I AB   30  I AB  I A30
3
1
 a  a I A30
3
D-Y Connection: Per Phase Model

Note: Connection introduces a 30 degree phase shift!

Common for transmission/distribution step-down since
there is a neutral on the low voltage side.
Even if a = 1 there is a sqrt(3) step-up ratio
Y-D Connection: Per Phase Model

Exact opposite of the D-Y connection, now

with a
phase shift of -30 degrees.