SCHOOL OF NURSING AND MIDWIFERY, ILORIN, KWARA STATE

COURSE TITLE: POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE

IN NURSING

COURSE CODE: GST 221

PLACEMENT: SECOND YEAR SECOND

SEMESTER

CREDIT UNIT: 2

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COURSE CONTENT
UNIT I : CONCEPT OF POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
 POLITICS
 CONCEPT OF POLITICS
 HISTORY OF POLITICS
 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
 GOVERNMENT
 DEFINE OF GOVERNMENT
 ARMS OF GOVERNMENT
 TIERS OF GOVERNMENT
 THE CONSTITUTION
 CIVIL SERVICE RULES
UNIT II: POLITICAL INTERACTION
 IMPORTANCE OF POLITICS TO NURSING
 ORGANIZATION AND COMMUNITY SERVICE
 NET WORKING
 PERSUASION POWER
 COMMITMENT TO COLLECTIVE STRENGTH
 COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AND UNIONISM
UNIT III: POLITICAL ACTIVITIES
 POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
 POLITICAL LEADERSHIP & QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER
 POLITICAL EXPRESSION
 ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR
 POLITICAL ADVOCACY
 POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
 POLICY DEVELOPMENT AND INTERVENTION
 POLICY, POLITICKING AND LOBBY

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UNIT I : CONCEPT OF POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
POLITICS:
Concept of politics
According to Aristotle, 4th century Greek philosopher, called the father of political science;
defined the word “Politics”, “Politika” (coined from Greek work), it means the set of activities
that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among
individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that
studies politics and government is referred to as political science. In the context of a “political
solution”, it is the art or science of government.
Different methods are used in politics which include; promoting one’s own political views among
people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising internal-external
force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on wide range of social levels,
through modern local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states to the same
position on many issues and agree to support the same leaders. An election is usually a
competition between different parties.
A political system us a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society.
The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity (the ancient past, especially
the period of classical and other civilizations before the middle ages) within seminal works such
as plato’s republic, Aristotle’s politics Confucius political manuscripts and Chanakya’s
Arthashastra. Therefore, politics is about making agreements between people so that they can live
together in groups as tribes, cities, or countries.
Conceptual Definitions
i. Sociologist: define politics as the art of the exercise of power; the combination of individuals
or parties (groups) making decisions that affect others and institutions (i.e, government, legal
system, military, police) that governs based on those decisions.
ii. Max Weber: defines politics as a form of “independent leadership activity”. In this the “state”
serves as the place holder for the analysis of political organizations.
iii. The science and art of government; the science dealing with the form, organization and
administration of a state or a part of one, and with the regulation of its relations with other
states. (shorter oxford English dictionary)
iv. A way of ruling divided societies by a process of free discussion and without undue violence.
(Bernard Crick, 2000)
v. The authoritative allocation of value. (David Easton, 1979)
HISTORY OF POLITICS
The history of politics spans human history and is not limited to modern institutions of
government.
PREHISTORIC:
Frans de Waal argued that chimpanzees engage in politics through "social manipulation to secure
and maintain influential positions." Early human forms of social organization bands and tribes
lacked centralized political structures. These are sometimes referred to as stateless societies.
EARLY STATES:
In ancient history, civilizations did not have definite boundaries as states have today, and their
borders could be more accurately described as frontiers. Early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic
Egypt were the first civilizations to define their borders. Moreover, up to the 12th century, many
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people lived in non-state societies. These range from relatively egalitarian bands and tribes to
complex and highly stratified chiefdoms.
State Formation:
There are a number of different theories and hypotheses regarding early state formation that seek
generalizations to explain why the state developed in some places but not others. Other scholars
believe that generalizations are unhelpful and that each case of early state formation should be
treated on its own.
Voluntary theories: contend that diverse groups of people came together to form states as a result
of some shared rational interest. The theories largely focus on the development of agriculture, and
the population and organizational pressure that followed and resulted in state formation. One of
the most prominent theories of early and primary state formation is the hydraulic hypothesis,
which contends that the state was a result of the need to build and maintain large-scale irrigation
projects.
Conflict theories: of state formation regard conflict and dominance of some population over
another population as key to the formation of states.[34] In contrast with voluntary theories, these
arguments believe that people do not voluntarily agree to create a state to maximize benefits, but
that states form due to some form of oppression by one group over others. Some theories in turn
argue that warfare was critical for state formation.
ANCIENT HISTORY:
The first states of sorts were those of early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egypt, which arose
from the Uruk period and Predynastic Egypt respectively around approximately 3000 BCE. Early
dynastic Egypt was based around the Nile River in the north-east of Africa, the kingdom's
boundaries being based around the Nile and stretching to areas where oases existed. Early dynastic
Sumer was located in southern Mesopotamia with its borders extending from the Persian Gulf to
parts of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.
Egyptians, Romans, and the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a
political philosophy of the state, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. Prior to this,
states were described and justified in terms of religious myths.
Several important political innovations of classical antiquity came from the Greek city-states
(polis) and the Roman Republic. The Greek city-states before the 4th century granted citizenship
rights to their free population; in Athens these rights were combined with a directly democratic
form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political thought and history.
Modern States:
The Peace of Westphalia (1648) is considered by political scientists to be the beginning of the
modern international system, in which external powers should avoid interfering in another
country's domestic affairs. The principle of non-interference in other countries' domestic affairs
was laid out in the mid-18th century by Swiss jurist Emer de Vattel. States became the primary
institutional agents in an interstate system of relations. The Peace of Westphalia is said to have
ended attempts to impose supranational authority on European states. The "Westphalian" doctrine
of states as independent agents was bolstered by the rise in 19th century thought of nationalism,
under which legitimate states were assumed to correspond to nations—groups of people united by
language and culture.
In Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multinational empires:
the Austrian Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Spanish
Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the British Empire. Such empires also existed in Asia, Africa,
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and the Americas; in the Muslim world, immediately after the death of Muhammad in 632,
Caliphates were established, which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. The
multinational empire was an absolute monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The
population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was
dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public
administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group. Some of the
smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a
royal house. A few of the smaller states survived, such as the independent principalities of
Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the republic of San Marino.
Most theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by
developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy, and mass media. However,
historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and
the Dutch Republic. Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, Michel Foucault, and
Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state did not arise out of political
ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political
invention. Rather, the nation state is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual
discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography
combined with cartography and advances in map-making technologies.
Some nation states, such as Germany and Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of
political campaigns by nationalists, during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was
previously divided among other states, some of them very small. Liberal ideas of free trade played
a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. National
self-determination was a key aspect of United States President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen
Points, leading to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire after
the First World War, while the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil
War. Decolonization leads to the creation of new nation states in place of multinational empires in
the Third World.
BRIEF HISTORY OF NIGERIA POLITICS
The history of Nigeria can be traced to the earliest inhabitants whose remains date from at least
13,000 BC through early civilizations such as the Nok culture which began around 1500 BC.
Numerous ancient African civilizations settled in the region that is known today as Nigeria, such
as the Kingdom of Nri, the Benin Empire, and the Oyo Empire. Islam reached Nigeria through the
Bornu Empire between (1068 AD) and Hausa States around (1385 AD) during the 11th century,
while Christianity came to Nigeria in the 15th century through Augustinian and Capuchin monks
from Portugal. The Songhai Empire also occupied part of the region. From the 15th century,
European slave traders arrived in the region to purchase enslaved Africans as part of the Atlantic
slave trade, which started in the region of modern-day Nigeria; the first Nigerian port used by
European slave traders was Badagry, a coastal harbour. Local merchants provided them with
slaves, escalating conflicts among the ethnic groups in the region and disrupting older trade
patterns through the Trans-Saharan route.
Lagos was occupied by British forces in 1851 and formally annexed by Britain in the year 1865.
Nigeria became a British protectorate in 1901. The period of British rule lasted until 1960 when an
independence movement led to the country being granted independence. Nigeria first became a
republic in 1963, but succumbed to military rule after a bloody coup d'état in 1966. A separatist
movement later formed the Republic of Biafra in 1967, leading to the three-year Nigerian Civil
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War. Nigeria became a republic again after a new constitution was written in 1979. However, the
republic was short-lived, as the military seized power again in 1983 and later ruled for ten years.
A new republic was planned to be established in 1993 but was aborted by General Sani Abacha.
Abacha died in 1998 and a fourth republic was later established the following year, which ended
three decades of intermittent military rule.
POLITICAL INSTITUTION
Political institutions are organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws. They often mediate
conflict; make (governmental) policy on the economy and social systems
STRUCTURE OF POLITICAL INSTITUTION
 The State: Executive; the prime minister and the advisors.
 The Cabinet: Legislative; the senate and the parliament.
 Judicial: Supreme court and high court
 Military: the armed force
 National Security: police force and other paramilitary force
TYPES OF POLITICAL INSTITUTION/ORGANIZATION
1. Political parties
2. Party coalitions
3. Parliamentary groups or caucus
4. Technical group
5. Political group
6. Labour unions
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL INSTITUTION/ STATE
• Maintain law and order • Plan and direct society
• Handle international relations • Provision of welfare services
• Defense against foreign danger • Evaluation of other institutions
• Socialization (political system in global perspective)
MAINTAIN LAW AND ORDER
• The state has the authority to enact and enforce laws. The state prescribes certain forms of
behaviour and prohibits certain other behaviours that disrupt the social order; that are clearly
specified.
• It is the responsibility of the state that along with making good laws it is also responsible for
maintaining law and order, punishing criminals and protecting law abiding citizens.
• The police and courts are established to carry out the responsibility of maintaining law and order.
PLAN AND DIRECT SOCIETY
• It is one of the primary functions of the state to formulate policies, initiate laws, and launch
programmes.
• The government consists of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The legislature is
responsible for enacting laws that govern the behaviour of all individuals and institutions. The
executive formulates policies and programmes and administers the country in accordance with the
laws. The judiciary interprets the laws and safeguards the rights of all citizens.
DEFENSE AGAINST FOREIGN DANGER
• It is the prime responsibility of the state to protect its citizens against external
aggression and threat.

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• Modern nation states maintain standing armies and a large portion of national budget is utilized
for defence purposes. The soldiers trained and equipped for defence is also employed for
maintaining order in case of emergency domestic situations.
HANDLE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
• The state is responsible for developing and maintaining economic, political and
cultural links and sign agreements with neighbouring and other countries of the world.
Parliamentarians, foreign secretaries and ambassadors are working in this regard.
PROVISION OF WELFARE SERVICES
• Every state is expected to ensure economic stability and general social welfare.
• The state initiates policies and programmes for the welfare of its citizens.
Welfare measures would include health, education, employment, public services and retirement
benefits.
• Equity, elimination of poverty, promotion of social justice, and cultural development are among
main goals established by modern nation states.
EVALUATION OF OTHER INSTITUTIONS
• Functioning of other institutions are evaluated by political institutions.
• For this purpose , certain codes and standards are set for these institutions.
POLITICAL SYSTEMS IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
• Political institutions emerged when agrarian societies acquired surpluses and developed social
inequality.
• When cities developed, the city-state became the center of political power.
• Nation-states emerged as countries acquired the ability to defend their borders.
GOVERNEMNT
CONCEPT OF GOVERNMENT
Conceptual definitions
The political direction and control exercised over the actions of the members, citizens, or
inhabitants of communities, societies, and states; the direction of the affairs of a state, community,
etc. government is necessary to the existence of civilized society.
Also, government may be defined as an organized group of persons who direct and control the
affairs of the society, country or state. That is, a body of persons or institutions which makes and
executes laws for the smooth running of the state.
Primarily, government is responsible for making public policy for an entire society and is the
steering mechanism for a given society. It forms the policies that keeps a particular society
heading in the right direction.
TYPES OF POLITICAL SYSTEM/GOVERNMENT
These are various forms of government. Some of them are:
1. Traditional government: This is a form of government that is controlled or headed by a
traditional ruler. Traditional leaders are the custodians of local traditions and customs. Therefore,
their government is based on the traditions and customs of the people of their area. Traditional
government or leadership began a long time ago when people began to live together in
communities and possess common culture and tradition. Traditional rulers in different parts of our
country,
Nigeria are known by some titles such as Obi, Eze, gwe – Igbo land, Oba, Baale – Yoruba land
and Emir - Hausa land Before the colonization of Nigeria by the British, traditional rulers ruled in
all parts of the country and had a lot of power. However, after the colonization, the powers of
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traditional rulers became reduced. Today, traditional rulers attend to cultural matters. They
oversee the history of their community.
2. Monarchy: This is a form of traditional government in which supreme power is in the hands of
one person. It is a form of government in which the country is ruled by a king or queen. The king
or queen is called a monarch. Many years ago, almost all the countries of the world were ruled by
monarchs. It was believed that the king or queen had the divine right to rule, meaning that they
were chosen by God to rule. A monarch performed the three functions of government, i.e. law
making, execution of laws made, and the interpretation of laws. In modern government, what we
now have is constitutional monarch or ceremonial monarch whose powers are controlled by the
constitution. A country which has a constitutional monarch is Britain. The Queen of England
reigns but does not rule. Countries where we still have monarchs are Jordan, Morocco, Sweden,
and Denmark.
3. Oligarchy: Oligarchy is another traditional form of government in which a few people who are
powerful or privileged rule. For example, (military government). It is a form of government which
often leads to cruelty in the governance of citizens. Some forms of oligarchy are:
• Aristocracy: It is a government of individuals who own land and command great respect among
the people.
• Plutocracy: This is rule by the wealthiest in society.
• Theocracy: It is a form of oligarchy in which the affairs of the state and religion are controlled
by one person. The laws of God are taken to be the laws of the state. Examples of countries that
practice theocracy are Saudi Arabia, and Iran.
4. Constitutional democratic government: Constitutional government can be regarded as
government based on the constitution of the country. It can also be called democratic government.
It is a government that is formed through elections. It has a fixed tenure of office which means
that the government spends a specific period when elected.
In Nigeria, elections are held every four years. The 1999 Federal Republic of Nigeria Constitution
states clearly that elections are to be held every four years to change government. Nigeria thus
practices constitutional or democratic government.
KINDS OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT
A constitutional government could either be presidential or parliamentary.
The features of parliamentary government and presidential government are as follows:
1. Parliamentary government: This system of government is headed by the prime minister. The
executive and the legislative arms of government are not separated. They are fused. The prime
minister, who is the head of the executive, is also a member of the legislature. The Lord
Chancellor in Britain, where this system of government is practiced, is a member of the three arms
of government. There is no separation of powers in this system of government. Britain is a good
example of countries practicing the parliamentary system.
2. Presidential government: This form of government is headed by a president elected by the
people. He rules for a fixed period, e.g. four years or five years. The three arms of government are
separate in their composition. That is one person cannot belong to two arms of government at the
same time. There is separation of powers in this system of government. Nigeria is practicing this
system of government.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL FORMS OF
GOVERNMENT
CONSTITUTIONAL FORM OF GOVERNMENT
1. There is a fixed tenure of office. It means there is a definite period the government will spend.
It could be four or five years.
2. This government rules according to the provisions of the constitution. It is what the law of the
land says that the government must follow when in power.
3. Government i.e. the president, prime minister, and governors are elected by the people. They
come to power through periodic elections-- elections are held at regular periods.
4. The government can also be removed by the people through election.
5. This is a modern form of government.
TRADITIONAL FORM OF GOVERNMENT
1. This government has no fixed tenure. Rulership in this form of government is hereditary. The
position is transferred from parents to children and from generation to generation.
2. This government rules according to the tradition and customs of the people. For instance, legal
limitations to the powers of the monarch did not exist in ancient times, but they do in modern
constitutional government.
3. Most traditional governments are dynasties. Only people from a particular family can have
claim to the throne, i.e. become rulers.
4. The king or monarch may not leave the throne except through death or abdication, i.e. being
forced to leave, which was not common in those days.
5. It is perhaps the oldest form of government.
5. COMMUNISM: political and economic doctrine that aims to replace private property and a
profit-based economy with public ownership and communal control of at least the major means of
production (e.g., mines, mills, and factories) and the natural resources of a society. Communism is
thus a form of socialism—a higher and more advanced form, according to its advocates. Exactly
how communism differs from socialism has long been a matter of debate, but the distinction rests
largely on the communists’ adherence to the revolutionary socialism of Karl Marx.
Like most writers of the 19th century, Marx tended to use the terms communism and socialism
interchangeably. In his Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875), however, Marx identified two
phases of communism that would follow the predicted overthrow of capitalism: the first would be
a transitional system in which the working class would control the government and economy yet
still find it necessary to pay people according to how long, hard, or well they worked, and the
second would be fully realized communism—a society without class divisions or government, in
which the production and distribution of goods would be based upon the principle “From each
according to his ability, to each according to his needs.” Marx’s followers, especially the Russian
revolutionary Vladimir Ilich Lenin, took up this distinction.
In State and Revolution (1917), Lenin asserted that socialism corresponds to Marx’s first phase of
communist society and communism proper to the second. Lenin and the Bolshevik wing of the
Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party reinforced this distinction in 1918, the year after they
seized power in Russia, by taking the name All-Russian Communist Party. Since then,
communism has been largely, if not exclusively, identified with the form of political and
economic organization developed in the Soviet Union and adopted subsequently in the People’s
Republic of China and other countries ruled by communist parties.
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For much of the 20th century, in fact, about one-third of the world’s population lived under
communist regimes. These regimes were characterized by the rule of a single party that tolerated
no opposition and little dissent. In place of a capitalist economy, in which individuals compete for
profits, moreover, party leaders established a command economy in which the state controlled
property and its bureaucrats determined wages, prices, and production goals. The inefficiency of
these economies played a large part in the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, and the remaining
communist countries (excepting North Korea) are now allowing greater economic competition
while holding fast to one-party rule. Whether they will succeed in this endeavour remains to be
seen. Succeed or fail, however, communism is clearly not the world-shaking force it was in the
20th century.
6. SOCIALISM: Socialism is a populist economic and political system based on collective,
common, or public ownership of the means of production. Those means of production include the
machinery, tools, and factories used to produce goods that aim to directly satisfy human needs. In
contrast to capitalism, whereby business owners control the means of production and pay wages to
workers to use those means, socialism envisions shared ownership and control among the laboring
class.
In a purely socialist system, all production and distribution decisions are made by the collective,
directed by a central planner or government body. Worker cooperatives, however, are also a form
of socialized production. Socialist systems tend to have robust welfare systems and social safety
net so that individuals rely on the state for everything from food to healthcare. The government
determines the output and pricing levels of these goods and services.
Socialists contend that shared ownership of resources and central planning provide a more equal
distribution of goods and services and a more equitable society.
7. FEUDALISM: Feudalism is a term that refers to the socio-political system that structured
society in Europe during the High Medieval Ages, ranging from 1000 AD to 1300 AD. The term
was not used during this period but was coined by historians in the 18th century to easily reference
the system. In short, the system was based around the ownership of land by kings and lords who
would allow lesser lords, vassals, and peasants to live on and cultivate the land in exchange for
legal and military commitments. Feudalism can also be refers to as the term of socio-political
system during the High Medieval Ages in Europe, in which the Monarch would entrust his land to
nobles in exchange for political support and military services. Nobles would then parcel out this
land to lesser Lords and peasants, who would pay through services, labour, and (eventually)
taxation. In return, lesser Lords and peasants would also be under the protection of the overlord
and his knights.
FEATURES OF FEUDALISM
Feudalism was mainly due to the decentralized power structure in most medieval kingdoms.
Monarchs often had to secure the loyalty and allegiance of Lords and, by extension, their knights,
vassals, and peasants to maintain power and order. The feudal system was largely based on the
social and political interactions of the following features:
 Kings
 Lords (vassals)
 Knights (Vassals)
 Peasants (vassals)
 Fief (Land)

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOVERNMENT
Government as an Institution has the following characteristics:
1. Power: Power enables the government to influence the citizens and execute its policies. Power
is a basic tool for maintaining law and order.
2. Law: This refers to the body of rules that regulate the conduct of the people. It is called the
constitution. It defines the rights and obligations of the citizens and functions of the
government.
3. Revenue: Government has to generate funds to carry out its policies. This is done by
imposition of import duties and collection of taxes.
4. Personnel: This refers to the able-bodied men and women who help the government to run its
affairs. They include the public servants, judges, police, etc.
5. Public support: No government can survive without public support. The government needs the
support of the public to function properly as public support confers legitimacy and right to rule
on government.
6. Welfare services: Government has the responsibility of providing social amenities like good
roads, pipe-borne water, electricity etc for its citizens in order to justify its existence.
FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT
1. Lawmaking: government makes laws to regulate the behavior of its citizens.
2. Maintenance of law and order: the primary and most important function of the government is
to maintain law and order in a state. This is done through the enforcement agencies such as the
police force.
3. Defense of the country: it is the duty of the government to protect the citizens from external
attack. This is done by the armed forces such as Army, Navy and Air force.
4. Protection of lives and properties: it is the function of the government to protect its citizens.
The police and the law courts have the responsibility of protecting not only the citizens but also
those living in the country.
5. To administer justice: it is the duty of the law court, which is the judicial arm of government to
settle disputes and administer justice. Prisons are built for the punishment of offenders and
criminals.
6. Provision of social services: it is also the duty of the government to provide hospitals, good
roads, electricity, pipe borne water etc to citizens through taxes, which the citizens pay.
7. Provision of employment opportunities: government has the task of providing employment
opportunities to its citizens. This makes them economically independent.
8. Economic functions: government through its economic policies regulates economic activities
in order to protect the economy thereby ensuring economic growth. This is done through
careful economic planning and execution.
9. Political functions: such political functions of the government include conducting periodic free
and fair elections to ensure smooth and peaceful change of government and maintain a stable
political atmosphere.
10.Maintaining external relations: one important function of the government is to establish and
maintain external relations with friendly nations. This relation could be based on trade, politics,
health etc. This is why nations establish embassies and high commissions with high
commissioners and ambassadors appointed in charge of them

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ARMS OF GOVERNMENT
There are three arms of government namely the legislature the executive and the judiciary. These
three arms of government have evolved in order that the goals and business of government may be
achieved and carried out effectively.
1. THE LEGISLATURE
The legislature is the law making body of the government. It is also responsible for voting of
money, approving of budget and carrying out over sight function. The legislators are the
representative of the people and are generally regarded as the policy maker. The legislature also
amends the constitution, controls the executive officials, carryout impeachment and disciplinary
actions on public servants. The legislature also approves appointment of important state officials
like ministers and ambassadors. They also approve treaties.
The legislature is usually unicameral or bicameral. A unicameral legislature is one with only one
chamber of the legislature while a bicameral legislature is one with two chambers of the
legislature.
Nigeria operates a bicameral legislature in which there is the upper house (senate) and the lower
house (House of Representatives) both house are generally regarded as the national assembly.
Functions of the Legislature
 The primary function of the legislature is law making. A bill undergoes a rigorous process
in the legislature before it is passed into law.
 The legislature supervises the executive.
 They also control public expenditure and the imposition of taxation.
 It has the power to remove the executive. This is done through a vote of censure in a
presidential system.
 Legislators represent opinions and interest of their constituents.
 Legislators approve the appointment by the executives of ministers and ambassadors in a
presidential system.
 The legislature ratifies judicial appointments of the executive.
2. THE EXECUTIVE
The principle role of the executive arms of government is to carry out the general administration
of the country. It is responsible for executing the law of the state. The executive arm of
government appears to be the most influential organ. It is the most important organ due to the
indispensible role it plays in life of citizens. It draft executive bill and submit to the legislature for
deliberation.
It also maintains diplomatic relation with other countries, initiating and signing treaties and
carrying out bilateral agreements and engagement with other countries. It is the executive that sign
bill into law and also prepares annual budget which it submits to the legislature for confirmation.
In parliamentary system, the executive is the cabinet which comprises the prime minister and
ministers while in the presidential system, the executive is the president. The president appoints
ministers who assist him in this task.
Functions of the Executive
 The primary function of the executive is to implement government policies and programmes
and enforce public laws.
 The executive formulates policies and laws, which are submitted to the legislature for debate
and approval.

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 The executive makes law under delegated legislation. The legislature give power to the
executive on well defined matters to make rules that are very complex and technical and
require specialist knowledge, and in matters requiring urgent treatment. Powers of delegated
legislation are also exercised by the executive to ease the heavy legislature burden of the
legislature.
 The executive symbolizes the state and performs ceremonial functions such as taking salute
during state ceremonies.
 The executive gives political leadership to the government.
 The structure sends and receives diplomatic representatives, negotiates international treaties
and agreements and formulates foreign policies.
 The executive is in charge of the armed forces and possess the power to declare and wage war
and proclaim a state of martial law.
Types of Executives
There are two types – parliamentary and presidential executives. The 1979 constitution established
the presidential system of government in Nigeria, but earlier we had parliamentary system. Each
system has its own weakness and strengths.
Thus in the presidential system, a measure of stability is guaranteed the government; since the
government does not have to resign if it is defeated in the legislature whereas it has to resign in
such a case in parliamentary system.
On the other hand, the parliamentary system largely subordinates the executive to the legislature
and this ensures that the executive is under constant checks by the representatives of the people.
The cabinet members being also members of the ruling party appreciates that their performance
can affect the fortunes of the party one way or the other.
3. THE JUDICIARY
This organ is responsible for interpreting the law made by the legislature to the general public and
punishment of offenders. They serve as the custodian of the constitution and safeguard the right
and liberties of citizens. They settle dispute between individuals or between an organizations.
The judiciary through it judicial review can declare the executive act non and void or legislative
act non and void. They access the gravity of punishment that is suitable for the offense committed.
The judiciary is organized hierarchically from the magistrate court, high court, the appeal court
and the Supreme Court. The head of the judiciary is the chief justice.
TIERS OF GOVERNMENT
The government may exist under three levels. This is federal, state and local government. All the
three tiers of government exist for and have things in common, which, essentially, are to improve
the lives of their people. Their individual and collective power, functions, and limitation and
enumerate in the constitution of the country.
1. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
The federal government is the highest tier of the government structure. It was formed in 1963, and
its founding document is the Constitution of Nigeria. It consists of three branches, namely
legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative branch is represented by the bicameral National
Assembly, executive power is held by the president, and judicial arm is the Supreme Court of
Nigeria.
The federal government is responsible for dealing with defense, internal security and intelligence,
foreign affairs, fiscal transfers, customs, immigration, environmental protection, policing, water

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resources and so much more. It is also involved in various affairs that are mostly carried out by the
States.
FUNCTIONS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
1. Maintains Law and Order: It is one of the most important responsibilities of the Nigerian
federal government to make sure that, the federation is kept intact by ensuring that, law and order
are maintained. It is such duty on the part of the federal government that brings about peace and
tranquility in the nation.
2. Protects Lives and Properties: Another function of the federal government was to make sure
that, the lives of its citizenry and their properties are protected. The federal government protection
of its citizenry covers those living within the country and those living outside the country. Also, it
provided citizens to enjoy the right to life and to own properties and use these properties. This
aspect is very important, since it will safeguard citizens from any threat to life.
3. Promotes Democracy and Social Justice: Democracy is reputed to be the best form of
government since the system encouraged political inclusiveness and participatory governance. In
other words, democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people,
according to Abraham Lincoln. And it is a system that promotes social justice. Going by this, it
has been the function of the federal government to promote the system of democracy, as well as,
promote social justice for the purpose of ensuring that, citizens fully enjoy their rights, as well as
realizing their individual potentials.
4. Provides Social Welfare Services: It is the responsibility of the federal government to provide
social welfare for its citizenry, and so, through the internally generated revenue, a number of
resources have been harnessed by the federal government, and revenue gotten from these
resources have been used to provide some basic life’s necessity for the Nigerian citizens. Some of
these basic lives’s necessities include road and hospital and pipe-borne water and electricity as
well as, education among other important services; such that would help improves the livelihood
of the Nigerian citizens.
5. Protects Human Rights: Human rights protection is one of the functions of the federal
government, which is a priority; what the federal government does is to make sure that the
fundamental rights of citizenry are protected. This is one of the reasons, why there is an advocacy
that the federal government should allow the judiciary to remain independent in its operations, so
as to Carry out its statutory functions without favour or fear, particularly, when any citizen attempt
to sue for the purpose of redress, when someone infringed on their rights.
6. Provides Employment Opportunities: One of the core functions of the federal government is
to provide employment for its teeming citizens. The federal government will go about this by
promoting and providing employment opportunities for its people. As part of this effort, it is
expected of the federal government to make sure that, enabling environment is provided, as a way
of encouragement to its citizenry to avail themselves of such opportunities to better themselves.
The federal government will achieve this by given out subsidy, as well as, reducing the excise
duty on importation and cut in taxes.
2. THE STATE GOVERNMENT
The state government is the middle tier in the government structure. As there are 36 states in
Nigeria. As for the Federal Capital Territory, it has a ministry instead of a government. Like the
federal government, state governments have legislative, executive and judiciary branches. The
legislative branch is the unicameral state House of Assembly, the executive arm is the Governor

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who is the head of the State Executive Council, and the judiciary power is held by the state’s High
Court and Chief Justice.
State governments are responsible for everything at the State level, even though sometimes both
of these tiers are involved. Among some major state, responsibilities are hospitals, schools, sport
and recreations centre, road, public transportation, agriculture, consumer affairs, prisons, police
and so on.
Functions of the state government
Transportation: State governments are charged with the duty to make sure the roads under their
care are well maintained. The roads and highways in each state are divided between local, state
and federal governments. States build, maintain roads and highways through their local, state
Department of Transportation.
3. THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Local government is the lowest tier in the government structure. You might not know this, but
there are actually 774 local government areas (LGAs) in Nigeria, meaning that there are 774 local
governments in the country, each administered by a Local Government Council. They all vary in
character and size. Every LGA is further divided into wards. Local governments are responsible
for small local matters, such as public health, waste disposal, local roads and footpaths, parks,
libraries, tax collection and so on.
When it comes to larger projects, local government work with their state government to achieve
results. However, this tier of government is meant to bring power closer to the people.
Unfortunately, in Nigeria, local governments struggle from the lack of autonomy from the state
governments, as well as from the lack of funds. That was a quick overview of the three tiers of
government in Nigeria. Now you know that there is the federal government, 36 state governments,
and 774 local governments, each laden with their own functions and responsibilities that
sometimes overlap. We hope that you have been able to learn something new about the workings
of your country.
Functions of the local government
1. The functions and tasks of the local government are prescribed in the Nigerian constitution of
1999. Representatives of this organization collect taxes, work with tele-broadcasting and radio,
transport licenses, cemeteries and provide houses for the people in need.
2. The local government should ensure order in the markets, provide citizens with amenities,
service roads, streets, drains, public places and build new facilities when necessary.
3. It is responsible for waste removal, evaluation of residential properties for further tax
collection and birth, death and marriage registrations.
4. It monitors the activities of small organizations like restaurants, shops, bakeries, kiosks, and
other places where food and beverages are sold.
5. In addition, functions of local authorities include ensuring the proper functioning of the
educational system, the agricultural sector and natural sphere except for mining operations.
Attention is also given to medical care and other duties that can be prescribed by a higher
government. In order to achieve positive results in Nigeria, it is extremely important to deal
with the problem of corruption; it is also necessary to take into account the interests and needs
of the general population. The proper management of money will lead to a prosperous life of
people in various regions of Nigeria.
6. Consequently, Local governments play a key role in public education in the U.S. From
kindergarten to community college, local governments, along with states, provide the primary
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 funding for public schools, using money largely raised through state and local taxes. Local
governments at all levels decide education policy, including county, city, town, and district.
Their task is to make critical decisions about funding and pedagogy while serving as a channel
between local communities and state education departments.
GOVERNANCE
Definition: it refers to as a government ability to make and enforce rules, and deliver services,
regardless of whether that government is democratic or not. That is, governance is what a
government does and it is the physical exercise of polity while the government is the body through
which this is done. Also, it can be defined as the exercise of political authority and the use to
institutional resources to manage problems and the affairs of the society.
EIGHT PRINCIPLES OF GOOD GOVERNANCE
Citing from the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
(UNESCAP), the concept of good governance has eight principles.
1. Participation: Participation in the concept of good governance here is an opportunity for
everyone to voice their opinions through institutions or representations. In addition, everyone,
without exception, has the right to freedom of association and expression.
2. Rule of law: To implement good governance, the legal framework in the country must be
enforced impartially, especially concerning human rights law.
3. Transparency: Transparency means that every policy taken and implemented by the
government must be carried out under existing regulations. In addition, there must be a guarantee
that any information related to the policy can be accessed by everyone, especially those who are
directly affected by the policy.
4. Responsiveness: Good governance needs institutions and processes to attempt to serve all
stakeholders within a reasonable time.
5. Consensus oriented: This fifth principle is related to the decision-making process. When the
decision-making process cannot accommodate everyone’s wishes, then at a minimum, the
decision must be a decision that can be accepted by everyone and does not harm anyone.
6. Equity and inclusiveness: Good governance ensures justice for the community. Everyone has
the same opportunity to maintain and improve their welfare.
7. Effectiveness and efficiency: Every decision-making process and its institutions must be able
to produce decisions that meet every community need. Community resources must also be utilised
optimally by the government.
8. Accountability: All institutions involved in good governance have full responsibility to the
public for the sake of improving the quality of society.
FOUR PILLARS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE
i. Accountability ii. Transparency iii. Fairness iv. Responsibility
GOVERNANCE STRUCTURE
1. Internal mechanisms: These establish reporting lines and performance measures that help
monitor an organization’s activities to ensure the business stays on track. Internal mechanism
includes oversight of management, independent, independent internal audits, levels of
responsibility for the board of directors and policy development and control segregation.
2. External mechanisms: tier work activities comes from outside of the organization. The
organization must comply with all regulations established by trade unions, governments,
financial institutions and law makers. The external mechanisms include being legal compliance
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 with various policies and adequately managing its organizational debt. You must also abide by
potential union contracts and regulatory guidelines as well.
3. Independent audits: this have an internal and external purpose for both stakeholders and the
organization alike. You can better determine the financial performance of your organization by
auditing your financial statements to enhance your company’s or organizational working
mechanisms and future outlook by doing this.
TYPES OF GOVERNANCE
Governance depends on the type or nature of the organization’s work. Their governance is also
different because of the differences in their activities. Below are some of the types of governance
mentioned.
1. Participatory or Democratic Governance
2. Global Governance
3. Good Governance
4. Corporate Governance
5. Environmental Governance
6. E-Governance
1. Participatory or Democratic Governance: Participatory or democratic governance ensures
the participation of citizens in the process of policy making and its implementation. Participation
can be through election, referendum, Landsgemeinde or local self governance, protest, etc.
Democratic governance is not just a set of rules and institutions, it refers to the processes in which
democratic institutions are functioning according democratic processes.
The fundamental of this type of governance is to ensure the service delivery to all sectors of the
societies. And it is only possible by securing the people’s participation in the process of decision
making processes in all the democratic institutions.
2. Global Governance: This is one of the most relevant types of governance. The term ‘Global
Governance’ was first used by Rosenau. He argues that “Global governance is conceived to
include systems of rule at all levels of the human activity-from the family to the international
organization- in which the pursuit of goals through the exercise of the control has transnational
repercussions”.
The idea of global governance has its roots in the fact that today the states exist with non-state
actors. Today alongside states we have the presence of international institutions like the United
Nations (UN), International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, World Trade Organization
(WTO). We also have powerful non-state actors like multinational corporations (MNC), global
civil society, non-governmental organizations (NGO).
This shows that the idea of governance in the present time and looking at from the global
perspective it’s a very complex and contested notion. Similarly, this also has implications for the
domestic policymaking that is governance in the domestic realism also is having contestant
contours.
3. Good Governance: Good governance is the ideal concept or normative concept. This concept
is born when ethics, values are included in the discussion of governance. Now the question is
when will we call any governance as good governance?
When governance is characterized by Participation, Rule of Law, Transparency, Responsiveness,
Consensus Oriented, Equity and Inclusiveness, Effectiveness and Efficiency, Accountability then
we called it good governance.

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4. Corporate Governance: Today corporate governance is a buzzword of the corporate
boardroom across the world. Corporate Governance is a set of rules or code of conduct for the
corporate sector or corporate governance. By corporate governance the government can regulate
the corporate companies. Every company has to follow those rules or code of conduct to start their
business in a particular state or region.
5. Environmental Governance: It provides explanations of ways that can be implemented in the
development of international environmental regulations, development of environmental sciences
and information, and sustainable development and implementation policies in line with national
policy.
It controls the management of environment and natural resources for proper utilization of the
resources and securing sustainable development.
According to the UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme), “Environmental governance
is a key driver for the achievement of sustainable development.” It can be achieved by fulfilling
three initiatives-
 Coherent international decision-making processes;
 Adequate capacities for agreed objectives and national environmental priorities through
adequate legal and institutional measures;
 Integration of environmental sustainability in development at regional, sub-regional and
national levels.
6. E-Governance: Application of Information and Communication Technologies in the process of
governance gave birth of the idea of E-Governance. E-Governance or Electronic governance is a
modern initiative to make the governing process more transparent and accountable. Its goal is to
use technology for the greater good of society.
This system secures service delivery to the citizens at minimal cost, effort and time using internet
services. It also ensures a strong relationship between state and civil society and The functioning
of public authorities at all levels of planning. This is also called a service oriented concept.
CONSTITUTION
Definition: A constitution may be defined as a whole body of fundamental laws, customs,
conventions, principles, rules and regulations according to which a particular government of a
country or an organization is governed. The constitution therefore specifies the work and
functions of a government or organization, the functions of its officials, the rights and duties of its
citizens or members.
SOURCES OF CONSTITUTION
The following are the sources of any given constitution.
 Past experiences: The historical, social, economic, geographical and historical experiences
of a country serve as a major source of its constitution.
 Acts of Parliament: These are bills passed into law in the parliament. They also form parts
of the constitution.
 Decrees: These are laws made by military government in many countries.
 Judicial precedence: These are previous and important judgments made or passed in higher
courts like Supreme Court.
 Customs and Norms: These are practices and observances that are not written down as part
of the constitution but are accepted as part of the way the government functions.

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  Conventions: These are precepts or rules and guides for behaviour that are not written down
with which the people show their disapproval when violated.
 Constitutional Conferences: Such constitutional conference that were held in London and
West Africa before granting independence to Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra-Leone and the Gambia.
 International Laws: These are laws that are made by international organizations like UNO
International Civil Aviation Convention. All serves as sources of constitution.
 History of the People: Historical documents such as treaties, the Magna Carta 1215, Bill of
Rights 1689 in Britain serve as the sources of their constitution.
 Intellectual Works: Works of intellectuals such as Locke, Marx, Hobbes, Dicey and others
are used for drafting of constitution.
FEATURES OF CONSTITUTION
 The Preamble: The constitution has a preamble or an introduction which states the
ideological stand of the constitution.
 The Political Structure: It states the structure of government, whether unitary or federal and
at the same time defines the division of powers among the component units of the state.
 The Constitution names the organs of government and specifies their functions and relations
to one another.
 It maintains political stability by specifying the mode of changing the government
peacefully.
 It stipulates the rights and duties of citizens.
 It protects the rights and liberties of individuals in a country.
 The constitution states how long a government can stay in office.
 The constitution states the process by which it can be amended.
 A constitution prevents leaders from becoming too powerful and dictatorial.
 A constitution serves as a symbol of nationhood and sovereignty.
TYPES OF CONSTITUTION
CONTENT
Written, Unwritten, Rigid, Flexible, Unitary, Federal and Confederal Constitution with Merits and
Demerits of Each Type
A written constitution: This refers to a constitution that is written down. The whole body of
fundamental laws, customs, conventions, principles, rules and regulations according to which a
particular government of a country is governed, are written and codified in a single documented.
Examples of countries with a written constitution are Nigeria, USA, India, France, Canada, Sierra
Leone, Gambia etc.
FEATURES OF WRITTEN CONSTITUTION
 It is written down in a single document
 A written constitution has a preamble.
 It stipulates the method and conditions of its amendment and change.
 A written constitution looks very simple because it can be obtained in a single document.
 It spells out the fundamental human rights and duties of a citizen of a country.
 A written constitution is usually rigid.
ADVANTAGES
 A written constitution can be obtained and consulted as a single document
 It has easy reference in case of dispute

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  Both lawyers and laymen can get hold of it and read it in order to know their duties and
rights.
 A written constitution removes ambiguity normally experienced with unwritten
constitution.
 It can be amended or changed at any appropriate time.
 Minority interests are protected in the constitution.
 It ensures stability, defining the powers of government and specifying how they can be
exercised and thus reducing areas of conflict.
DISADVANTAGES
 Most written constitutions are rigid and therefore they create problems of amendments.
 It may lead to constant disaffection if it does not favour some sections of the country.
 Unless a written constitution is frequently amended, it will not meet both the present and
the future needs.
 Written constitution does not fit all types of government like unitary system of government.
 The judiciary may become too powerful because of its power to interpret constitution.
 It is time consuming to amend.
 It amendment process may be expensive.
UNWRTTEN CONSTITUTION
An unwritten constitution refers to when the whole body of fundamental laws, customs,
conventions, rules, and regulations according to which a particular government of a country
operates are not written down or codified in a single document.
Examples of countries with unwritten constitution are Britain and New Zealand. Some part of
unwritten constitution may be written down while some may not.
ADVANTAGES
 Unwritten constitution has a high degree of flexibility which can easily adapt to a country’s
changing socio-political and economic situation.
 An unwritten constitution makes for easy and quick decisions.
 It does not pose problems for amendment.
 Its non-rigidity makes for a high degree of compromise between the organs of government.
 It meets both the present and future needs of a country.
 The constitution can easily be interpreted because of its flexibility.
 It is suitable in times of emergency.
DISADVANTAGES
 It is prone to abuse by the government and individuals since the laws are not codified in one
document.
 Unwritten constitution can encourage dictatorship.
 It does not create room for individuals to know their duties and rights.
 It encourages violation of citizen’s rights.
 It does not suit a federal system of government.
 It does no encourage stability especially in big countries.
RIGID CONSTITUTION
A rigid constitution may be defined as that constitution which cannot be amended or changed so
easily because of its special stringent and cumbersome procedure of amendment. Rigid
constitutions are normally written constitutions but not all written constitutions are rigid. Not all
sections of a rigid constitution are difficult to amend.
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Examples of countries with a rigid constitution are USA, Australia, France, Nigeria, Sierra Leone,
Gambia etc.
ADVANTAGES OF RIGID CONSTITUTION
 A rigid constitution is difficult to amend or change and this prevents hasty actions.
 It prevents dictatorial leaders from amending the constitution to serve their dictatorial
interest.
 It protects the interest of the minority groups.
 It ensures political stability in a country because no section can amend the constitution to its
favour.
 It removes constitutional ambiguity.
 It allays fears of ethnic domination by the majority groups in a multi ethnic nation like
Nigeria.
DISADVANTAGES
 Its amendment or change is stringent and cumbersome.
 Its inflexibility makes it difficult to take quick actions in times of emergency.
 It creates room for revolution or civil war which brings about its violent change or
amendment.
 It will be very expensive, energy and time consuming in conducting referendum for the
changing or amending.
 The amendment of rigid constitution may lead to slow economic growth and development.
FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION
A flexible constitution may be defined as the constitution which can be amended or changed so
easily without stringent and cumbersome procedures. It requires simple majority for a flexible
constitution to be amended. Some flexible constitutions are written, while others are unwritten.
Britain, Italy New Zealand, Ghana are good examples of countries that have flexible constitution.
ADVANTAGES OF FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION
 A flexible constitution is easy to amend.
 It is flexible and allows for quick action to be taken in time of emergency.
 It does not encourage revolution or civil wars since its flexibility does not make for violent
change or amendment.
 Its amendment is not expensive, time or energy consuming.
 Old constitutional rules can be easily replaced with new ones.
DISADVANTAGES
 A flexible constitution can be amended in a hasty and thoughtless manner because it is easy
to amend.
 It encourages dictatorship because; leaders with dictatorial tendencies can easily amend it to
suit their dictatorial whims and caprices.
 It does not ensure political stability because one section of the country can easily amend it
to its favour.
 A flexible constitution is enveloped by constitutional ambiguities
 It does not allay fears of ethnic domination by the majority ethnic groups in a multi- ethnic
nation.
FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
A federal constitution refers to the one in which governmental powers that exists in the country
are shared between a central government that represents whole country and government of
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component states so that each government is legally and constitutionally independent. A country
that adopts this type of constitution is known as a federal system of government. Examples of
countries with federal constitution are USA, Nigeria, Federal Republic of Germany, Brazil,
Switzerland, Australia, India etc.
FEATURES OF A FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
 Division of governmental powers among the central government and the component states
 It guarantees the supremacy of the constitution.
 The different governments derive their powers from the constitution.
 It is always rigid
 It has judicial interpretation and review.
 It allows bicameral legislature to operate
 There is supremacy of the central government
 Duplication of the organs of government exists.
REASONS FOR THE ADOPTION OF A FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
 It is useful in a multi ethnic nation
 It is used to take care of linguistic differences
 It is used to form a federation in order to unite different groups.
 It is used to form a common central government that will guarantee a strong security.
 It is adopted to maintain political stability
 It is adopted in order to take care of large population
 The vast geographical area of a country necessitates the adoption of a federal constitution.
 The need for economic stability makes the adoption of a federal constitution to be
necessary.
 Fear of domination of minority groups by the majority groups makes the adoption of a
federal constitution to be imperative.
 Fear of external aggression makes federal constitution necessary
 It is adopted to take care of religious differences of the people
 It takes care of the racial and cultural differences of the people.
ADVANTAGES OF A FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
 It unites people of different political ,social and geographical areas together
 It maintains the independence of the judiciary.
 It prevents monopoly of power in a country
 It protects the interest of the minority groups.
 It guarantees strong security in a country.
 It makes room for wider representation of the people.
 It allays fear of external aggression
 It prevents ethnic domination of the minority by the majority groups.
 It maintains political stability among diverse ethnic groups.
 It encourages healthy competition
 It leads to the creation of employment opportunities
 It leads to checks and balances thereby preventing tyrannical use of powers.
DISADVANTAGES OF A FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
 It emphasizes the differences among the different ethnic groups in a country
 It creates a weak central government.
 Duplication of powers leads to increase in expenditure.
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  It increases sectional consciousness.
 Political rivalry leads to political instability.
 It increases secession.
 It leads to inflation of population census figures.
 It often leads to election rigging.
 It creates problem in the share of national cake.
UNITARY CONSTITUTION
A unitary constitution refers to one that concentrates authority in a single central government. It
does not share governmental powers with any other subordinate government. Examples of
counties with unitary constitution are Britain, Belgium, Zealand, Sweden, Sierra Leone, Gambia,
etc.
ADVANTAGES OF UNITARY CONSTITUTION
 It is flexible and therefore easy to amend
 Its flexibility allows for quick decision and action to be taken.
 It adapts easily to the changing conditions in a country.
 It is less expensive to operate.
 It creates room for internal stability.
 It fosters national unity.
 It instills the spirit of nationalism in the citizenry.
 It prevents waste of both human and material resources as a result of non-duplication of
government
 Its non-division of powers and authority makes the central government stronger.
DISADVANTAGES OF UNITARY CONSTITUTION
 It narrows the scope of political participation.
 There is little or no room for local autonomy on customary issues.
 It can lead to the emergence of a dictator.
 It may not tolerate interest groups.
 The fundamental human rights of the citizens may not be guaranteed.
 The constitution can be easily amended for selfish reasons.
 It can lead to abuse of political power.
 Domination by a group may engender tendency for secession.
CONFEDERAL CONSTITUTION
A Confederal constitution can be defined as one in which almost major powers and functions of
government are reserved exclusively for the components states apart from the common currency,
defense and foreign affairs in which the central government may hold power. Examples of
confederacy are Switzerland, Senegal, and Gambia before 1982.
ADVANTAGES OF CONFEDERAL CONSTITUTION
 There is mutual benefit among member states in different areas of interest.
 No member state was forced to become a member of the union since they can secede at any
time.
 Citizens have to obey only one government, that is, that of their own state.
 There is unity of states as independent states, big and small, rich and poor are brought
together for a common purpose.
 All the member states which make up the confederation are equal. No state can claim
superiority over others.
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 The component states have full control over their internal affairs.
DISADVANTAGES OF CONFEDERAL CONSTITUTION
 Confederacies bring about political instability.
 There is no effective central authority because a sovereign power cannot be located in a
confederation.
 There is no spirit of nationalism in a confederation.
 The right of members to secede can destabilize and break the union.
 Confederation is a loose union of sovereign states.
 Policies discussed may not be effectively implemented in their respective countries.

CIVIL SERVICE RULES

INTRODUCTION
The present public service rules affect all agencies of government which embraces both the civil
services, extra ministerial department and parastatals organizations as effective tool for human
resources management. The uses of the book is essential for proper reference for day to day
submissions of the public personnel practitioners.
The rules have been carefully formulated to cover all aspects, starting from conditions of
entry into the service, conduct of Government business in the service and conditions and benefits
while leaving the service. The rules have been approved by the federal and local governments to
enhance fairness, accountability and good Government and adopted by various state governance.
The public service rules are a body of basic laws, principles, conventions, rules and
regulations which govern the civil service. The rules cover a gamut of topics such as they relate to
appointment; leaving the service; female civil servants, Disciplinary measures; Salaries and
increment; Annual Evaluation; Examination; medical; Compensation, petitions, accommodation;
leave; journeys; Capacity building etc.
IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC SERVICE RULES
Public services rules is important for many reasons among which are the followings;
1. It keeps officers abreast with all basic rule and procedures that will lead to efficient and
effective conduct of Government business.
2. This knowledge of the ruled will allow officers to quote with ease relevant sections and sub-
sections to support their submissions from time to time. This enhances the quality of government
day to day decisions
3. Where officers have basic knowledge of their public services rules, there is likely to be
more peace and industrial harmony. It knowledge enables public servant to know why they have
not been promoted, confirmed, trained or allocated quarters Equally, when disciplinary actions are
initiated, they will be taken in good faith rather than attributing them to more tribalism,
sectionalism or sheer-hatred.
4. The study of public services rules allows the officers to know their powers and limitations
and act within the purview of the rule. The administration of government business is broken into
three distinct arms; the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. The legislature makes laws in
the assembly; the judiciary interprets the law through the courts; and the executive executes the
laws through the ministries. It is these ministries and extra-ministerial departments put together
that constitute and civil service which serves as the tools by which broad policies of the
government are implemented into concrete achievements.

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 The civil service is strictly not by itself a policy making organ, yet it is government adviser,
solely responsible for the implementation of government policies. The civil service is the gather of
information; surveyor of organization devices and technical procedures suitable for the attainment
of government goals. In order to effectively perform the above functions, personnel who are
technical, professional and general experts are recruited into the service to work together in
harmony for the realization of the will of the state.
STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS
The civil service has the following characteristics:-
1. Permanency: Government comes and goes; but the civil service remains. The civil services
keeps record of government and it possesses the feature of continuity. It also serves as transient
government during the period of change of government.
2. Apolitical: the civil service work with any government in power without bias. This is why
civil servant are barred from being registered members of political parties.
3. Anonymity: civil servant are only to be seen and not to be heard; that is why the civil
service does not take credit or blame for policy success of failure.
4. Impartiality: The civil service is impartial in dealing with Issues or implementation of
government policies. Any programme made for the people must be implemented whether good or
bad.
5. Bureaucracy: the civil service is administered by standardized rules and procedures that
are universal and abstract.
APPOINTMENTS
The authority for appointments and recruitments into the Civil Service are vested in the Civil
Service Commission. The Civil Service Commission is a body independent of the Civil Service
itself, established by the Government to administer the Civil Service. The Commission is
insulated from partisan politics and is made up of a full - time chairman, some full-time
commissioners. The chairman of the Federal Civil Service Commission is appointed by the
President, while that of state is appointed by the Governor. Members should be people of proven
integrity and good education.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION
(i) It recruits highly qualified personnel into the service, based upon good educational
qualifications and performance in competitive, written examinations and interview.
(ii) The civil service commission promotes competent and productive senior civil servants from
one grade to another.
(iii) Handles transfer of service.
(iv) The commission has disciplinary powers, like suspension or dismissal of erring civil
servants.
(v) It is vested with the power of approving voluntary retirement and resignation of Civil
Servants.
(vi) It offers advice to the Government on the appointment of suitable individuals to fill some
sensitive positions in public corporations and parastatals.
The Civil Service Commission has delegated its power to each Head of the Ministry to handle
cases of staff on grade levels 01-06. The Commission will handle grade levels 07-17.
Infact, there exists in the State Civil Service, three levels of statutory bodies charged with the
responsibilities to handle cases related to recruitment, promotion, discipline etc. as the case may
be.
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(a) Department Advisory Committee (DAC): Each ministry/extra ministerial Department
within the state civil service has its own Departmental| Advisory Committee (D.A.C.) This
committee handles recruitment, promotion, discipline of officer on GL 01-06. Membership of this
committee is made up of not less than 5 officers on GL 12 and above and shall be chaired by the
Director (PFS) of the Ministry. The representatives of both the office of the Head of service and
the Civil service Commission are also members. The decisions/recommendations of the DAC
are made to the Hon. Commissioner of the ministry for approval. Such approval is then forwarded
to the Civil service Commission for information and gazetting.
(b) Senior Staff Management Committee (SSMC): Membership of this body consists of all
Directors of the Ministry, and a representative of the Office of the Head of Service as a member.
The SSMC is chaired by the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry and it has power to recommend
the promotion, disciplinary cases of senior Staff as follows:
(i) Senior Staff on GL 07-13 to the State Civil Service Commission for ratification and
approval
(ii) Senior staff on GL 14-17 to the Ad Hoc Committee whose Secretariat is in the Office of the
Civil service (HOS) for further consideration.
(c) Ad Hoc Committee: This is a body in the Office of the Head of Service and it handles
promotion, disciplinary cases in respect of officers on GL 14-17 in the Service. The
decisions/recommendations of this body are then forwarded to the Civil Service Commission for
further consideration, ratification and approval or otherwise. The Ad-hoc Committee has the
following as members:
(i) The Head of Service Chairman
(ii) Permanent Secretary Establishment & Training Member
(iii) Permanent Secretary Service welfare Member
(iv) Permanent Secretary Ministry of Justice Member
(v) Permanent Secretary Ministry of Finance Member
NB: (OHOS) Office of Head of Service
(vi) Director, Establishment & pension Secretary
Any Permanent Secretary whose brief is before the Committee for consideration shall be present
to defend such brief.
TYPES OF APPOINTMENT
Appointments are grouped into two main categories; direct appointment and indirect appointment.
Direct: (i) Trainee or pupil (ii) Probation in a pensionable post
(iii) Permanent and pensionable appointment
(iv) Contract appointment
Indirect: (i) Transfers
(ii) Secondments
Eligibility for Appointment
To be eligible for appointment in the State Civil Service, an applicant must possess the
followings:
(i) Must be over 16 years of age.
(ii) Most possess such minimum qualifications and experience required for the position as
specified in the scheme of service from time to time.
(iii) Must be medically fit and sound as obtained from government Medical Officer.

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(iv) Must have testimonial of good character from his last Employer or the school if not
previously employed.
Apart from the above, the applicant must not be a person of questionable character i.e. he must not
be an ex-convict on a criminal offence. He must not be under the state of financial embarrassment.
He must also not be under an obligation to remain in his previous employment, that he is
dismissed, resigned or retired from the service.
Procedure:
All applications for senior positions should be obtained from the Civil Service Commission by
completing C.S.C form Gen 36. Completed application form should be submitted to the C.S.C.
The C.S.C shall keep record of all applications received and whenever vacancies exist, the
Commission shall invite all qualified applicants for interview. In the case of junior staff whose
responsibility falls on the Ministry under delegated power, the appropriate personnel committee
will conduct interview. All junior staff employed shall be required to complete an application
C.S.C Gen 36 (Form 1) Any false statement shall render the applicant a dismissal.
After all the investigations, the applicant is still considered eligible; a letter of offer of
appointment Form No Gen 40 (for pensionable appointment) or Form Gen 419 (for contract
appointment) will be issued.
All candidates offered employment are required to:
(i) Send letter of acceptance(ii) Agree on conditions of service.
(iii) Swear to an Oath of Secrecy
The Accountant-General must be informed of all the new appointments made while the C.S.C.
shall be required to gazette all such appointments
Personal Records:02208
On assumption of duty all new officers shall be required to complete Form Gen 10 where details
of their personal particulars shall be recorded. This with other relevant documents shall be
forwarded to the Establishment and Management Services for the record.
DIRECT APPOINTMENT
Probation Appointment
All new entrants into the permanent and pensionable posts are required to serve a probationary
period of two years. This period is used to test the ability, performance and conduct of the officer.
The period of two years could be extended if the officer fails to pass the prescribed examination
relating to his cadre or he is considered unfit for the position. In case where the officer could not
perform satisfactorily and after several warnings, his temporary appointment shall be terminated.
The officer is however liable for dismissal if during the probationary period, he misconducts
himself.
Permanent and Pensionable Appointment
Officer of this type of appointment is required to serve for a maximum of 35 years in service
before he retires or on attaining the age of 60 years or whichever is earlier. However, the officer
has the option to resign his appointment any time he deems fit with a notice of month or one
month salary in lieu. If the period he has served is less than 5 years he is not entitled to any
benefit. Where he serves up to 5 years and above, but less than 10 years, he is entitled to payment
of gratuity only. If his service is above 10 years he is entitled to gratuity and pension allowance.
But he can only draw his pension allowance on attaining the age of 45 years. Other benefits that
accrue to permanent and pensionable appointment include annual leave and all sorts of loans.
Trainee/Pupil Appointment
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Trainee appointment is a type of appointment usually given to school certificate holders and are
sent on professional course. Pupil appointment is usually given to degree holders who require
additional professional experience i.e. pupil Engineer, pupil Architect etc. On completion of
training the officer shall be appointed to a full grade and be required to serve a probation of two
years where applicable.
Contract Appointment
Contract appointment is a temporary appointment, which does not provide for payment of pension
allowance. Although it entices payment of gratuity in form of contract additions, the agreement
must be recorded in a formal document of agreement, which spells out the allowances emoluments
and other privileges the officer, will benefit. Contract appointment can be on long term basis,
short time basis or month-to-month basis and duration is limited to specific period and subject to
renewal.
In the process of renewal of a contract appointment, the contract officer has the responsibility of
applying for renewal in his own writing. Failure to apply will suggest that he is no longer
interested in the renewal. The Head of Department, on the other hand has a responsibility of
receiving the application, take a decision on whether or not to recommend the renewal. Whatever
the decision is, the Establishment and Management Services should be contacted to ensure that no
serving officer can take up the post and also that the position shall not jeopardize the promotion of
any serving officer. The Head of Department shall forward the application along with his
recommendation and up to date confidential report on the officer to the C.S.C. The C.S.C will at
its discretion approve or disapprove the application for renewal and authorize the head of
department to inform the officer accordingly.
During the contract period, the officer is entitled to promotion and increment. He has two types of
leaves. (i) Nigeria leave (ii) Home leave-here the officer can travel to Overseas when
government will pay for his passage and that of his wife plus four children.
Re-engagement of Dismissed Officer: 02501
It is sometimes possible for an officer who has resigned his appointment or has been dismissed to
re-apply for employment. The situation that led to his dismissal or resignation shall first be
critically examined. If considered suitable for re-engagement, his absorption shall be on the
following terms;
(i) That he may be required to serve a further probationary period notwithstanding that he has
earlier been confirmed.
(ii) That the period he has served before would not count towards his retirement benefits.
(iii) That he may not be granted any seniority or increment benefit because of his previous
service.
INDIRECT APPOINTMENT
Indirect appointment includes: Transfers and Secondments.
(A) Transfer
Transfer is the permanent release of officer from one service to another or from one class to
another within same service. There are different types of transfer: Inter-service transfer, inter-State
transfer, inter-cadre transfer, departmental transfer.
Inter-service transfer
This involves movement of an officer from approved service to another e.g. a staff from
Kwara Polytechnic seeking transfer to the State Civil Service.He has to apply through his head of

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department to the State Civil Service Commission who shall process the application and give the
approval or otherwise. Upon approval the previous service of the employee shall be carried
over to the new establishment.
Inter-State transfer
This type of transfer involves two States. Officer serving Kogi Civil Service and wishing to
return home after several years of service in Kogi State shall apply through Kogi State Civil
Service Commission to the Kwara State Civil Service Commission. Upon approval, all the number
of years of his previous service shall be transferred to Kwara State Civil Service, thus the original
date of first appointment still stand.
Departmental transfer
This is the movement of an officer from one Ministry to another. An example is an officer
previously working as an education officer but who now wishes to transfer to the Ministry of
Agriculture because of his new qualification in Agriculture. When approved two types of transfer
has taken place: Departmental transfer and inter-cadre transfer.
Cadre transfer
This is the movement of an officer from one type of job to another i.e. a typist who has just
qualified for appointment in the Executive class will undergo cadre transfer.
(B) Secondment
Secondment is described as the temporary release of an officer from one organization to another
for a specific period. There are two types:
(i) Government initiated and (ii) One initiated by the officer himself.
By Government
At the discretion of government an officer can be seconded to another government service
or other statutory bodies. Since it is at the instance of government there is no time limit and the
officer shall be there as long as it is in the interest of the service. The annual report on the officer
shall always be forwarded to his parent Ministry and he shall be entitled to notional promotion
whenever his colleagues are promoted.
By the Officer
However if secondment is at the instance of the officer, he could be seconded to any
government service or statutory bodies for a maximum of two years after which he could make an
application for an extension for another two years. Should the officer be interested in the
organization, he shall request for transfer. While on secondment, he shall be entitled to notional
increment and promotion whichever is applicable.
WOMEN SERVANT
General
The government recognizes three systems of marriage and any woman who undergoes any
of the systems is recognized as a married woman. The marriage system so recognized are:
Marriage Act, Islamic law, and customary law. It includes a woman separated from her husband
but excludes the widow or a divorcee.
Nigerian married woman includes an expatriate woman married to a Nigerian provided she
has acquired Nigerian citizenship. Ordinarily government policy does not allow for discrimination
against women employment provided that they are academically, technically and professionally
qualified. (03201).
Notification of Marriage

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An unmarried woman who marries husband in government employment shall notify her head of
department on getting married. She shall be required to state which of the system she has
undergone. She shall also submit all documentary evidence (marriage certificate) to facilitate
updating her records in the service. A woman servant is not required to resign or retire as a result
of her marital status but she has right to do so if she decides to be a full time housewife. Only a
non-Nigerian woman is required to resign her appointment upon her marriage to a non-Nigerian
husband. On the other hand she may be re-engaged on temporary month-to-month basis and her
salary, incremental date remain unchanged.
Maternity Leave
Married woman who becomes pregnant is entitled to 84 days with full pay in leave year provided
she has not enjoyed her annual leave. If she has, the number of her annual leave days shall not be
with full pay. The balance shall be with full pay. An unmarried woman who becomes pregnant is
entitled to the same 84 days but without pay in any leave year. In case she has not enjoyed her
annual leave, that number of days of her annual leave shall be with full pay inside her maternity
leave.
No woman shall be allowed to resume earlier than the exact number of days she is entitled to.
Procedure
On getting to the period of confinement, the woman servant shall obtain an EDD (Expected Day
of Delivery) from a recognized government hospital. The EDD certificate shall indicate the
expected time of her confinement. Upon this information, the women servant shall apply for her
maternity leave, which shall commence on the date, stipulated in the certificate or the date she
delivers or whichever is earlier.
(a) No disciplinary proceedings shall be taken against a woman during her maternity leave. In
case there is any offence, the matter shall be postponed until after her maternity leave. This does
not mean that disciplinary action proceeding is cancelled.
(b) If as a result of a woman servant's pregnancy she could not perform her duties efficiently,
she could be given an alternative job pending her confinement.
(c) During the period of her nursing the baby, a woman servant is entitled to one hour off duty
every working day for duration of six months commencing from the date of her delivery.
DISCIPLINE
The word "discipline" means different things to people of different background and perceptions.
The Dictionary defines discipline as "to train and control the mind and character of badly behaved
people". This chapter of the Public Service Rules comes into existence to check the general
behavior and work attitude of Civil Servants.
As a general rule, it is the duty of every officer to report any misconduct of any staff to a
superior officer. The superior officer in turn shall report to the head of department with his
observations and recommendations.
The head of department shall deal with the case if it is within the delegated power. On the
other hand he shall report the case to the Civil Service Commission with the appropriate
recommendations of the relevant Management Committee.
Misconduct
Misconduct is described as a specific act of serious wrongdoing subject to investigation and proof.
Serious wrongdoing embraces the following: Corruption, dishonesty, drunkenness, false claim
against government, foul language, insubordination, falsification conviction for criminal offence
(sanitation, minor traffic offence are not included). Financial Embarrassment, absence from
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duty without leave, engaging in trade or business without permission, engaging in political
activities, disclosure official information, action prejudicial to the security of the State and
membership of Secret society.
(i) Absence without Leave: An officer who absent himself from the office or in case of
expatriate officer who leave the country (Nigeria) without permission shall be liable for summary
dismissal that is no formal proceedings is necessary.
(ii) Financial Embarrassment: In the context of Public Service Rues, the expression above
means if an officer owes various types of debts which is causing him a lot of hardship, and affects
his performance. To determine this situation, an officer is said to be under his total unsecured
debts if it is more than three time his monthly income.
(iii) Money Lending: No officer is allowed to be money lender i.e. giving out money with
interest. Nor shall an officer act as surety for money on interest to any person. Regardless the
above, an officer may be a member of Co-operative Society and be a surety for other member.
(iv) Money Borrowing: It shall be a serious offence for any servant to borrow money from
anybody with whom he has or may have official dealings. It is also an offence to borrow money
from a registered money lender. However, government encourages any officer to borrow money
from of these bodies: Banks, Insurance Companies, Cooperative Society or through hire-purchase
agreement.
(v) Disclosure of Official Information: Always keep government Secret. Never discuss any
matter that comes to your knowledge during the cause of your duties with any unauthorized
people. No official document shall be released to any unauthorized people or body without
expressed permission from your employer. It shall be the duty of every Head of Department to
ensure that all those officers who have access to classified documents are made to sign Oath of
Secrecy in the appropriate form before they are allowed. In case of Junior Post, the Oath of
Secrecy is at the back of the letter of appointment Form G. 40.
(vi) Publications and Public Utterance: No officer shall, without the permission of his Head
of department, whether on leave or not is allowed;
(a) To serve as an editor or take part, or contribute money to any newspaper, Magazine or
journal except the following; departmental or staff magazine, Professional journal, Publication of
Voluntary Organization
(b) To speak in the public or broadcast on any matter which is political or administrative in
nature
(c) Allow himself to be interviewed or express any opinion for publication on any question of
political, or administrative, or public policy, defence or military or on the resources of the
Federation of the country.
(vii) Political Activities
(a) It should be an offence for any officer to hold any office paid or unpaid, permanent or
temporary in any political organization
(b) Allow himself to be nominated or he nominates anyone for election.
(c) Indicate publicly his interest or dislike for any political party.
(d) Engaging himself in public rally.
Civil Servants are allowed to exercise his civic right by casting his vote for any political party.
(viii) Investment

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 Civil Servants are allowed to invest in both public and private companies operating in
Nigeria or abroad, but they must not hold any post in the company, such as directors, secretaries
etc. except they have been nominated by the government.
(ix) Engaging in business during office hours
No servant is allowed to engage in any business during or after the office hours without the
expressed permission of the Ministry of Establishment and Training. Permission can only be given
provided the exercise shall not interfere with the efficient performance of his duties.
In certain cases, where approval is given to an officer during the working hours, any
remuneration derived from shall be paid to the government purse. The Head of department shall in
turn determine what proportion of the remuneration shall be given to the officer.
On the other hand permission may be granted to government official to engage in private
practice after the office hours provided the job is regarded as help to the community.
For instance Medical Officers are allowed on the following conditions:
(1) That it is secondary to their normal duties.
(2) That they shall not own an hospital of their own.
(3) That they shall not influence any patient out of government hospital etc
Other General Offences
There are other few offences, which are not pronounced but are grievous in nature such as:
1. Seeking influence of prominent persons to get administrative matters settled
2. Accepting gifts, presentations, whether in the form of money or otherwise from anybody in
recognition or anticipation of service to be rendered.
3. Using of official headed paper stationary for private purpose.
4. Taking up paid-appointment during leave period.
Other few offences under this category include; Habitual late coming, disturbance at work,
negligence of duty, frequent absenteeism from the office, insubordination or disobedience of
lawful order, fighting etc.
TYPES OF PUNISHMENT FOR OFFENCES IN THE SERVICE
Interdiction and Suspension
Interdiction simply means prevention of an officer from performing his official duties or
exercising the powers and functions of his office. This occurs when disciplinary proceedings for
an officer's dismissal are instituted or about to be instituted or if criminal proceedings are
instituted against an officer and if the disciplinary authority considers that in the interest of the
public service, it is required that such an officer should cease fort with to exercise the powers and
functions of his office.
An officer on interdiction shall receive a half monthly salary until the issue is resolved. If
the proceedings reveal that he is not guilty of the charges made against him, the officer shall
immediately be reinstated and shall receive the full amount of his emoluments denied him while
he was interdicted. If he is found guilty but he is not dismissed he may be refunded such part of
emoluments denied him.
Suspension and interdiction are not synonymous, they are quite different. Suspension
applies where a prima facie case (the nature of which is serious) has been established against an
officer and it is considered necessary that in the public interest, he has to leave his post until a
final decision is taken. A suspended officer takes no salary or emoluments while on suspension.
General Inefficiency 04124

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 This is described as series of commission or incompetence of which the cumulative effect
shows that the officer is not capable of performing the duties of his office.
Before an officer can be removed on ground of general inefficiency or minor administrative
offence, he must be given ample chance to improve himself. He should therefore be given; Oral
(Informal) warnings at least on one or more occasions
Few offences that can be attributed to this group are; Habitual late coming, disturbance at
work, negligence of duty.
If after the informal warnings, the officer refused to change his attitude he shall be given a
query to explain himself as to why disciplinary action shall not be taken against him.
Formal Warning 04124
The superior officer shall state in writing the cause of his dissatisfaction with the officer's
work attitude or behavior and request him to explain in writing. The superior officer shall also
indicate the time the subordinate should submit his written explanation.
Upon receiving the written explanations it shall be the duty of the superior officer to decide
whether.
(a) The subordinate has given a satisfactory explanation or not. lf he is satisfied with the
response of the subordinate Officer, the superior officer shall inform the subordinate and no
further action necessary.
(b) If however, the subordinate has not given any satisfactory explanation but it is considered
that no immediate punishment should be given; in this case the super or shall issue an appropriate
warning which may a written warning. In giving a formal warning, the superior officer should be
very sympathetic in his style of writing. He should also require the subordinate to acknowledge in
writing the receipt of such a warning.
Other types of punishments
There are other types of punishment that can be inflicted upon officer who misconduct
himself or fail to perform satisfactorily. To mention few are:
(1) Reprimand (2) With holding or deferment in Increment (3) extension of probationary period
(4) termination (5) reduction in rank
(6) Dismissal
Dismissal 04120
A dismissed officer shall not be given any notice or one month in lieu of notice. It is with
immediate effect. The officer shall forfeit all claims retiring benefits, leave and leave grant. As
soon as the letter is handed over to him, he should be made to leave the office. In case the officer
evade the notification, the effective date of dismissal shall be determined by:
1. The day the notification is given to him inspite of his refusal to acknowledge the receipt.
2. The date on which the messenger delivers the notification to his recorded address even
though the officer failed to acknowledge the receipt of such delivery.
3. The date that the notification is posted to his permanent address.
Another effect of dismissal is that the officer is not likely to secure another job within the
government establishment.

Termination
A terminated officer shall be given a notice of one calendar month or a month salary in lieu
of notice, if it is decided that he should leave office immediately. He shall be paid all his
entitlements.
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INCREMENT
This can be described as an additional amount of the money, the government gives to every
civil servant on annual basis. The amount varies from grade to grade. The incremental date is
always the first day of the month in which an officer assumes duty or promoted thereto. Effective
date of increment are 1st January and 1st July of every year.
Suspending of Increment
An officer's increment can be suspended on the following grounds;
(a) If he fails to get his appointment confirmed.
(b) Failure to pass a prescribed examination or test
(c) If he fails to obtain an Efficiency Bar Certificate.
Deferring and Withholding of Increments
Increment is not a right but a privilege so a servant can be denied of it anytime he commits
any offence or fails to fulfill certain conditions. The Head of department shall take into account
the gravity of the offence and the quality of the officer's previous service before deciding which
penalty to be imposed, knowing fully well that withholding of increment is more serious
than deferring of increment.
Deferred increment
When an officer's increment is deferred the period of deferment shall be stated. Deferment
could either be for three months or maximum period of six months. This means that when
an officer is due for increment on 1st January, the granting of the increment shall be postponed for
three months for six months as the case may be.
Example: An officer due for increment on 1st January i.e. the officer should move from GL.04/2
to GL. 043/3 by 1st January if the increment is deferred for three months he shall not move to
GL.043/3 until 1st of April of that year. That means he has lost the extra money granted to him for
three months. The same principle shall apply when the deferment is for six months. Any
postponement of increment should not be more than six months; if it is more then it should be
with held. Deferment of increment does not change the effective date of the increment-1s January.
Withholding of Increment 05206
Withholding of increment is more serious that deferment. When an increment is withheld,
this means that the officer shall not be granted increment for that year. He therefore loses the
money for the whole 12 months. This exercise will make him to lose his seniority. Example an
officer is on GL.08/3 and is due for increment on 1st January 1990 to move to GL.08/4 January
1991 if his increment is withheld that is for one year, he shall remain on GL.08/3 for the whole
1991 and shall proceed to GI.08/4 by 1st January 1992. He is one year behind his mates in the
service.
An increment deferred or withheld cannot be restored retrospectively despite the fact that
the officer has improved in his services.
MEDICAL PROCEDURE
General
In the Public Service Rule context 'Hospital' means government owned hospital or those
administered by government - or -government agency.
Medical Officer: Means a Government Medical Officer or a medical officer working in a hospital
run by government agency.
Private Practitioner: Means any other Registered medical or Dental practitioner.

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10102: All medical documents or records must be treated strictly confidential. No copies of them
must be obtained unless otherwise directed by appropriate authority. Such documents include,
medical certificates, reports of medical board, dental treatment records, health reports and so on.
Medical Examination on Appointment-10103
As a matter of rule all new entrants into the Civil Service must present himself for
examination at any approved hospital. This is to ascertain that he is physically and mentally sound
and fit for appointment under the Civil Service. The government shall pay any expenses incurred.
Special Medical-10104
In case an officer become sick too frequently, the head of department may at anytime or at
the request of the officer asked to present himself for a medical test or may constitute medical
board to determine whether the officer is fit for work of his appointment or to where it is proposed
to transfer him.
(i) Any fees in respect of the examination shall be paid by the government.
(ii) Specialist may require conducting the examination and rendering a report and then the
government shall make the expenses.
(iii) The officer concerned shall be informed of the case.
10107-Leave to visit Medical Specialist/Dentist
The Head of department may grant an officer leave to visit specialist in case the Medical
Officer /Dentist around the area is unable to handle the case.The officer shall be granted free
transport facilities but not traveling allowance.
Government facilities in Nigeria-10201
There is current Hospital Fees Regulations and amendments thereto see current circulars on
this issue.
Medical Expenses Refundable in Special Cases-10203
When it has become necessary for officer, members of his family to avail themselves the
services of private medical practitioner, he will be responsible in the first instance for the fees
payable. If however the circumstances are recognized by the Chief Medical Officer to the State
government, he may approve the refund of the expenses.
Medical Treatment Overseas-10207
If an officer is seriously sick and the condition is between life and death, on the
recommendation of the Chief Medical Officer of the State to the Department of Establishment and
Training, that an officer requires treatment overseas, permission may be granted to an officer to
undertake the journey at government expenses. The expenses shall equate the estacode rate
appropriate to the officer's grade. The wife, husband or child of the officer may be permitted to
accompany the officer depending on the merit of individual cases. The government shall also bear
the air passage.
Absent from duty on account of illness
10401
A Civil Servant may fall sick at any time in the course of his services. He requires Medical
Certificate such as the following:-
(a) Excused Duty Certificates: Combined Medical Form No. Med. 166 or 168.This is
obtained when the officer cannot perform due to illness. The period ranges from 1-14 days
maximum after when the medical practitioner shall review the office's state of health and
recommend more days if necessary.

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(b) Light Duty Certificate: Med. Form No. 167 or 168 this implies that the officer has been
treated and cannot perform satisfactorily but does not warrant to be excused from duty. Example
can be taken from a typist who had a headache. He has taken medicine but he cannot perform his
typing duty, so he can be placed on record keeping duty only.
(c) Medicine and Duty: Med. Form No. 168 or 168A when an officer attends the hospital, he
was given a treatment and request to go back to his office to perform his duties. That means the
sickness is not very serious.
(d) Certificate Issue By Hospitals run by Government Agencies:10402 - An officer can
obtain any of the above certificates by attending the hospital where the medical officer will
examine. If his case does not warrant him to be treated as an in-patient the Medical Officer shall
issue him with any of the certificates as appropriate.
(e) If an officer fall sick and a private practitioner attends to him and then required a certificate
for official purpose. He will forward to the medical officer a report from the private practitioner
on whom the medical officer shall form his opinion and issue him with any of the above
certificate.
Responsibility of Officers and Employees
10403-It is the responsibility of an officer to keep his department informed of his address
whenever he fall sick and cannot report for duty. This must be in writing.
10404 - An officer who is not on leave nor admitted in a government hospital and cannot report
for work as a result of illness, must immediately report to his department or within 24 hours
submitted an excuse duty certificate duly signed by a medical officer who has attended to him.
When he had reported to his department, he will be given further directives either:
(i) To seek for a medical adviser forthwith or
(ii) Authorized to absent from duty for a maximum of two days by a medical officer if
available. An officer who stationed at a place where no medical officer is available must when so
instructed by his department, comply with official arrangement made to provide him with medical
advice and must comply with the advice so obtained.
Duty to attend medical Boards and comply with recommendation -10406
If an officer has been required to attend medical Board, it is a matter of must that he should
attend such medical Board. He must be there on time, and any advice given must be adhered to
since it supersedes any previous advice given by a medical officer or private practitioner. When an
officer fails to comply with this instruction he will render himself liable to be treated as absent
from duty without leave.
Departmental Responsibilities
10408-Each departmental office must keep an up-to date record of residential address of each
member of staff.
10409- If a staff is absent and no report from him within 24 hours, enquiry should be made as to
his where about.
10410 - When a staff become ill and cannot present himself for medical examination, arrangement
should be made by the Department to request the medical officer to examine and treat him.
Responsibility of Medical Officer-10413
(i) When an officer visits an hospital for examination, after the examination and treatment, the
medical officer will issue him any of the medical certificates and if the officer is admitted as in-
patient the medical officer shall inform the officer's department.
(ii) When the officer has been discharged the Medical officer will report to the department.
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(iii) When an officer fails to carry out any medical advice willingly or by omission the Medical
officer should report to the department.
Sick Leave Rules
10417 -An officer who absent himself from the office due to illness must provide a proper medical
certificate to cover such period of absence.
10418-An officer on Vacation Leave who cannot report for duty at the expiration of such leave
must obtain certified medical certificate to cover up the period, may be granted and extension of
leave.
10419-An officer who become sick but have the hope of recovery and return to duty may be
allowed a maximum number of 183 days in a year with full pay. Therefore he shall be placed on
half salary. This condition is subject to 365 days sick leave in a period of 4 years or less. Any sick
leave in excess of 365 days during the period of four years or less will be without pay and is not to
be counted towards award of increment or pension rights.
10420 - From the date an officer is regarded to be permanently invalided, he shall cease to be on
sick leave.
10421- A Government Medical Officer may gran sick leave for a period of three months, if the
officer is still unfit tor duty after that period, the Head of department shall, arrange to constitute a
medical Board to examine the officer with a view to determine whether he could be invalided
from the service, or allow further sick leave.
LEAVING THE SERVICE
Leaving the service is concerned with the various ways by which an employee can
disengage or be disengaged from the public service. Below are some methods of disengaging from
the service.
1. TERMINATION: This is the process whereby an officer is relieved of his appointment
depending on the circumstances. For instance if due to inefficiency during probationary period,
he/she is not entitled to anything except free transport to his or her place of engagement and
vocation leave if he/she is eligible. If it is due to misconduct he or she is not entitle to anything.
2. RESIGNATION: This is the process whereby and officer voluntarily submits and
application to stop working with his organization. Normally such and officer will be required to
give his employer thirty (30) days notice or pa one month's salary in lieu of notice and vice-versa
where government resigns the officer.
3. WITHDRAWAL FROM SERVICE: The process id similar to resignation. But differs
due to its status. Officers who have put in between minimum of 5 but not up to 10 years can be
said to withdraw from service. Such officers are entitled to gratuity commensurate with their
period of service but not entitled to payment of pension.
4. DISMISSAL: This is one of the capital punishments meted on public servants found guilty
of serious misconduct when an officer has been dismissed he loses the right to any benefits in the
service.
5. DEATH: This is and uncontrollable factor in life. Where and employee dies in active
service and qualifies or gratuity his accredited survivor would be paid full dues. Pension will be
paid until the fifth anniversary of his death. In addition his widow will be granted a pension (if
remains unmarried or engaged in the service).
6. RETIREMENT: This is a final journey of a successful public servant. Retirement could be
voluntary or compulsory through the process of reorganization.

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 Officers that can retire from public service are those who have put in between 10-35 years
of service and or 45- 60 yrs of age which ever that come first. Officer in this condition are entitled
to gratuity ( which is paid lump sum ) and pension commensurate to his length of service for life.
It is to be noted that, where an officer over stays, all emolument paid for the period of his over
stays wick be deducted from his retiring benefits.
Some important documents that may be required while preparing for retirement are:
1. Letter/Gazette of first appointment.
2. Duly completed and up-date record of service.
3. Letter of acceptance of retirement.
4. Pay record cards for last three years.
5. Letter of confirmation of appointment.
6. Letter of notice of retirement.
7. Declaration of age or birth certificate.
There may be other documents required as deemed necessary by the pension board

UNIT II: POLITICAL INTERACTION

Politics implies the art of influencing people, and nurses have the political responsibility to
influence the allocation of scarce resources. The concept of power and politics in nursing entails
the reform of health issues, socio-political issues such as facilities for effective higher education in
nursing, and facilities to enable nurses to render effective patient care in any given situation.
The only way nurses will be allowed to have input in these issues is when they are
comprehensively trained according to standards higher than minimum requirements, including
education in politics and the application thereof.
Preparing nursing practitioners who can cope with, and who can initiate future health-care issues
will require changes in the education of nurses. Nurses should be educated in the financing of
health care, and in the important influence quality health care could have on productivity in the
country, as well as in analyzing the changing needs of the community.
Nursing Educators can and do influence the health-care system by being in control of what they
teach, by being role models, and by selecting the clinical sites where they expect students to
develop clinical skills. Therefore, nurses’ political engagement is needed for societal advancement
THE NURSING PROFESSION’S RELATIONSHIP WITH SOCIETY
A professional relationship (with society) involves a direct connection comprising an informal
contract between the professional (nurse) and the client (society), for an identifiable service in a
particular area of expertise. The view on health from a nursing perspective emphasizes the quality
of life of the individual, which is more than just the absence of disease. Nursing has a
responsibility to society to be involved in the planning and co-ordination of the continuing health
care matters of society at large, and in the organization and implementation of this care, wherever
it realizes. Traditionally nursing has always been without any power with regard to national
policy-making. Rains & Kelley (2000:37) refers to Huston’s discussion of the factors contributing
to the lack of “positive” political action amongst nurses, namely
· the oppression of nurses as a group;
· the invisibility of nursing in mass media;
· the negative connotations nursing ascribe to political activity; and

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· the tendency towards re-active rather than pro- active political action amongst leaders in
Nursing.
Historically, nurses have been expected to be subservient, to follow in other’s footsteps, e.g. that
of physicians. The thought of empowering nurses has only recently been discussed in literature,
with the result that nurses have to get used to the concept themselves. The lack of political skills
taught as part of the curriculum, has attributed to nurses’ lethargic role with regard to health
policy, and their being ‘workhorses’, although they are, according to Conger and Johnson
(2000:99) the health system’s backbone. Nurses as a group, need to develop the self-
confidence for assuming positions of leadership, as part of clinical teams, in managerial positions
as well as in government. Politics in nursing comprise three levels of power-based actions:
· Interpersonal politics, such as politics in practice, e.g. power-based actions between nurses or
nurses and patients.
· Organizational politics, e.g. interactions between dominant groups within the
organization, involving hierarchical power structures.
· External politics, referring to national and governmental policies, and political actions such
as lobbying in order to influence legislative policy (Callahan, 2000:34).
Involvement in policy making and changing of health-care structures presents a challenge to all
nurses. Although it is demanding and time- consuming, it is also enormously worthwhile. The
strength in numbers, of nurses acting as a group of health-care providers, could be used to the
political advantage of the health-care consumer.
THE VALUE OF POLITICAL KNOWLEDGE FOR NURSING AND NURSING
EDUCATION
The concept of empowerment and politics in nursing and nursing education has nothing to do with
strikes for own benefit, such as salary improvement or less working-hours. It entails the
transformation of health- issues, of socio-political issues such as facilities for effective higher
education in nursing, and facilities, which will enable nurses to render effective patient care in any
given situation. Nurses need the knowledge and skills to enhance and safeguard the community’s
health through the influencing of policies that may affect the health of the community (Rains &
Kelley, 2000:37). Nurses should understand the socio-political nature of health policy-making, as
well as the ethics of health care decision-making. The inclusion of politics, and a critical approach
to all policy that can influence health and health care delivery, will establish a pattern of
understanding as to how political skills and policy development can enhance nursing practice and
nursing’s social policy mandate (Conger & Johnson, 2000:100).
Nurses should be involved in policy-making in order to maintain their control over nursing
practice, and have an impact on and access to the delivery of health care. The word ‘politics’
implies the art of influencing other people, while ‘political activity’ implies influencing others for
the purpose of allocating scarce resources wisely. Although nurses have no direct input into the
allocation of available resources (money), they have the political responsibility to provide reasons
for the allocation of those resources.
Health care is becoming a scarce resource, and decisions will consequently have to be made about
how these scarce resources can be made accessible - nurses must be actively involved in this kind
of decision-making, as it will influence their future. Discussions on whether politics should form
part of the duties of the nurse should analyse what nursing and it’s theoretical foundations entail
(De Thornyay, 1993:302). Nursing Theory incorporates physical, social, psychological, cultural,
economic, environmental and political factors in a holistic approach, and therefore the study of
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politics has a legitimate place in nursing courses. Political empowerment of health-care deliverers
is an essential ingredient in the education of nurses, and it includes the involvement of individuals
in the process of organized action. A ‘political powerful voice’ must be demonstrated to the
community using all available platforms (Taylor, 1995:1180).
The spotlight must be on nurses and their competence and excellence in rendering health care
in any given situation.
· The clinical situation is the first important platform that should be used to ensure that
the public does not underestimate the value of nursing and nurses. The knowledge and
skills of nurses should be demonstrated in their interaction with the patient and their
professional relationship with other members of the professional community.
· The second platform to be used is the opportunities available in nursing education. Nursing
educators should not only acquaint their students with the policies on health care and other related
issues, but also instill in students the belief that their involvement can make a difference (Batra,
1992:170). Health policy should be incorporated in the curricula in order to ensure that nursing
students will be better equipped for their role as political agents in nursing. Nursing educators
should create opportunities for students to participate in the political activities of the
nursing organization while always reflecting a health-care agenda concerned with patient issues,
not with nurses’ issues. The only way for nurses to be able to make meaningful contributions in
this regard, will be if they are comprehensively trained according to standards higher than
minimum requirements; education in politics and how to use it, included (De Thornyay,
1993:305). The basic course in nursing which leads to registration as a nurse, equips students to
function comprehensively in general nursing, midwifery, community nursing and psychiatric
nursing. Emphasis and guidance in certain areas concerning health policy, and
purposeful empowerment by means of knowledge and reasoning skills, will equip students at
basic level already to be prepared for their future role of shaping nursing and health care to the
benefit of the client (Ker in Delougherry, 1995:477). The inclusion of politics in the nursing
curriculum will result in health policy to be regarded as any other policy impacting the health of
the population (Glen, 1995:92). Students will develop to think, act and research in ways relevant
to policy, and be aware of the clinical impact of policies and strategic planning by professional
nursing organizations, to influence health-related issues in politics (Batra,
1992:171).
Nursing Education should prepare nurses to participate intelligently in the political arena, to
anticipate the need for change, and to take part in the development of public policy - public policy
and politics will then in return, influence the content and resources of Nursing Education.
IMPORTANCE OF POLITICS TO NURSING
1. Political advocacy and understanding hour health politics can impact on an individual’s care
experience is not always seen as part of the nursing role and education is key to enabling this
2. Needs to understand how it can lobby for legislative change, and how embedded legislation
can enhance care.
3. Nursing needs to be more politically perceptive.
4. Understanding of how much power and influence nursing can have on care provision. This
could be achieved through active participation in political effective office which is the link to
political leadership

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5. Acknowledgement that leadership is part of nursing life must be embedded in pre-registration
education, learning and development curriculums, and start early so that children appreciate
and politics and political debate
6. Through collaboration in working together and having a common understanding of how
politics can be used to influence and shape care is imperative.
7. Program must be designed to build the confidence of members in influencing, as well as equip
them with the skills, support and information required to do so. Such includes, delivering and
influencing activity.
8. Members must be encourage to participate in broader political influencing activities through
attendance at party conferences, meetings with politicians, and providing evidence to the house
of assembly committee for health on crucial health issues and useful health schemes initiatives.
9. Through effective political leadership programme which helps in understanding the influence
of politics in health social care. This supports members to influence change in health and social
care policy. E.g. health insurance schemes mechanisms and develops strategies to shape policy
and understand the legislative and policy context of devolution.
10.Through nursing and midwifery council and nursing associations e.g. NANNM, it helps to
connects members directly with its policy and political work through informal liaison and
membership of expert reference groups, which are convened to advise on policy and, where
appropriate,, support members to sit on various external policy groups, to appear before house
committee on health matters or in the media on behalf of its members or nations better health
care channels or delivery system.
11.The nursing and midwifery council of Nigeria is clear about the need for all registrants to
provide leadership role. Including being able to articulate concerns about service provision and
political decisions that may have an adverse impact on that provision.
12.Nursing is one of the most trusted professions and equipped with the skills to actively engage
locally and internationally it’s ideally positioned to influence the future of health and social
care across the nation and the world over.
ORGANIZATION AND COMMUNITY SERVICE
Nurses advocate for issues in their communities and their organizations.
Addressing Social Determinants of Health
Advocacy is commonly perceived as acting on behalf of a client, but it can be a much broader
action than affecting a single client and their family members. Nurses advocate for building
healthier communities by addressing
. SDOH are the conditions in the environments where people live, learn, work, and play that affect
a wide range of outcomes. SDOH include health care access and quality, neighborhood and
environment, social and community context, economic stability, and education access and quality.
Social determinants of health (SDOH) have a major impact on people’s health, well-being, and
quality of life.
SOCIAL DETERMINANT OF HEALTH (SDOH)
 Education Access and Quality
 Health Care Access and Quality
 Economic Stability
 Neigbourhood and Built Environment
 Social and Community Context

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SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF ADDRESSING (SDOH) INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING
GOALS:
 Improving safe housing and public transportation
 Decreasing discrimination and violence
 Expanding quality education and job opportunities
 Increasing access to nutritious foods and physical activity opportunities
 Promoting clean air and clean water
 Enhancing language and literacy skills
Social Determinant of Health (SDOH), contribute to health disparities and inequities among
different socioeconomic groups. For example, individuals who don’t have access to grocery stores
with healthy foods are less likely to have good nutrition, increasing their risk for health conditions
like heart disease, diabetes, and obesity, and potentially lowering their life expectancy relative to
people who do have access to healthy foods.
One of Healthy People 2030’s goals specifically relates to advocacy regarding SDOH. The goal
states, “Create social, physical, and economic environments that promote attaining the full
potential for health and well-being for all.” For example, Across the United States, people and
organizations at the local, state, territorial, tribal, and national levels are working hard to improve
health and reduce health disparities by addressing SDOH.
ORGANIZATION ADVOCACY
Nurses advocate for organizational issues in the nursing profession and the workplace through
participation in unions, collective bargaining, workplace advocacy models, and professional
organizations.
POLITICAL/ POLICY NETWORKING; NETWORKING IN POLITICS
Policy network analysis is a field of research in political science focusing on the links and
interdependence between government's sections and other societal actors, aiming to understand
the policy-making process and public policy outcomes.
DEFINITION OF POLICY NETWORKS
According to Roderick Arthur William Rhodes (born 15 August 1944), "Policy networks are
sets of formal institutional and informal linkages between governmental and other actors
structured around shared if endlessly negotiated beliefs and interests in public policy making and
implementation." In other words, policy network as specific structural arrangements in policy
making. Policy network analysis, focuses on the links and interdependence between government
and other societal actors, aiming to understand the policy-making process and public policy
outcomes.
POSSIBLE TYPOLOGIES OF POLICY NETWORKS
As Thatcher, Mark (October 1998). "The development of policy network analyses: from modest
origins to overarching frameworks". Journal of Theoretical Politics. 10 (4): 389–416; Notes,
policy network approaches initially aimed to model specific forms of state-interest group relations,
without giving exhaustive typologies.
POLICY COMMUNITIES VS. ISSUE NETWORKS
The most widely used paradigm of the 1970s and 1980s only analyzed two specific types of policy
networks: policy communities and issue networks. Justifications of the usage of these concepts
were deduced from empirical case studies.
Policy Communities in which you refer to relatively slowly changing networks defining the
context of policy-making in specific policy segments. The network links are generally perceived
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as the relational ties between bureaucrats, politicians and interest groups. The main characteristic
of policy communities – compared to issue networks – is that the boundaries of the networks are
more stable and more clearly defined. This concept was studied in the context of policy-making in
the United Kingdom.
In contrast, issue networks (are an alliance of various interest groups and individuals who unite in
order to promote a common cause or agenda in a way that influences government policy, Issue
networks can be either domestic or international in scope depending on their collective goal). A
concept established in literature about United States government - refer to a looser system, where
a relatively large number of stakeholders are involved. Non-government actors in these networks
usually include not only interest group representatives but also professional or academic experts.
An important characteristic of issue network is that membership is constantly changing,
interdependence is often asymmetric (having parts or aspect that are not equal or equivalent) and –
compared to policy communities – it is harder to identify dominant actors.
TYPES/ROLES OF POLICY NETWORK ANALYSIS
As the field of policy network analysis grew since the late 20th century, scholars developed
competing descriptive, theoretical and prescriptive accounts. Each type gives different specific
content for the term policy network and uses different research methodologies.
Descriptive usage
For several authors, policy networks describe specific forms of government policy-making. The
three most important forms are interest intermediation, interorganizational analysis, and
governance.
Interest intermediation
An approach developed from the literature on US pluralism, policy networks are often analyzed in
order to identify the most important factors influencing governmental decision-making. From this
perspective, a network-based assessment is useful to describe power positions, the structure of
oligopoly (a state of limited competition in which a market is shared by small number of
producers or sell) in political markets, and the institutions of interest negotiation.
Interorganizational analysis
It aims to understand the interdependency in decision-making between formal political institutions
and the corresponding organizational structures. This viewpoint emphasizes the importance of
overlapping organizational responsibilities and the distribution of power in shaping specific policy
outcomes.
Governance
It is the formal institutions of power-sharing between government, independent state bodies and
the representatives of employer and labor interests.
Theoretical usage
The two most important theoretical approaches aiming to understand and explain actor's behavior
in policy networks are the following: power dependence and rational choice;
1. Power dependence
In power dependence models, policy networks are understood as mechanism of exchanging
resources between organizations in the networks. The dynamic of exchange is determined by the
comparative value of resources (e.g. legal, political or financial in nature) and individual
capacities to deploy them in order create better bargaining positions and achieve higher degrees of
autonomy.

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2. Rational Choice
In policy network analysis, theorists complement standard rational choice arguments with the
insights of new institutionalism. This "actor-centered institutionalism" is used to describe policy
networks as structural arrangements between relatively stable sets of public and private players.
Rational choice theorists identify links between network actors as channels to exchange multiple
goods (e.g. knowledge, resources and information).
Prescriptive usage
It focuses on the phenomenon's role in constraining or enabling certain governmental action. From
this viewpoint, networks are seen as central elements of the realm of policy-making at least
partially defining the desirability of status quo – thus a possible target of reform initiatives. The
three most common network management approaches are the following: instrumental (a focus on
altering dependency relation), institutional (a focus on rules, incentives and culture) and
interactive (a focus on communication and negotiation).
POWER AND POLITICS
POWER
Definition;
i. The probability that one actor with a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his
own will despite resistance regardless of the basis on which the probability arises. (Max
Weber, in Gerth and Mills, 1948)
ii. The capacity to mobilize the resources of society for the attainment of goals for which a
general public commitment may be made. (Talcott Parsons, 1957)
Politics permeates all aspects of life. Mason et al (2007:4) define politics as ‘the process of
influencing the allocation of scarce resources’. As to who is influential, Lasswell (1958) describes
them as those who get the most of what there is to get. If success in politics is judged by control
over resources, nurses historically have been unsuccessful in the political arena when judged by
such factors as pay parity with equivalent professional groups or satisfactory working
environments. Sullivan (2004) argues that historical factors still impact on nurses’ degree of
influence in contemporary healthcare, with values such as personal discipline, a focus on service
and obedience being seen by some as fundamental characteristics of nurses.
While many nurses have effectively engaged in politics at all levels, these values, along with the
issues around the gendered culture of nursing have limited the full realization of nurses’ and
nursing’s potential for political action, influence and advocacy. Takase et al (2001) also argue that
nurses have been historically disadvantaged by their close relationship with medical colleagues.
This has positioned the practice of nursing as subservient to the practice of medicine, and impacts
negatively on nurses’ perception of themselves. This perception can inhibit nurses from seeing the
power that their increasing professionalization confers.
Politics at state and national level is often thought of as only involving government. Governments
are critical bodies for regulating behaviour in that ‘government lays down the “rules of the game”
in conflict and competition between individuals, organizations, and institutions within society’
(Dye & Harrison 2005:198). But politics, seen as the exercise of power in the form of influence, is
also part of everyday life. Engaging in political action—learning to be more influential in relation
to matters that count—is therefore a possibility for all nurses. Sullivan (2004) suggests that
influence exists through relationships and is more significant than authority. It is gained through
position or respect for knowledge and skills. She also suggests that influence is earned through

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effort and that the skills of influence can be learnt, the most crucial factor being the personal
decision to become influential.
Nurses tend to think that because they are good people doing a good job they should be valued
and fairly rewarded and, if that does not happen, they blame themselves or the profession
(Sullivan 2004). However, nurses may in fact be unrewarded due to not effectively engaging in
the underlying political game—engagement, which requires adherence to a particular set of rules
that they may not even know exists. Critically, we as nurses must therefore recognize the
existence and reality of politics, the legitimacy and necessity of being involved in politics, and
learn skills to gain greater influence if personal and professional goals are to be achieved.
WORKPLACE STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING INFLUENCE
• Reciprocity with other workers (i.e. exchanging favours)
• Having a good understanding of the informal information that circulates within the organisation
• Avoiding confrontation
• Compromising when necessary to achieve a more important goal
• Networking
• Accepting responsibility for individual actions, both positive and negative, and
• Finding a mentor.
The idea of playing workplace politics may not initially resonate with the cherished nursing ideal
of teamwork, but having influence and developing assertive and satisfying interdisciplinary
relationships are essential factors in nurses being active in ensuring the provision of high-quality
nursing care.
NURSES’ POLITICAL POWER
All people have political power as individuals, but nurses also have great potential as a collective
body to exercise their power. Australian and New Zealand nurses are increasingly well educated at
graduate level and have a growing evidence-based body of knowledge to support nursing practice.
Nurses also work in wide-ranging roles in healthcare, spanning clinical, and management,
research, teaching and health policy domains that provide multiple opportunities to exert
influence.
A key element of realizing collective power is having formal ways to organize collectives of
people for a common cause that is well articulated and appeals to broad segments of the
population. In nursing, the protection, support and influence derived from the power of the
collective is realized through professional organizations. This is shown clearly in situations such
as collective salary bargaining or guaranteed nurse–patient ratios, such as those negotiated in
Victoria, which have had a major impact on the working environment for nurses. Neither of these
would be possible to negotiate at an individual level. There are many professional bodies that
primarily serve to advance the interests of the nursing workforce. As nurses, you have the
opportunity to be involved and shape the political activity of these organizations through
contribution as a member or at governance level.
One of the most important choices you will make as a registered nurse, therefore, is the decision to
join your professional body. The particular structures and focus of nursing organizations varies
considerably, but their two broad areas of interest are industrial or employment concerns and what
are loosely called ‘professional issues’. Some organizations have two arms and encompass both
these aspects, while others will focus specifically on one area. The choice of which organization to
join is up to you, but should be given careful thought, considering what each organization’s role
is, the focus and achievements of each organization, and what they can provide.
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While nurses are often considered a homogenous group, it is important to accept that nurses are
enormously diverse. As a result, while the overall goal of nursing may be shared by everyone in
the profession, individual nurses will not always share worldviews at either the macro or micro
level. Therefore, using the power nurses has means being highly skilled at working not only with
diverse population groups, but also with diverse nurses and nursing groups. Nurses have widely
differing philosophical and political positions, and one strategy for managing this diversity is
through the focus that professional organizations can bring. This means that individual difference
can be accepted, but organizational power can focus on collective professional issues.
An example of nurses successfully using their collective political power to advance practice
through the legislative process is the gaining of prescribing authority. Australian and New Zealand
nurses have advocated for changes in legislation and governmental processes to enable nurses
(usually advanced practitioners) to prescribe in their scope of practice. In New Zealand, extending
prescribing rights to nurse practitioners has been contentious, with some members of the medical
profession, such as general practitioners, concerned with potential competition for funding
(Mackay 2003). After a drawn out and contested political process, the Medicines (Designated
Prescribers: Nurse Practitioners) Regulations 2005 now provide a framework for nurse
practitioner prescribing.
Jones’ (2004) description of the approach taken by the Royal College of Nursing (RCN) in the
United Kingdom notes that the implementation of nurse prescribing required ‘political
machination, the need to construct an effective case, and deft manoeuvring within the corridors of
power’ (Jones 2004:266). Initial elements of the strategy to increase political influence included
focusing on a clear objective, taking advantage of an existing opportunity (which in the United
Kingdom was the review of community nursing), developing alliances with the British Medical
Association and pharmacists, and ensuring a unified professional position by managing internal
concerns raised by groups such as practice nurses.
OTHER TYPES OF POWER
The leader of a State Nurses’ Association (SNA) may have access to the leaders
of the state legislature based on the leader’s personal power, which is based on
Personal power: Based on
years of work with members of the legislature. The (SNA) president has always
one’s reputation and credibility.
delivered on promises of support and provided useful information to legislators
on matters of health policy.
Expert power: Results from
the knowledge and skills one An advanced practice nurse is viewed as the clinical expert on a nursing unit and
possesses that are needed by as a powerful person.
others.
Position power: Possessed by
virtue of one’s position within The dean of a college of nursing is viewed on campus as powerful because this
an organization or status within dean leads the fastest growing academic unit on campus.
a group.
Perceived power: Results from A nursing student seeks a certain nurse manager as a preceptor during a senior
one’s reputation as a powerful clinical practicum because of the manager’s reputation as an effective manager
person. within the organization.
Information power: Stems
from one’s possession of A staff nurse demonstrates great skill in teaching patients difficult self-care
selected information that is activities and is sought out by colleagues to help them teach their patients.
needed by others.

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Connection power: Gained by At a Nurses’ Week celebration, nurses take advantage of the opportunity to have
association with people who extended, informal conversations with those who report to the chief nursing
have links to powerful people. officer.
PERSUASIVE POWER
Persuasion is best defined as a process whereby a person’s attitudes or behaviors are influenced by
another person. The power of persuasion enables you to argue for or against ideas, decisions, and
actions that have a material impact on you, your associates, and customers. You are wise to try
persuasion before negotiating…to see if it works. However, I am sure you have been on the other
side of listening to a person offering a view or opinion that you simply don’t agree with. If the
person persists, it is irritating. Right? Right. When a dead-end is reached, it is time to turn to
negotiation.
Persuasion began with the Greeks, who emphasized rhetoric and elocution at the highest standard
for a successful politician. All trials were held in front of the Assembly, and both the prosecution
and the defense rested, as they often do today, on the persuasiveness of the speaker. Aristotle
identified three basic elements to every persuasive argument:
The credibility, knowledge, expertise, stature, and authority of the person who is
Ethos
persuading.
Logos The appeal of logic, reason, and cognitive thinking.
The appeal to emotions; the non-cognitive, non-thinking motivations that affect
Pathos
decisions and customs.
Credibility, logic, and emotions. When you evaluate your persuasive skill set, consider asking
yourself three questions:
1. Do I come across as credible?
2. Is my position logical?
3. Am I appealing to the other person’s emotions?
As an insurance agent or broker, you use credibility and logic each and every day to empower
your clients and prospects to make prudent decisions about the risks and uncertainties that face
their businesses and families. And it is your persuasiveness that drives emotion leading to action.
Examples include your ability to influence a client to purchase cyber liability, employment
practices insurance, or institute safety policies and procedures. It is the position you take with an
underwriter to secure more favorable terms and conditions. Or it is the convincing stance about
your career path. The process of persuasion has a huge impact on your future self as it inspires
others to accept your position and act upon it.
The following six tips may enhance your ability to persuade:
1. Argue your case with logic. Do careful research on your ideas and make sure that any
claims you make can be supported.
2. Do NOT use hesitant language. When you use hesitant language, such as “isn’t it”, “you
know”, “um hmm”, and “I mean”, the less likely people are to believe your argument.
3. Use positive rather than negative language: instead of saying “You’re wrong about this”,
say “That’s true, however…” or “I agree with what you say but have you considered…”.
4. Subtly compliment the other party. For example: “I see that you’ve done some excellent
research into this.” Even though they may realize that you are stroking them, evidence
shows that they will still warm to you and be more open to you.

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 5. Mirroring the other person’s mannerisms. Research substantiates that 67% of people
who use mirroring achieved a sale compared to 12% who did not. People you mirror
subconsciously feel more empathy with you.
6. Show gratitude. Gratitude is an internally generated capability that allows you to
strengthen relationships and increase productivity.
COMMITMENT TO COLLECTIVE STRENGTH
Political commitment refers to the persevering act of politicians which ensures that they are
achieving results. This means that politicians must ensure that the policies, rules and regulations
that they have drafted, created, and passed are properly executed and implemented. Political
commitment may also involve the use of various political institutions for the creation and
implementation of laws, rules, and regulations. It also involves the proper acquisition and allocate
resources and ensure proper response for the purpose of achieving their end goals.
The Three Component Model of Commitment
Some people are committed to their jobs because they love what they do, or because their
goals align with those of the company. Others might stay because they fear what they could
lose if they leave. Still, others might stay because they feel obligated to the company, or to
their manager.
Clearly, some of these types of commitment can have a negative effect on a person's well-
being, self-respect, and job satisfaction. So, how can you avoid this, but still help team
members feel committed to your team, or organization, in a positive way?
In this article we'll explore three common types of commitment, how they impact your team
members' motivation, and what changes you can make to improve team member
engagement and loyalty in an effective and positive way.
About the Model
John Meyer and Natalie Allen developed their Three Component Model of Commitment
and published it in the 1991 "Human Resource Management Review." The model explains
that commitment to an organization is a psychological state, and that it has three distinct
components that affect how employees feel about the organization that they work for. [1]
The three components are:
1. Affection for your job ("affective commitment").
2. Fear of loss ("continuance commitment").
3. Sense of obligation to stay ("normative commitment").
You can use this model to increase commitment and engagement in your team, while also
helping people to experience a greater feeling of wellbeing and job satisfaction.
Let's look at each of Meyer and Allen's three types of commitment in greater detail.
Affection for Your Job (Affective Commitment)
Affection for your job occurs when you feel a strong emotional attachment to your
organization, and to the work that you do. You'll most likely identify with the
organization's goals and values, and you genuinely want to be there.
If you're enjoying your work, you're likely to feel good, and be satisfied with your job. In
turn, this increased job satisfaction is likely to add to your feeling of affective commitment.
Those who truly love what they do will likely be more motivated to progress within their
organization, think creatively, and experiment with new ways of working.
Fear of Loss (Continuance Commitment)

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This type of commitment occurs when you weigh up the pros and cons of leaving your
organization. You may feel that you need to stay at your company because the loss you'd
experience by leaving it is greater than the benefit you think you might gain in a new role.
These perceived losses, or "side bets," can be monetary (you'd lose salary and benefits);
professional (you might lose seniority or role-related skills that you've spent years
acquiring); or social (you'd lose friendships or allies).
The severity of these "losses" often increases with age and experience. You're more likely
to experience continuance commitment if you're in an established, successful role, or if
you've had several promotions within one organization.
Fear of losing your job may motivate you to finish your work on time and work well with
others. But it can also hinder your motivation to learn and develop. For example, you might
shy away from trying new things or thinking outside the box for fear of slipping up. Or you
may stop going after promotions or new projects in case you rub people the wrong way and
damage your reputation.
Sense of Obligation to Stay (Normative Commitment)
This type of commitment occurs when you feel a sense of obligation to your organization,
even if you're unhappy in your role, or even if you want to pursue better opportunities. You
feel that you should stay with your organization because it's the right thing to do.
This sense of obligation can stem from several factors. You might feel that you should
remain with your organization because it has invested money or time in your training. Or
perhaps it provided a reward in advance, such as paying for your college tuition.
This obligation can also result from your upbringing. For instance, your family might have
stressed the importance of loyalty, above all else.
COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AND UNIONISM
Definition: Collective bargaining is the process in which working people, through their unions,
negotiate contracts with their employers to determine their terms of employment, including pay,
benefits, hours, leave, job health and safety policies, ways to balance work and family, and more.
Collective bargaining is a way to solve workplace problems.
Definition: Unionism is any set political principles based on the idea that two or more political or
national units should be joined or remain together.
A nursing union is a type of labor union that advocates for the interest of its nurse members.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 20 percent of RNs and 10 percent of LPNs/VNs in
the United States are union members. Nursing union goals are typically to advocate for the
improvement of benefits, wages, patient safety, and workplace conditions. Advocacy is
accomplished by collective bargaining refers to the negotiation of wages and other conditions of
employment by an organized body of employees.
Although there is no single union that represents all nurses across the country, there are several
nursing unions such as the National Nurses United, SEIU United Healthcare, and The United
Food and Commercial Workers International Union. The National Nurses United union is the
largest nursing union in the United States and has joined with other unions across the country to
address unsafe staffing. Read more about these unions in the following box.
Nursing unions can provide several potential benefits to the nursing profession. They may
improve job security, improve working conditions, negotiate for better pay and benefits, protect
seniority, establish staffing ratios, address workplace violence and incivility, and provide a well-
defined grievance process. Unionized nurses earn an average of $200-$400 more per week than
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nonunionized nurses. Unions assist with grievance processes for resolving disagreements between
employees and management. Examples of grievances include the promotion of one employee over
another who has more seniority, disputes over holiday pay, and problems related to employee
discipline.

UNIT III: POLITICAL ACTIVITIES

POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
The concept of political socialization is important to know how political culture is formed in
different societies and how the political values, beliefs, and attitudes of the people prevail over
different generations. Those values or beliefs expand to the new generation through some agents
of political socialization.
With the death of various members of a group, the political culture of the group does not die. The
new members of the group maintain their political culture. From their childhood, they learned,
embraced, and obeyed the political values or beliefs of society.
Meaning of Political socialization
The process by which a person integrates with the political culture of the society gains knowledge
of the political values, ideals, and beliefs of the society and acquires a social and political nature is
called political socialization.
Characteristics of Political Socialization
There some features of political socialization. These are:
1. Political socialization is the pinnacle of a society’s political values or culture. Any
education, therefore, is not political socialization.
2. The purpose of political socialization is to educate and enhance the members of the society
politically, to see them become effective members of the political society, and to preserve
the continuity of the political values of the society.
3. Early childhood is an important time for political socialization. But this is not limited to a
few years of childhood. Political socialization continues throughout the life of the
individual.
4. Political socialization occurs mainly in three ways – imitation, instruction, and motivation.
Imitation tendency is more prevalent in children, whereas adolescents and adults have a
combination of imitation, instruction, and motivation.
5. Through the process of political socialization, the increase in support, support for the
prevailing political system, the values in favor of conventional institutions, the legitimacy
of the government are increased.
6. All persons belonging to a political society are subject to political socialization and are
effective throughout their lives.
Agents of Political Socialization
Few organizations play an important role in the context of political socialization. These are called
as agents of political socialization. They are also identified as the means of political
socialization. These are:
1. Family
2. Intimate Friend’s Group
3. Educational Institution
4. Political Parties
5. Mass Media
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 6. Professional Organization
7. Religious Organization
1. Family
The role of the family is important in transmitting political values from one generation to the
next. In the first ten to fifteen years of his life in the family, the child acquires most of his political
personality. The child takes note of the mentality of his parents and family and puts a deep and
lasting strain on his mind. It is from the family that the child learns about its political values.
2. Intimate Friend’s Group
An intimate group is a group of people with similar or close friends or close friends. In modern
times, industrialization, urbanization, and modernization have changed the way of life of the
former; the number of problems has increased. So in modern society, the importance of intimate
blinds has increased. There are many types of discussions with intimate friends. The political
attitude of friends can influence and change a person’s moral outlook.
3. Educational Institution
After a few years of age, the child joined the educational establishment for education leavers and
schools, colleges and universities became important as a means of political socialization of his
life. Attempts to increase loyalty to the country through the curriculum of the school include the
nationalist ideals, the past glory of the nation, discussions about the leaders of the nation, etc.
4. Political Parties
Political parties compete for elections by politically organizing for leverage of political power.
People of different levels and classes are involved in different types of work of one political party.
Political parties increase people’s skills and awareness. People’s political role depends on the
economic, social and political outlook of the political party and its relationship with the political
system.
5. Mass Media
Influence of science and technology, in the modern times, the media such as radio, film,
television, internet etc. are very advanced and play as an important means of political
socialization.
With the help of the media, news, commentary, and images related to political events quickly
reach the masses. Members of the government or government party use the media to voice their
views. Opposition parties and their members take the same path.
6. Professional Organization
Various organizations organized on a professional basis are labor unions, trade unions, peasant
associations, teachers ‘associations, students’ unions, etc. These organizations do not get political
power like political parties or participate in electoral competition but try to preserve their
professional interests by influencing the government’s decision-making process.
These organizations communicate political values and sentiments among their members through
various claims and political socialization is possible.
7. Religious Organization
The political role of religious organizations in modern-day secular democratic states has
diminished. Yet it turns out that they have some indirect role.
In many European states, opposition to state and educational institutions is seen in connection
with Roman Catholic meditation. In India, Hindu and Muslim religious organizations try to
influence the political views of their members in various ways.

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Functions of Political Socialization
(a) Inter-generational Transmission of Political Values: Political socialization assists every
society in preserving political culture across time. It also helps to inculcate political values and
orientation in people. This is the function we call inter-generational transmission of political
norms, and, by extension, values, symbols and ideas. For instance, a person who attends the
university, majors in engineering and later gets employment in an engineering firm may not at all
understand the workings of law making and recall except he or she witnessed it at the level of
students union which the school as an agent of political socialization offers. In an increasingly
complicated world where politics is fast becoming everyone‘s business even though we do not all
major in politics, agents of socialization serves the purpose of transmitting political values and
norms from one generation to the other, and this helps in ensuring stability in the society.
(b) Stability of Polity: By virtue of performing the foregoing function of inter-generational
transmission of values and inculcation of political culture, political socialization helps to maintain
continuity and stability in the society. Such stability is needed to advance the course of the society
from all walks of life. To the extent that political socialization is a means of role-training
therefore, it, at any time equips the members of a society with the basic skills necessary for
political participation or the performance of important political roles.
(c) Creation of Hegemonic: Order Political socialization helps the society to create hegemonic
order. Every political environment needs hegemony to stabilize and develop, hegemony being a
subtle, non-coerced assimilation of how things are done in a society. Political socialization helps a
society to foster this, and every member of the society needs only little push or coercion to obey
the law and promote good values.
(d) National Discipline: National discipline is very important in political socialization. The
reason is that it makes it easy to ensure some degree of discipline among members of a political
community. In other words, political socialization curbs or controls disruptive political behavior
by ensuring that members of a society behave in a manner that is socially acceptable to the
majority of the people, and especially the hegemonic class.
Furthermore, political socialization assists in promotion of patriotism and nationalism. People,
who learn the political values, believe and orientations of their people and hand the same down
from one generation to the other tend to become obsessed with it. They see themselves as being
embedded in such values and ideas and are often willing to defend and promote it at any time
necessary. This is called patriotism, and it is useful for the domestic and international aura of a
state.
Political socialization performs some functions in the polity. These functions are basically for
continuity and stability among politicians and other actors that are involved in politics. Moreover,
they affect not only the political, but also the economic and social strata of a political community.
Political will is defined as “the extent of committed support among key decision makers for a
particular policy solution to a particular scientist Linn Hammergren to be “the slipperiest concept
in the policy lexicon. Lack of political will is often blamed for unresolved political issues”
POLITICAL LEADERSHIP & QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER
POLITICAL LEADERSHIP
Political leadership is a concept central to understanding political processes and outcomes, yet its
definition is elusive. Many disciplines have contributed to the study of leadership, including
political theory, history, psychology and management studies. Political Leadership reviews the

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contributions of these disciplines along with a discussion of the work of classic authors such as
Niccolo Machiavelli, Max Weber and Robert Michels.
Howard Elcock develops an account of the various governing, governance and allegiance roles
political leaders play and discusses the devices by which their ability to lead effectively can be
improved. He examines the processes of uncertainty reduction, increasing creativity and
facilitation of collective learning. He concludes that the preoccupation with ‘new public
management’ over the last twenty years has caused fundamental debates about political and social
values to be neglected. Only a new focus on leaders and leadership, he argues, can correct this
problem and provide guidance for politicians and officials in a world of increasingly rapid and
unpredictable change.
TYPE OF LEADERSHIP STYLES
1. Transactional Leadership: The transactional leader establishes a system of “rewards and
penalties” in a work setting with clearly defined expectations.
2. Transformational Leadership: Leads by inspiring employees to innovate.
3. Servant Leadership: Channels energy into elevating and “developing the people who follow.”
4. Democratic Leadership: Uses participatory, collaborative methods to emphasize working
together and “actively involve team members in the decision-making process.”
5. Autocratic Leadership: Uses the “my way or the highway” approach to leading, dictating not
only what needs to be done, but also how.
6. Bureaucratic Leadership: Utilizes a “set list of responsibilities, as well as clearly defined
rules and systems” to manage others and make decisions.
7. Laissez-Faire Leadership: Instead of micro-management, uses a completely hands-off
approach by providing “necessary tools and resources” only and then letting staff members “make
decisions, solve problems, and get their work accomplished” on their own.
8. Charismatic Leadership: Uses charisma and conviction to unite a team around a shared
objective.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER
1. Vision
Perhaps the greatest quality any leader can have is vision - the ability to see the big picture of
where the organization or team they are working within is headed, what it's capable of, and what it
will take to get there.
2. Inspiration
Equally as important as having a vision is the ability to convey that vision to others, and get them
excited about it. This means maintaining a positive yet realistic presence within the organization
helping team members stay motivated and engaged, and remember what it is that they are working
for.
3. Strategic & Critical Thinking
A good leader will be able to think critically about the organization or team they work within, and
develop a clear understanding of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (and how
they as an individual can work to support or overcome these). They'll be able to course-correct
when necessary, and be able to assess the work they do to determine how it fits into overall
organizational strategy and goals.
4. Interpersonal Communication
Good leaders must be able to interact with other people in a way that feels genuine. This does not
mean you have to be an extrovert or a people-person to be a leader - there are many excellent
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leaders who self-identify as introverts! Rather, it means being able to demonstrate empathy,
engaging in active listening, and building meaningful working relationships with those around
you, whether they are a peer or a direct report.
5. Authenticity & Self-Awareness
One of the key ways to become a great leader is to be self-aware enough to understand your
strengths and your flaws, and to build an authentic leadership style that's true to who you are and
how you do your best work. You want to be the best possible leader you can be, not try to fit into
a mold set by someone else. Try to embrace the things that make you who you are, and that will
naturally translate into you developing an authentic leadership style.
6. Open-Mindedness & Creativity
Being a good leader means being open to new ideas, possibilities, and perspectives, and
understanding that there's no "right" way to do things. Leadership involves the knowledge that
success comes with a willingness to change how things are done and to bring in fresh eyes to
inspire new ideas, in addition to trying to think outside the box as much as possible. Leaders must
be able to listen, observe, and be willing to change course when necessary.
7. Flexibility
Leadership also means being adaptable and nimble when the situation calls for it. Nothing ever
goes according to plan - whether you encounter minor roadblocks or large obstacles, you will need
to be prepared to stop, reassess, and determine a new course of action. Good leaders will embrace
the ever-changing nature of business and meet challenges with a flexible attitude - and be able to
build inspire that same willingness to adapt in those around them.
8. Responsibility & Dependability
One of the most important qualities a leader can have is a sense of responsibility and
dependability. This means displaying those traits in your individual work, but also demonstrating
them in your interactions with others. Your team members need to know that they can depend on
you to take on your fair share of work and follow through, support them through tough times, and
help them meet both shared and individual goals.
9. Patience & Tenacity
A good leader knows how to take the long view, whether it's of a strategy, a situation, or a goal.
Being able to take on any bumps in the road and persist on without getting frustrated or defeated is
key—from small projects to corporate vision, patience is a trait that is essential to strong
leadership.
10. Continuous Improvement
True leaders know that perfection is a myth - there is always room for improvement on all levels,
from the personal to the team to the overall organization. They'll always be willing to help team
members find ways to develop new skills or improve upon a weakness, be able to identify and
implement strategies for helping the organization as a whole grow, and, perhaps most importantly,
be able to look inward and identify the areas they would like to work on - and then act on them.
FUNCTIONS OF LEADERSHIP
The major functions of a leader during their leadership are as follows:
1. Policy Making: The foremost function of a leader is to make a policy for the smooth running of
the work by the followers. The policy includes principles and rules for running the machinery of
teamwork. It also defines the course of action for effective delivery of contributions by the
followers. It is the function the leader to devise a working mechanism for the followers by

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considering various aspects the nature of the work so that the common goals can easily and
adequately be achieved.
2. Organizing: Another function of a leader is to organize the followers into a group to handle the
tasks collectively. This function is important for enhancing productivity of teamwork. Every
individual in a team has certain abilities. It is very important to bring all the individuals together to
make the best of their abilities. The leader brings together the followers in order to combine their
abilities to achieve the major task effectively.
3. Planning - goals and strategies: The leader sets goals; and plans strategies to achieve these
goals. The planning includes cost planning, time planning and human resource planning. The
purpose is to make a roadmap for the follower to keep them on the right track and to guide them
on how and when to utilize the resources to achieve goals.
4. Mobilization: The important function of a leader is mobilization - to engage followers in work.
Once a plan is made, the followers need to execute the planned strategies. It requires a leader to
help the followers to initiate and engage in the work to accomplish the goals in planned time and
resources. The leader encourages the follower to keep them going throughout the entire process of
goals accomplishment.
5. Direction and Guidance: A leader acts a guide who gives a direction to the followers and
keeps them on track to move in the right direction. The follower may face certain difficulty in the
process accomplishing certain task where they need the guidance their leader.
The leader offers constant guidance to the followers to help them make the best of their efforts.
6. Motivation: A leader is a constant source of motivation for the followers. The leader inspires
the followers to keep them going for long. The leader motivates them to raise their spirit towards
the attainment of the goals. The leader may also design various bonuses, appreciation certificates,
allowances and benefits for the motivation of followers.
7. Problem Solving: The leader solves the problems that arise at various stages. Some problems
are expected while some are unexpected. The leader has solutions and alternative strategic plans
for expected as well as unexpected problematic situations. The leader is always ready to face
challenging situations.
8. Group Representation: A leader serves as a representative of his followers. The group of
followers needs to have a representative to represent them while interacting with other groups and
individuals.
9. Controlling internal relationships - Arbitration and Mediation: For a good working
environment, there should be good relationships among the followers.
However, sometimes due to differences among the followers, some mutual conflicts may arise
among the followers which need to be resolved. The leader works as a mediator to resolve these
conflicts of followers and to help them reach a mutual agreement.
10. Controlling rewards and penalties: The followers receive various benefits or face penalties
on the basis of their performance. The purpose of these rewards and penalties is to motivate
followers or to refrain the followers from irresponsible behavior. The leader controls the awards
and penalties on the basis of the efficiency and productivity of the followers.
11. Role Model: A leader is a role model for his follower. The leader possesses all the qualities
and capabilities required for tackling various challenges. He has the perseverance to keep going
until the achievement of their objectives. Due to these qualities, he serves as a source of
inspiration for the followers. Leader is viewed as their ideal personality by the followers.

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12. Devising an ideology: An ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs and opinions which reflect the
crux of an endeavor. The followers require an ideology to follow. Without an ideology, an
endeavor is meaningless. The leaders devise the best ideology depending upon the nature of
endeavor undertaken by the followers and the goals to achieve.
13. Facilitation: The overall function of a leader is the facilitation of the followers. A leader
shapes the behaviors of the followers in order to facilitate them towards the accomplishment of the
planned tasks. The purpose of leadership is not only to direct the followers towards an action but
also to facilitate the followers in those actions either by guiding or involving personally with the
followers in those actions whenever required.
POLITICAL EXPRESSION
Political expressions encompass various (verbal or non-verbal) activities or inferences exchanged
to support an idea, person, or thing. Often, there are pros and cons that come with political
expressions presented in the workplace that can be treated as permitted or prohibited activities,
which may or may not disrupt the workflow as well. Also, federal and state regulations further
provide guidance for employers to consider when developing a policy.
The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) describes federal regulations when an activity may be
considered “protected” under law. Three rules apply to determine whether an activity (e.g.
political) is protected under the NLRA:
 Political activity occurs during non-working time and off the employer’s premises.
 On-duty political support related to a specifically identified employment concern (e.g.
Health Care Reform) is subject to restrictions imposed by lawful work rules.
 Leaving or stopping work to engage in political support may be subject to restrictions
imposed by lawful work rules. An employer cannot discipline or discharge employees who
leave work without permission if their walkout is for the purpose of obtaining some
improvement in their own working conditions from their employer who has control.
The above-noted activities can be viewed to be political in nature and permitted for employees to
engage in since the NLRA states employees have the right to engage in concerted activity.
However, union-related logos represented on campaign materials sometimes may or may not be
prohibited in regards to business practices (such as safety and personal protective equipment).
In addition, state laws also make it illegal to discriminate on the basis of an employee’s political
activity or affiliation. Employers have the right and responsibility to ensure that work
environments are safe, and free of hostility aimed at employees because of protected classification
such as race or gender.
Employer policies and best practices should...
 Prohibit political statements while working and interacting with customers, visitors, etc.
 Enforce dress codes on employees regarding pro-candidate items attire (e.g. buttons, pins,
ribbons, clothing), that affect business.
 Restrict access to social media and internet programs (email).
 Prohibit political fundraising or informational meetings within the workplace, as part of "no
solicitation/no distribution" rules.
 Discipline employees for leaving work to attend a rally or other political event (as opposed
to allowing for voting time leave).
 Train supervisors and managers on the company’s policy and what steps to take if they hear
or observe inappropriate workplace political debates that become intense.

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Although there are some companies that by the very nature of their businesses are politically
involved in campaigns and voter registration drives, many employers prefer to keep politics away
from business relations and practices. Many courts uphold restrictions but only on conduct that is
unlawful or demonstrably harmful to the employer’s legitimate business interests. Especially
during an election year, it is in every employer’s interest to develop and enforce a political
expression policy to ensure workplace productivity to be its finest and anti-discrimination to be at
its highest.

ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR
What is assertiveness?
Some people confuse assertiveness with aggression and think that to assert yourself is to adopt a
particular position in a disagreement, stand your ground and argue a point without compromise.
In fact, being assertive means communicating your needs, wants, feelings, beliefs and opinions to
others in a direct and honest manner, while at the same time being receptive to their needs and
without intentionally hurting anyone’s feelings.
Using direct communication can reduce conflict and enhance your personal and work
relationships, and build your self-confidence. It is helpful to imagine assertiveness as the middle
ground between aggression and passivity.
By following a few simple suggestions, you can learn the skills to be more assertive in your
relationships.
THE ADVANTAGES OF ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR
The use of aggressive behaviours, such as verbal or physical threats, may get you what you want
in the short term, but your relationships will suffer. On the other hand, passive behaviour can also
ruin relationships, because your own needs, wants and feelings are ignored in favour of avoiding
arguments.
The advantages of using assertive behaviour in all dealings with others include:
 your needs, wants and feelings are more likely to be understood
 both parties are more likely to feel respected and heard
 the relationship is strengthened by the exchange
 you experience fewer negative conflicts and arguments
 you feel in control of your own life
 your confidence and self-esteem are enhanced
 you have a better chance of getting what you really want.
ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOUR IS A LEARNED SKILL
Like any other skill, assertiveness takes time to learn. Suggestions include:
 Decide that you want to be assertive rather than aggressive or passive. Commitment to
change is a big step in the learning process.
 Think about a recent conflict where your needs, wants or feelings were not respected.
Imagine how you could have handled it in a more assertive way.
 Practise talking in an assertive way, alone or with a friend. Pay attention to your body
language and verbal cues as well as the words you say.
 Respect the wants, needs and feelings of others, and accept that their viewpoints may be
different to yours.
 Take a problem-solving approach to conflict, seeking solutions that will meet both sets of
needs. Try to see the other person as someone you are working with, rather than against.
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  Tell the other person honestly how you feel, without making accusations or trying to make
them feel guilty.
 Use assertive language such as ‘I feel…’ and ‘I think…’, which takes responsibility for and
explains exactly how you are feeling, rather than aggressive language such as ‘You
always…’ and ‘You…’, which blames the other and escalates conflict.
 Don’t interrupt the other person when they are talking. Try hard to listen and understand
their point of view. Ask the other person to show you the same respect and attention.
 Suggest to the other person that you brainstorm ways to solve the problem together.
 If the exchange doesn’t go well, learn from the experience and plan how you will do things
differently next time.
Assertive body language
When asserting yourself, suggestions include:
 look the person in the eye
 hold your body upright
 consciously relax your shoulders
 try to breathe normally and don’t hold your breath
 keep your face relaxed
 speak at a normal conversational volume (don’t yell or whisper).
Staying calm while being assertive
Despite your best efforts to be direct and calm, the other person will sometimes behave like you’re
having an argument and will want to yell, criticise and goad. This can make you feel like
responding in the same way. Suggestions for staying calm include:
 Breathe, and take your time to respond.
 Try not to take heat-of-the-moment criticisms to heart. (Remember that there may be other
issues motivating their behaviour.)
 Steer the conversation back to the original point and try to understand the other person’s
point of view.
 If the conversation is not going well, tell the person you’ll take up the subject again at
another time, and leave.
Afterwards, think about what you have learned from the experience. Try to think of ways you
might negotiate a similar scenario in the future.
Teaching children to be assertive
An assertive child is more likely to stand up for their rights in an appropriate way and less likely
to be bullied. Parents can teach their children how to act assertively.
Suggestions include:
 Use assertive behaviour yourself so your child can learn from example.
 Explain the difference between assertiveness, aggression and passivity.
 Role-play typical scenarios with them so they can practise being assertive.
 Notice whenever they handle a situation assertively and compliment them.
POLITICAL ADVOCACY
Policy advocacy means to actively engage in a particular issue area. With a focus on a particular
policy area, it can be effective as it involves more issue experts given their narrow focus. Policy
advocacy utilizes various platforms, such as social media, writing letters and emails to elected
officials, calling campaigns, or in-person engagements.

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Successful policy advocacy involves a few things. First, one must have a clear audience for their
campaign, such as swaying opponents to vote for an upcoming bill or striving for issue champions
to introduce new legislation. Then, create an organized content schedule with clear objectives,
such as educating new advocates or swaying opponents. Engage your audience on social media or
through advocacy platforms by providing meaningful recommendations on how to make a change
in policy. Once the audience gathers a network of like-minded individuals to support the cause, it
will give the policy momentum. Through legislative tracking of local, state, and federal affairs,
one can see how their campaign is being discussed and the progress it has made in the
government.
POLICY ADVOCACY RELATIONSHIP TO PUBLIC AFFAIRS
Policy advocacy is an important part of public affairs as it allows stakeholders to rally for their
ideas to the government, creating a change in the policy area they are interested in. Policy
advocacy relies on experts in a specific issue, making them most qualified to take a stand on a
particular perspective.
Policy advocacy creates a dialogue between stakeholders and government decision-makers by
creating proposals and recommendations to an existing policy that they have an interest in. For
example, one can personalize advocacy with a thank and shame campaign where an advocate
sends a targeted message to the legislator based on their votes or sponsorship of the legislation.
Examples of organizations involved in policy advocacy are Sierra Club and NAMI. Their public
affairs team is responsible for building a campaign, drafting content, and creating a network of
engaged followers in order to advocate on behalf of the issues their organizations care about.
Methods advocacy
 Lobbying or direct communication: involves influencing through direct, private
communications with decision-makers. Lobbying, particularly through personal meetings
with decision-makers, can be a powerful and cost-effective advocacy tool.
 Campaigning: involves speaking publicly on an issue with a view to generating a response
from the wider public and using a variety of techniques such as:
o chain e-mail or letter
o opinion pieces and letters to the editor in newspapers
o newsletters
o celebrity endorsements
o media partnerships with newspapers, journalists and film-makers
o web-based bulletins and online discussions
o public events
o large-scale advertising campaigns.
Principles of the Advocacy Charter
We work to the principles of the Advocacy Charter:
Clarity of purpose
We have clearly stated aims and objectives and are able to demonstrate how we meet the
principles in this Charter. We ensure everyone we work with knows what we can do, and what we
cannot do.
Independence
We are independent from the Council, from hospitals and other care providers. We make
challenges on our clients’ behalf when its needed.
Confidentiality
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We have a written confidentiality policy and make sure we take proper care of information about
you.
Person Centred Approach
In most cases, you decide what we do on your behalf. We have a clear way of supporting people
who cannot tell us what they want, to make sure their rights and interests are protected.
Empowerment
We encourage you to speak up for yourself, and to take action for yourself whenever we can. We
want to know what you think about our service and invite you to tell us.
Equal opportunity
We make sure anyone who needs an advocate from our service can get one, and be treated fairly
regardless of their culture, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, disability, age or religion.
We make sure everyone gets a fair portion of our advocates’ time.
Accountability
When we begin work with you, you will have a named advocate and a means of contacting them.
We will ask you to tell us what you think about our service. We will provide reports to our
Trustees, our funders and the general public about our service and how we are doing.
TYPES OF ADVOCACY
Advocacy involves promoting the interests or cause of someone or a group of people. An advocate
is a person who argues for, recommends, or supports a cause or policy. Advocacy is also about
helping people find their voice. There are three types of advocacy - self-advocacy, individual
advocacy and systems advocacy. The CED is involved in all areas of advocacy for people with
disabilities and their families.
Self-Advocacy
 Self-advocacy refers to an individual's ability to effectively communicate, convey, negotiate
or assert his or her own interests, desires, needs, and rights (VanReusen et al., 1994).
 Self-advocacy means understanding your strengths and needs, identifying your personal
goals, knowing your legal rights and responsibilities, and communicating these to others.
 Self-Advocacy is speaking up for oneself!
Individual Advocacy
In individual advocacy a person or group of people concentrate their efforts on just one or two
individuals. According to the group Advocacy for Inclusion "Advocacy is having someone to
stand beside you if you think something is unfair or that someone is treating you badly and you
would like to do something to change it."
There are two common forms of individual advocacy - informal and formal advocacy. When
people like parents, friends, family members or agencies speak out and advocate for vulnerable
people this is termed informal advocacy. Formal advocacy more frequently involves organizations
that pay their staff to advocate for someone or for a group of individuals.
Systems Advocacy
Systems advocacy is about changing policies, laws or rules that impact how someone lives their
life. These efforts can be targeted at a local, state, or national agency. The focus can be changing
laws, or simply written or unwritten policy. What is targeted depends on the type of problem and
who has authority over the problem (Brain Injury Resource Center, 1998).
What Are Advocacy Campaigns?
Advocacy campaigns are organized movements focused on influencing political change and
driving awareness around issues at the local, state, or national level. Most advocacy campaigns are
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 made up of a few leaders who organize a larger body of supporters. These leadership teams are
responsible for everything from contacting elected officials and holding rallies to informing the
public about the policies they seek to change.
Advocacy campaigns look different based on who is running them. For instance, there are
common misconceptions over the difference between grassroots activists and lobbyists:
 Lobbyists are a relatively small group of individuals that represent larger organizations or
businesses. In contrast to grassroots advocacy, direct lobbying occurs when a few members of
an organization ask an elected official to vote a specific way on a piece of legislation.
 Grassroots activists run movements made up of citizens to indirectly lobby elected officials.
Grassroots advocacy groups tend to emerge from groups of citizens that have concerns over
certain policies. Grassroots movements are rarely paid or backed by large corporations in the
same way lobbyists are. Some grassroots groups do receive support from corporate sponsors,
but this is usually with the intention of advancing a specific cause rather than the corporation’s
interests.
Influencing change is difficult, but advocacy campaigns can succeed in changing how elected
officials vote by rallying large groups of their constituents to express how specific pieces of policy
impact their lives. Successful advocacy campaigns have the potential to positively impact the lives
of
How to Plan Your Advocacy Campaigns
Grassroots advocacy campaigns require dedicated organizational practices to stay focused and
find success. This means advocacy groups that intend to run multiple advocacy campaigns will
need to keep careful track of their fundraising and resource allocation throughout the entirety of
their campaign.
Remember that even the most tightly run advocacy campaigns may not always accomplish all of
their goals. However, these advocacy groups do set themselves up for the best chance at future
success if they invest in their supporters, their technology, and tracking their campaigns’ data.
Advocacy campaigns have several stages and moving parts. This section will explore a few
fundamentals of how to plan an effective advocacy campaign, providing advice on how your
advocacy group can get your campaign started off on the right foot.
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
Political Participation is any activity that shapes, affects, or involves the political sphere.
Political participation ranges from voting to attending a rally to committing an act of terrorism to
sending a letter to a representative.
TYPES OF PARTICIPATION
1. Conventional Participation: Activities that we expect of good citizens. For most people,
participation occurs every few years at election time. People strongly committed to politics are
more likely to participate on a regular basis.
Example: Conventional political participation includes voting, volunteering for a political
campaign, making a campaign donation, belonging to activist groups, and serving in public
office.
2. Unconventional Participation: Activities that are legal but often considered inappropriate.
Young people, students, and those with grave concerns about a regime’s policies are most likely to
engage in unconventional participation.
Example: Unconventional political participation includes signing petitions, supporting
boycotts, and staging demonstrations and protests.
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3. Illegal Participation: activities that break the law. Most of the time, people resort to illegal
participation only when legal means have failed to create significant political change.
Example: Illegal political participation includes political assassination, terrorism, and
sabotaging an opponent’s campaign through theft or vandalism.
Barriers to political participation
 Poverty – poor people are mostly focused on survival activities; their basic needs often need
to be met first before they can participate, so they may have limited time or interest.
 Education – without information and knowledge, meaningful participation in politics can be
difficult.
 Social isolation – there is a limited network to support and encourage political participation.
 Personal factors – people may have limited confidence or motivation to participate.
 Stigma and discrimination – majority groups may have prejudices, fears and discomfort
towards people with disabilities and therefore may not support their participation.
 Lack of disability-friendly processes – access barriers can make it difficult for people with
disabilities to participate, e.g. inaccessible voting booths.
 Lack of role models – in many countries or communities there are few examples of people
with disabilities in high profile political positions.
 Legal barriers – in many countries people with disabilities are not permitted to vote, e.g.
people with mental health problems.
POLICY DEVELOPMENT AND INTERVENTION
POLICY DEVELOPMENT
Policy development in U.S. politics is the process undertaken by the government to meet needs,
protect rights, distribute resources, enforce laws, create laws, amend current law, provide well-
being, protect citizens, and any other national interest topic. There are numerous topics that public
policy can target. The purpose of public policy is to hold lawmakers and representatives
accountable in making laws that are essential to the public's wellbeing. One the lawmakers create
a law then it is the responsibility of government workers to enforce these laws or to carry out the
policy. Public policy impacts the majority, if not all, citizens in a nation. Public policy can impact
everyday life from minor events to more major or long-term events. Public policy is also heavily
affected by the political environment, too. Competing political parties or ideals will often clash on
how public policy should be directed and what resources should be used to fund operations
connected to public policy.
Public officials, government workers, and government organizations work together to produce
action in order to take on the challenge of public issues. Policy development can take a long time
to prepare, pass as a law, and execute into action. The political system is very fluid meaning
officials are often running for election and new office holders take critical roles in the policy
making process. The first development step usually begins with an issue or a problem that needs
to be resolved. Public policy is usually a reactionary event meaning policy is passed in response to
public needs or a problem. Government officials will usually address the issue first and tell the
public how it affects them. Then they will let the public know what is being, or will be, done to
help fix the issue. At last public officials and public organizations will create policy to address the
issue and take action to resolve it. Public policy takes many forms like creating a new national law
in Congress, passing a city ordinance in a small town, or the President issuing an executive order
that increases regulation.

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POLICY ISSUE: It means any topic or category that is a source of problems or conflict in the
public. Public policy issues refer to what the government is doing about policy issues. Policy
issues can also describe what the government is not doing in related to certain topics.
Here are some of the more popular, or controversial, policy issues the U.S. is facing today:
 Environmental protection  Education standards
 Economic concerns, especially inflation  Racial and social justice
 Foreign threats and national defense  Gun Rights or Gun control
 COVID-19 policies  Voting Right
POLICY INTERVENTION
Policy interventions involve any course of action, programme or activity taken or mandated by
national or international authorities and non-state actors. This includes, for instance, regulations,
market-based incentives, information schemes and the provision of infrastructure. Policy
interventions often address a variety of measures including technologies, processes, practices and
behaviour. Policy interventions, analyses learning opportunities from policy failures, addresses
multi-level governance interactions, and explores people’s motivation and cognitive biases to
adopt a more sustainable behaviour.
TYPES OF INTERVENTION
Interventions can be classified into two broad categories:
(1) preventive interventions are those that prevent disease from occurring and thus reduce the
incidence (new cases) of disease
(2) therapeutic interventions are those that treat, mitigate, or postpone the effects of disease, once
it is under way, and thus reduce the case fatality rate or reduce the disability or morbidity
associated with a disease. Some interventions may have both effects.
POLICY, POLITICKING AND LOBBY
POLICY
Policy is a law, regulation, procedure, administrative action, incentive, or voluntary practice of
governments and other institutions. Policy decisions are frequently reflected in resource
allocations. Health can be influenced by policies in many different sectors. For example,
transportation policies can encourage physical activity (pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly
community design); policies in schools can improve nutritional content of school meals.
POLICY PROFESSIONALS
According to Centre for Disease Control’s (CDC’s) policy professionals are guided by advanced
training not only in public health, economics, and formal policy analysis, but also in medicine,
law, nursing, life sciences, management, public administration, social work, international affairs,
geographic information systems, quantitative and qualitative research methods, and related
disciplines. Policy professionals provide knowledge of health systems, public health methods and
approaches, and strategy development. Policy professionals at CDC evaluate the results of various
public health efforts, make recommendations when change is warranted, and develop plans to
address perceived or real gaps between stakeholder expectations and the agency’s performance or
commitments. CDC policy staff also assess opportunities and risks; analyze issues, trends, and
program and human, operational and capital resource allocation; develop strategic partnerships;
facilitate policy analysis, formulation, intervention design, and evaluation; and conduct
performance and impact evaluation.
TYPES OF POLICY

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 a. Substantive and administrative policy: its concerned with the legislation, programs and
practices that govern the substantive aspects of community work. This dimension of policy
includes, for example, income security, employment initiatives, child care services and
social exclusion.
b. Vertical and horizontal policy: Substantive and administrative policy can be further
classified as vertical or horizontal policy. The former refers to policy that is developed
within the organization that has responsibility for its implementation.
c. Reactive and proactive policy: Policy can also be categorized as reactive or proactive.
Reactive policy emerges in response to a concern or crisis that must be addressed – health
emergencies and environmental disasters are two examples.
d. Current and future policy: Finally, there is yet another way to categorize various policies:
those that are currently on the public agenda and those that are not [Smith 2003: 10]. Issues
already on the public policy agenda (e.g., health care) often have high profile. A formal
process to amend or improve the existing arrangement generally is in place.
UNIQUE PURPOSE OF POLICY
Policy is a broad concept that embodies several different dimensions. The challenge is to articulate
in a comprehensible and cogent way the meaning of this term. In a nutshell, public policy seeks to
achieve a desired goal that is considered to be in the best interest of all members of society.
Examples include clean air, clean water, good health, high employment, an innovative economy,
active trade, high educational attainment, decent and affordable housing, minimal levels of
poverty, improved literacy, low crime and a socially cohesive society, to name a few.
These examples of broad societal goals are not intended to imply that all public policies are
directed toward the entire population. Sometimes policies deemed to promote the public interest
target only a certain group. Crime prevention policies are in place, for instance, to control the
behaviour of repeat offenders. Public health policies may require the forced treatment of
individuals with active tuberculosis. The intent of these public policies is to protect all members of
society by focusing upon a select few.
STEPS IN POLICY PROCESS
• Selecting the desired objective
• Identifying the target of the objective
• Determining the pathway to reach that objective
• Designing the specific program or measure in respect of that goal
• Implementing the measure and assessing its impact.
a. Selecting the desired objective
The first step in policy formulation is to determine the desired objective. Policy directives can
be understood as an expression of commonly accepted societal values – e.g., fairness and
equity are often cited as strong Canadian values. Public policy is basically shaped by and must
be consistent with these values
b. Identifying the appropriate target
The next step in the policy process is to identify the appropriate targets toward whom the
policy should be directed – the entire population or designated households or group that meet
certain criteria. The selected target is linked to the overall objective, which embodies within it
either a direct or indirect statement of who will or should be affected by the proposed measure.

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c. Determining the pathway
A third phase in the policy process is to determine from a range of options how best to reach
the specified objectives. This part of the work is often difficult and contentious. Few Caledon
Institute of Social Policy 11 oppose, for example, the need to reduce poverty or to improve the
quality of life in neighbour-hoods. But substantial debate can arise when it comes to selecting
the most appropriate route to achieve this goal. While the end may be clear, the means may be
hotly contested.
d. Designing the intervention
Finally, policy formulation does not end once a preferred route to the desired outcome has
been selected. There is typically considerable design work to be done after the approach has
been identified. In fact, it is at this point that the detailed work and tough decisions actually
begin.
e. Implementing the measure and assessing its impact
This paper does not focus upon the implementation or assessment of public policy – which are
complex processes that require their own discussion. But it is clear that implementation is
crucial to effectiveness, efficiency and consistency. A plan that may be excellent on paper
could end up being very different from its intent if not properly implemented. It may be too
slow, there may be too little investment for effective application or the policy may be
inconsistent with other objectives or measures.
POLITICKING
Is an activity undertaken for political reasons or ends, as campaigning for votes before an election,
making speeches, etc., or otherwise promoting oneself or one's policies. In other words,
politicking is the act of campaigning for an office. A senator up for reelection, shaking hands and
kissing babies is an example of politicking. It means a political activity, especially to win support
for oneself. Negative politicking it’s a political campaigning in which a Politian or party focuses
on criticizing another Politian or party rather than emphasizing their own positive qualities.

LOBBYING
Lobbying is when an individual or a group tries to persuade someone in Parliament to support a
particular policy or campaign. Lobbying can be done in person, by sending letters and emails or
via social media.
TYPES OF LOBBYING
 Direct Lobbying: Any attempt to influence legislation through communication with: (i) Any
member or employee of a legislative body, or (ii) any government official or employee (other
than a member or employee of a legislative body) who may participate in the formulation of
the legislation, but only if the principal purpose of the communication is to influence
legislation. A communication with a legislator or government official will be treated as a direct
lobbying communication, if, but only if, the communication: (i) refers to specific legislation,
and (ii) reflects a view on such legislation.
 Grassroots Lobbying: An attempt to influence legislation through an attempt to affect the
opinions of the general public or any segment of the public. A communication with the general
public will be treated as a grassroots lobbying communication if, but only if, it (i) refers to and

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 reflects a view of specific legislation and (ii) encourages the recipient of the communication to
take action with respect to such legislation by one of the following means:
o Stating that the recipient should contact legislators or other government employees who
may participate in the formulation of legislation for the purpose of influencing legislation;
o Stating a legislator’s address, phone number, or similar information;
o Providing a petition, tear-off postcard, or similar material for the recipient to send to a
legislator; or
o Specifically identifying one or more legislators who will vote on legislation as opposing
Duke’s view on the legislation, being undecided about the legislation, being the recipient’s
representative in the legislature, or being a member of the legislative committee that will
consider the legislation. (Merely naming the main sponsor(s) of the legislation for purposes
of identifying the legislation will not constitute encouraging the recipient to take action.)
 Legislation: Action by the United States Congress, any state legislature, any local council, or
similar legislative body, or by the public in a referendum, ballot initiative, constitutional
amendment, or similar procedure. It does not include actions by administrative bodies, such as
school boards, housing authorities, zoning boards, or similar bodies.
 Lobbying: Any attempt to influence “legislation” on Duke’s behalf through “direct lobbying”
or “grassroots lobbying.”
 Specific legislation: Legislation that has already been introduced in a legislative body as well
as a specific legislative proposal that may not have been introduced.
LOBBYING EXCEPTIONS
The Internal Revenue Service has recognized several narrow but useful lobbying exceptions
for:
o Non-partisan legislative analysis, study or research which is purely educational in nature;
available to the public, governmental bodies, officials, and employees; and does not advocate
(expressly or implicitly) the adoption or rejection of legislation. Note that non-partisan
analysis, study, or research may advocate a particular position or viewpoint as long as there is a
sufficiently full and fair exposition of the pertinent facts to enable the public or an individual to
form an independent opinion or conclusion. However, non-partisan analysis may be deemed to
be lobbying if it is later used to influence specific legislation.
o Communications in response to an official request for technical advice or assistance, such
as requested testimony before a legislative committee.
o Appearances before or contacts with legislative bodies with respect to a possible action that
might affect Duke’s existence, its powers and duties, its tax-exempt status, or the deductibility
of contributions to it (as opposed to possible actions that merely may affect the scope of the
organizations future activities).
EXAMPLES OF LOBBYING
The Internal Revenue Service has provided several examples to illustrate the boundaries or what
qualifies as lobbying (and therefore must be reported as noted above).
o An officer of Duke writes to a Member of Congress urging him or her to vote against an
amendment that will be offered during the debate on a bill. This constitutes lobbying because it
states a view about specific legislation.

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o A member of the faculty visits a Member of Congress and requests on behalf of Duke that he
sponsor model legislation proposed by a professional society. This constitutes lobbying
because it refers to and reflects a view on a specific legislative proposal, although no bill has
been introduced.
o A group of faculty conduct a research project collecting information on the dangers of the use
of pesticides. They produce and publish a report that presents the advantages, disadvantages,
and economic costs of current patterns of pesticide use and significantly reduced levels of
pesticides. The report concludes that the costs outweigh the benefits and recommends that
legislation should be adopted to control the use of pesticides. This does not constitute lobbying
because it presents information on both sides of the issue and presents a full and fair exposition
of the facts that will enable the reader to form an independent judgment.
o An officer of Duke contacts a Member of Congress requesting that she write to an Executive
Branch agency concerning proposed regulations issued by that agency. This communication
does not constitute lobbying because it does not reflect a view on specific legislation.

67 Note by Mr. Sa’ad Mohammad Kamaldeen

This note is not for sale