SWK GEOGRAPHY NOTES CLASS 11

Chapter 12

The World Climate and

Climate Change
Koeppen’s Climate Classification

• Koeppen’s Classification of climate is the most commonly used

classification of climate.

• This climate classification scheme was developed by Wladimir

Peter Koeppen in 1884.

• He recognized a close relationship between the distribution of

vegetation and climate.

• The categories are based on the data of annual and monthly

averages of temperature and precipitation.

• He selected specific values of temperature and precipitation and

related them to the distribution of vegetation and used these values
for classifying the climates.

• The Koeppen climate classification system recognizes five major

climatic types and each type is designated by a capital letter- A, B,
C, D, E, and H.

• The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w,

and s.

◦ f -no dry season

◦ m – Monsoon climate

◦ w- Winter dry season

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◦ s – Summer dry season

• The small letters a, b, c, and d refer to the degree of severity of

temperature.

The capital letters: A, C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry

climates.

The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small

letters, based on seasonality of precipitation and temperature
characteristics.

The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters : f, m, w

and s, where f corresponds to no dry season

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The above mentioned major climatic types are further subdivided

depending upon the seasonal distribution of rainfall or degree of
dryness or cold.

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a: hot summer, average temperature of the warmest month over

22°C

c: cool summer, average temperature of the warmest month under

22°C

f: no dry season

w: dry season in winter

s: dry season in summer

g: Ganges type of annual march of temperature; hottest month

comes before the solstice and the summer rainy season.

h: average annual temperature under 18°C

m (monsoon): short dry season

The capital letters S and W are employed to designate the two

subdivisions of dry climate:

1. semi-arid or Steppe (S) and

3. arid or desert (W).

Capital letters T and F are similarly used to designate the two

subdivisions of polar climate

1. tundra (T) and

3. icecap (F).

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Koppen Climate Classification

• Koppen’s Group-A climates are found in the unbroken belt around

the Earth at low latitudes, typically within 15° North and South.

• Group A climates are regulated largely by the seasonal variations

of the trade winds, the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ),
and the Asian monsoon.

Group A: Tropical Humid Climates

• Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic

of Capricorn.

• Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone makes the climate hot and humid.

• The annual range of temperature in this region is very low whereas

the annual rainfall is high.

• The tropical group is divided into three types. They are:

◦ Af – Tropical wet climate

◦ Am – Tropical monsoon climate

◦ Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate

Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

• Tropical wet climate is seen near the equator.

• The chief areas that lie in this climate are

: ◦ Amazon Basin in South America

◦ Western Equatorial Africa ◦ The islands of East Indies

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• A substantial amount of rainfall occurs in every month of the year.

• These regions receive thundershowers in the afternoon.

• The temperature is uniformly high.

• The annual range of temperature is negligible.

• The maximum temperature during daytime is about 30°C whereas

the minimum temperature is about 20°C.

• The region is bestowed with Tropical evergreen forests and large

biodiversity.

Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

• Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over:

◦ The Indian sub-continent

◦ North Eastern part of South America

◦ Northern Australia

• These regions receive heavy rainfall in summer.

• Winter in this area seems to be dry

Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)

• Tropical wet and dry climate is found in north and south of

Tropical Wet Climate (Af) type climate regions.

• It borders with Cf or Cw on the eastern part and dry climate on

the western part of the continent.

Extensive Aw climate is found in

◦ Sudan

◦ South of Central Africa

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◦ North and South of the Amazon forest in Brazil

◦ Connecting parts of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America

• The annual rainfall in Tropical Wet and Dry Climate is significantly

less than that in Af and Am climate types.

• The wet season is shorter in this region.

• The dry season is longer with the drought being more severe.

• The diurnal ranges of temperature are extreme in the dry season.

• Temperature is high throughout the year.

• Deciduous forest and tree-shredded grasslands main flora found

in this region.

Group B: Dry Climates

The Group-B Climates of Koppen’s Climate Classification are Dry

Climates

• These arid and semiarid climates cover about a quarter of the land
surface of the Earth.

• This region lies between 50° North and 50° South.

• But these regions are predominantly seen in the 15–30° latitude

belts in northern and southern hemispheres.

• These regions have intense solar radiation and clear skies.

• These regions experience

◦ Low precipitation

◦ Great variability in precipitation from year to year

◦ Low relative humidity

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◦ High evaporation rates

• Dry climates are divided into:

◦ Steppe or semi-arid climate (BS)

◦ Subtropical steppe (BSh)- Latitudes from 15° – 35°

◦ Mid-latitude steppe (BSk)

◦ Desert climate (BW)

◦ Subtropical desert (BWh) – Latitudes between 35°- 60°

◦ Mid-latitude desert (BWk)

Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert (BWh) Climates

Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) have common

temperature and precipitation characteristics.

• The maximum temperature in this region in summer is very high.

• The annual and diurnal ranges of temperature are also high.

• The highest temperature of 58°C was recorded at Libya in 1922 at

Al Aziziyah.

• This region is positioned in the transition zone between dry

climates and humid.

• Subtropical steppe region receives slightly more rainfall than the

subtropical desert which is sufficient enough for the growth of
meager grasslands.

• The rainfall in both the climates is highly variable.

• Rain occurs in short intense thundershowers in deserts and is

futile in building soil moisture.

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• The inconsistency in the rainfall distresses the life in the steppe

much more than in the desert, more frequently causing famine.

• Fog is common in coastal deserts neighbouring cold currents.

Group C-Warm Temperate

Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates stretch from 30° – 50° of

latitude mainly on the western and eastern margins of continents.

• These climates usually have warm summers with mild winters. •

They are classified into four types:

1. Humid subtropical – Cwa

2. Mediterranean Climate – Cs

3. Humid subtropical climate – Cfa

4. Marine west coast climate – Cfb

Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)

The Humid subtropical climate is found in the poleward of Tropic of

Cancer and Capricorn.

This climate is predominantly found in the North Indian plains and

interior plains of South China.

The Humid Subtropical Climate is similar to Tropical Wet and Dry

Climate (Aw) climate excluding that the temperature in winter is
warm

Mediterranean Climate (Cs)

• Mediterranean climate is found around Mediterranean sea, along

the west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes between 30° –
40° latitudes

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• The climate is predominantly found in the

◦ Central Chile

◦ Central California

◦ Along the coast in South Eastern

◦ South Western Australia

• These areas come under the influence of westerly wind in winter

and sub-tropical high in summer.

• Therefore, the climate is characterized by hot, dry summer and

mild, rainy winter.

• The monthly average temperature in winter below 10°C and in

summer is around 25° C.

• The annual precipitation ranges from 35 – 90 cm

Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa)

• The Humid subtropical climate is found in the Eastern parts of the

continent lying in the subtropical latitudes.

• In this area, the air masses are usually uneven and cause rainfall
throughout the year.

• This Climate is found in:

◦ The Eastern United States of America

◦ Southern and eastern China

◦ Southern Japan

◦ North-eastern Argentina

◦ Coastal South Africa

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◦ Eastern coast of Australia

• The annual average of precipitation stretches from 75-150 cm.

• Frontal precipitation in winter and thunderstorms in summer are

usual.

• The average monthly temperature in winter it differs from 5°-12°

C and in summer is about 27°C.

Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)

• Marine west coast climate is situated poleward from the

Mediterranean climate on the west coast of the continents.

• The main areas are:

◦ North-western Europe

◦ West coast of North America

◦ North of California

◦ Southern Chile

◦ South-eastern Australia

◦ New Zealand • The temperature is moderate and in winter, it is

warmer than for its latitude due to marine influence.

• The mean temperature in winter 4°-10°C and in summer months

ranges from 15°-20°C.

Group D-Cold Snow Forest Climates

Cold snow forest climate is found in the large continental area in the
northern hemisphere between 40°-70° North latitudes.

• The regions lying in this climate are:

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◦ Europe ◦ Asia

◦ North America

• Cold snow forest climates are divided into two types:

◦ Df- cold climate with humid winter.

◦ Dw- cold climate with dry winter.

• The severity of winter is more pronounced in higher latitudes.

Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df)

• Cold climate with humid winters is found in the poleward of mid-

latitude steppe and marine west coast climate.

• The winters are snowy and cold.

• The frost-free season is short.

• The annual ranges of temperature are high.

• The weather changes are unexpected and short.

• Poleward, the winters are extreme.

Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)

• Cold climate with dry winter mainly found over North-Eastern Asia.

• Precipitation occurs in summer.

• The annual precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.

• The progress of pronounced winter anticyclone and its weakening

in summer sets in the monsoon-like reversal of the wind in this area.

• Poleward summer temperatures are poorer and winter

temperatures are very low with several locations experiencing below
freezing point temperatures.

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Group E - Cold Climates

• Group E climates are regulated by the polar and arctic air masses
of high latitudes which lie above 60° North and South latitudes.

Polar Climates (E)

• Polar climates are found in the poleward beyond 70° latitude

. • Polar climates consist of two types:

◦ Tundra (ET)

◦ Ice Cap (EF)

Tundra Climate (ET)

• The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the types of vegetation,

such as lichens, low-growing mosses, and flowering plants.

• The regions experiencing this climate are:

◦ Mount Rainier

◦ Macquarie Island

◦ Crozet Islands

◦ Campbell Island

◦ Kerguelen Islands

◦ Prince Edward Islands

• This is the region of permafrost.

• The subsoil in this region is permanently frozen.

• The waterlogging and short growing season support only low

growing plants.

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• The tundra regions have a very long period of daylight during

summer.

Ice Cap Climate (EF)

• The ice cap climate (EF) found in the interior Greenland and
Antarctica.

• The regions experiencing this climate are:

◦ Vostok Station, Antarctica ◦ Mount Ararat, in Turkey

◦ Mount Everest

◦ Scott Base, Antarctica

◦ Summit Camp, Greenland

◦ Plateau Station, Antarctica

• The temperature is below freezing point even in summer.

• This region receives very little precipitation.

• The ice and snow get amassed and the increasing pressure causes
the deformation of the ice sheets and they break.

• These broken pieces move as icebergs and float in the Antarctic

and Arctic waters

Group H-Highland Climates

• Group H climate contains all highland areas not easily categorized

by other climate types.

• Highland climates are dominated by topography.

• In high mountains, large changes in average temperature occur

over short distances.

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• Precipitation types and intensity of the precipitation also differ

spatially across highlands.

• There is vertical zonation of layering of climatic types with

elevation in the mountain environment

What is Climate Change?

Climate change refers to changes in average weather conditions of a

given area observed over an extended period of time.

The term Climate change was used by World Meteorological

Organization in the 1960s to refer to climate variability observed on
a time scale of over 10 years irrespective of causes, but in later
years the term became associated with human-induced changes in
weather patterns.

Climate Change, which is today a cause for worry, has been

evidenced by rising temperatures since the mid-20th century,
retreating glaciers and melting of polar ice caps, increased
frequency of extreme weather events such as droughts, heavy
rainfall, cyclones, heat waves etc.

Causes

Factors that shape climate are called climate forcing . These could
be grouped into natural and anthropogenic Natural Causes

Biotic processes: Processes pertaining to living beings shape and

influence water cycle and nutrient cycles (Carbon, nitrogen etc.) and
thereby shape climate. For instance glaciation in the past occurred
on earth with the evolution of plants that depleted atmosphere of
Carbon dioxide (using it in photosynthesis)

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• Variations in solar radiation received by Earth: Sunspot cycle

(periodic variation in the number of sunspots) amounts to changes in
incoming solar radiation that have a bearing on climate.

• Plate tectonics: The location of continents and seas across the

globe has a bearing on ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation
which brings about the meridional transfer of heat. Changes in these
dynamics can induce climate changes

• Volcanic eruptions: These inject sulfate aerosols into the

atmosphere which induce cooling by reflecting solar radiations.

• Variations in the Earth's orbit: Changes in earth s axial tilt

cause changes in incident solar radiation and result in climate
change.

• Changes in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents,

atmosphere, and oceans

Anthropogenic causes

• Emissions of Greenhouse gases: Build-up of heat-trapping gases

such as CO2, Water vapour, HFCs, Nitrous oxides etc in the
atmosphere is a major factor behind rising global temperatures and
consequent climate variability. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
has increased from 288 ppm in 1870 to 404 ppm (2016).

• The World Resource Institute (WRI) in its report estimates that

the world produces 31,000 million tonnes of Carbon dioxide every
year and the earth naturally assimilates 17,500 mt of CO2 annually,
leaving a substantial amount of CO2 to accumulate in the
atmosphere.

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• Ozone depletion: Caused by the release of ODS (Ozone depleting

substances) used in refrigerants, coolants, sprays, dyes and paints
etc

• Agriculture and Animal Husbandry

• Deforestation: Clearing of forests has removed natural carbon

sinks and facilitated an increase in CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere. Deforestation has also adversely impacted rainfall
patterns in monsoon regions.

Impact of Climate Change

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Global Warming

Average surface temperature has risen by 0.95 degree Celsius since

1880 (as per NOAA). NASA records show that the world witnessed
16 of its hottest years post year 2000. Current levels of Emissions,
global temperatures are predicted to rise by up to 5.4%. Scientists
have also observed that spring seasons now begin early and last
longer causing disruptions in ecology and economy (agriculture,
fisheries etc.).

Sea Level Rise and Glacier Retreat

Each ton of CO2 emitted is known to melt 32 square feet of arctic

ice. Globally sea levels have risen by 8 to 9 inches since 19th
Century. Arctic ice caps have reduced from nearly 3 million square
miles to less than 2 million square miles. Further ice melts could
raise sea levels to dangerous degrees leading to coastal submergence
and displacements. In addition to this, Himalayan glaciers have lost
21-30% of their cover in the last 40 years (CSE).

Climate-related disasters

Average number of climate-related disasters such as droughts,

floods, cyclones and heat waves etc. has tripled since 1980 from an
average of 218 to 700 in 2016. Researchers have observed that
warming of 0.85 degree Celsius in the present day is responsible for
75% of daily heat extremes and 18% of precipitation extremes. If
global temperature rises by 2 degree Celsius, 40 percent of rainfall
extremes would then be a result of anthropogenic climate
disruptions

Impact on Biosphere

47 percent of species are reported to have gone extinct due to

human-induced climate change and many have come under stress.

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Rising temperatures have caused a reduction in plant and animal

populations, distress migrations, coral bleaching and die-offs.

Self-reinforcing

Increasing temperatures have caused an increase in demand for

cooling appliances refrigerants, air conditioners etc. Energy use for
cooling is predicted to witness a 90% jump on 2017 levels which is
likely to reinforce global warming by raising CO2 concentrations in
the atmosphere by nearly 2.5 Gt by 2050.

On civilization

A renowned epidemiologist, McMichael in his book Climate Change

and health of nations observes that novel infectious disease could
appear in future due to cross-species microbial traffic in response
to climate change. He cites Kawasaki disease occurring in Japan as
an example and states that change in wind patterns could widen the
geographical range of the disease affecting greater number of
people in near future, thus threatening human civilization. One may
note here that collapse of Mesopotamian and Harappan Civilizations
is also often associated with climate change.

Impact on India Climate

• Warming of Tibetan plateau is associated with the instability of

western winds resulting in variability in western Disturbances. This
changes the pattern of winter rainfall witnessed in northern and
north-western India.

• The Indian Ocean is showing signs of large warming as compared to

suppressed warming of the Indian subcontinental landmass. This will
result in weakening of summer monsoons.

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• By 2100, the temperature in tropics might rise by more than 4

degree Celsius.

• IMD study shows a rise of about 1 degree Celsius in mean

temperatures in the Himalayan cold arid zone since 1950.

Agriculture and Food security

• Temperature rise beyond the biological limit for food crops could
spell agrarian crisis and jeopardize food security in the country.

• Declining yield: By 2030, a 10 percent drop in rice yield is expected

in South Asia. By 2050, this will impact wheat and maize

• Fish catch is expected to reduce by 60 percent owing to habitat

destruction and fish migrations

Economy

• Agriculture is the mainstay of economy employing nearly 50% of

the population, the country s economy will come under stress due to
climate change. The Economic Survey points out that climate change
could cause a 25% drop in agricultural incomes in the next 7
decades.

• Fiscals will come under stress due to rising spate of disasters and
disease burden.

Others

• The rise in water stress

• Resource conflicts

• Displacements

• Impoverishment

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What is Global Warming?

Global warming is the phenomenon
of gradual increase in temperature
near the Earth’s surface. This
phenomenon has been observed over
the past one or two centuries. This
change has disturbed the climatic pattern of the earth. However,
the concept of global warming is quite controversial. But, the
scientists have provided relevant data in support of the fact that
the temperature of the Earth is rising constantly.

There are several causes of global warming which have a negative

effect on human, plant and animal lives. These causes may be natural
or might be the outcome of human activities. In order to curb the
issues, it is very important to understand the negatives of global
warming

Causes of Global Warming

Following are the major causes of global warming: Man-made Causes

of Global Warming

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Deforestation

Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide
and release oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. The
forests are being depleted for many domestic and commercial
purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance thereby giving
rise to global warming

. Use of Vehicles

The use of vehicles even for very short distances results into
various gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a
large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere
resulting in a temperature increase

Chlorofluorocarbon

With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators,

humans have been adding CFCs into the environment which affects
the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth
surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The
CFCs has led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet
rays, thereby increasing the temperature of the earth.

Industrial Development

With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth

has been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the
factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth. In 2013,
the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the
increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been
0.9 degrees Celcius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celcius when
compared to the preindustrial mean temperature.

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Agriculture

Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas.

These add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase
the temperature of the earth.

Overpopulation

Increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an

increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing
global warming, in the atmosphere

Natural Causes of Global Warming

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global

warming. The ash and smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes
out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.

Water Vapour

Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in

earth’s temperature more water gets evaporated from the water
bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.

Melting Permafrost

Permafrost is there where glaciers are present. It is a frozen soil

that has environmental gases trapped in it for several years. As the
permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the atmosphere
increasing the earth’s temperature.

Forest Blazes

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Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-

containing smoke. These gases are released into the atmosphere and
increase the earth’s temperature resulting in global warming

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:

Rise in Temperature

Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s

temperature. Since 1880, the earth’s temperature has increased by
1.4 degrees. This has resulted in an increase in melting of glaciers
which have led to an increase in the sea levels. This could have
devastating effects on coastal regions.

Threat to the Ecosystem

Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to a loss
of plant and animal lives. Increase in global temperatures has made
the fragility of coral reefs even worse.

Climate Change

Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are

droughts at some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance
is the result of global warming

Spread of Diseases

Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and

humidity. This has led to the movement of mosquitoes that carry and
spread diseases.

Decrease in the Human Population

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Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities,

the population of humans tend to decrease. Also, the spread of
diseases leads to a decrease in the human population.

Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several

plants and animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from
their natural and many of them even get extinct. This is yet another
major impact of global warming on biodiversity

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