ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Function of the
1 Hormones 2 Endocrine System

Disorders of the
3 The Glands 4 Endocrine System
 Endocrine System
is a complex network of glands
and organs. It uses hormones to control
and coordinate your body's metabolism,
energy level, reproduction, growth and
development, and response to injury,
stress, and mood.
 1
Hormones
 ABOUT HORMONES
The term hormone comes from the
Greek word hormao, meaning, “I excite.”
Hormones are chemical messengers
secreted by endocrine glands with
specialized functions in regulating the
activities of specific cells, organs, or both.
Three different classes of hormones
based on their chemical composition:
1. Amines, such as norepinephrine, epinephrine,
and dopamine, are derived from single amino
acids. Amines are hormones derived from amino
acids, the building blocks of protein.

2. Peptides and protein hormones consist of 3 to

more than 200 amino acid residues. All hormones
secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide
hormones.
Three different classes of hormones
based on their chemical composition:
3. Steroid hormones are converted from their
parent compound, cholesterol. Steroid hormones
can be grouped into five groups by the receptors
to which they bind: glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and
progestogens.
Other Hormones Produced in the Body
Prostaglandins are secreted
from the various tissues
throughout the body.

Neurohormones are produced

and release by the neurons in
the brain.

Leptin is secreted by the fat

cells in adipose tissue. Acts to
suppress appetite and burn
Ghrelin is produced by the fat.
stomach and is an appetite
stimulant. It appears to be the
wake-up call to eat.
 2
Function of the
Endocrine System
 The Endocrine System

The hypothalamus of the brain (nervous

system) sends directions via chemical signals
(neurohormones) to the pituitary (endocrine
system). The secretions of the pituitary gland then
send chemical signals or messengers in the form
of hormones, stimulating other endocrine glands
to secrete their unique hormones. The hormones
thus produced coordinate and direct the activities
of target cells and target organs.
 Negative Feedback
Negative feedback occurs when
there is a drop in the blood level of a
specific hormone. This drop triggers
a chain reaction of responses to
increase the amount of hormone in
the blood.
Negative Feedback of the Thyroid gland
The blood level of The hypothalamus in
the brain gets the
thyroxine falls.
message.

The hypothalamus This goes to the anterior

responds by sending a pituitary gland, which
release hormone for responds by releasing
TSH. TSH.

TSH stimulates the Thyroxine blood level

thyroid gland to rises, which in turn causes
produce thyroxine. to shut off the release of
TSH.
 3
The Glands
The Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is a tiny structure
that is located at the base of the brain with
the sella turcica, a small depression in the
sphenoid bone. It is also divide into an
anterior lobe and a posterior lobe.

The pituitary gland is known as the master

gland because of its major influence on the
body’s activities.
Pituitary Gland
Anterior Pituitary Lobe
1. Growth hormone (GH) (or somatotropin) is
responsible for growth and development. This hormone
also helps fat to be used for energy, saving glucose, and
helping maintain blood sugar levels.

2. Prolactin hormone (PR), also called lactogenic

hormone (LTH), develops breast tissue and stimulates
the production of milk after childbirth. The function in
males is unknown.
Anterior Pituitary Lobe
3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the
growth and secretion of the thyroid gland.
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the
growth and secretion of the adrenal cortex.

5. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the

growth of the graafian follicle and the production of
estrogen in females, and stimulates the production of
sperm in males.
Anterior Pituitary Lobe
6. Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the growth of
the graafian follicle, the production of estrogen, and the
formation of the corpus luteum after ovulation, which
produces progesterone in the female.

Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH). It is

necessary for the production of testosterone by the
interstitial cells of the testes in men.
Intermediate Lobe
Stimulates the melanocytes to produce melanin in skin.
Posterior Pituitary Lobe
1. Vasopressin converts to antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
in the bloodstream. ADH maintains the water balance
by increasing the absorption of water in the kidney
tubules.

2. Oxytocin is released during childbirth. Promotes milk

ejection and causes contraction of the smooth muscles
of the uterus.
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid and Parathyroid
Gland
The thyroid and parathyroid glands
are located in the neck, close to the cricoid
cartilage ( or the “Adam’s apple”). The
thyroid regulates body metabolism, The
parathyroid maintains the calcium-
phosphorus balance.
 Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped
mass of tissue located in the anterior part of
the neck. The thyroid gland has a rich blood
supply. In fact, it has been estimated that
about 4 to 5 liters of blood pass through the
gland every hour.
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland secretes three
hormones:

1. Thyroxine (T4)
2. Triiodothyronine (T3)
3. Calcitonin
Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine
Thyroxine controls the rate of metabolism, heat
production, and oxidation of all cells, with the possible
exception of the brain and spleen cells. The functions of
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are as follows:

1. Controls the rate of metabolism in the body: how

cells use glucose and oxygen to produced heat and
energy.
Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine
Thyroxine controls the rate of metabolism, heat
production, and oxidation of all cells, with the possible
exception of the brain and spleen cells. The functions of
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are as follows:

2. Stimulates protein synthesis and thus help in tissue

growth

3. Stimulate the breakdown of liver glycogen to glucose

 Calcitonin
It controls the calcium ion concentration in the body by
maintaining a proper calcium level in the bloodstream.

When blood calcium levels are higher that normal,

calcitonin secretion is increased. Calcitonin lowers the calcium
concentration in the blood and body fluids by decreasing the
rate of bone resorption (osteoclastic activity) and by increasing
the calcium absorption by bones (osteoblastic activity).
 Parathyroid gland
The parathyroid glands, usually four in number,
are tiny glands the size of grains of rice. These are
attached to the posterior surface of the thyroid gland,
and secrete the hormone parathormone.
Parathyroid gland
 Parathyroid gland
The parathyroid glands, usually four in number,
are tiny glands the size of grains of rice. These are
attached to the posterior surface of the thyroid gland,
and secrete the hormone parathormone.

Parathormone, like calcitonin, also controls the

concentration of calcium in the bloodstream. When the
blood calcium level is lower than normal, parathormone
secretion is increased.
 Thymus Gland
The thymus gland is an endocrine gland that is located
under the sternum, anterior and superior to the heart.

Research has discovered that the thymus gland secretes a

large number of hormones. Thymosin, helps stimulate the
lymphoid cells that are responsible for the production of T cells.
The thymus gland is critical to the development of the immune
system.
Thymus Gland
 Adrenal Gland
The two adrenal glands are located on the top of each
kidney. Each gland has two parts: the cortex and the medulla.
The hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are known as
corticoids.

One of the primary functions of the adrenal glands is to control

electrolyte levels of the body. The corticoids are also very
effective as anti-inflammatory drugs.
Adrenal Gland
 Adrenal Gland
The cortex secretes three groups of corticoids, each of which is
of a great importance:
1. Mineralocorticoids, mainly aldosterone, affect the kidney
tubules by speeding up the reabsorption of sodium into the blood
and increasing the excretion of potassium from the blood.

2. Glucocorticoids, namely, cortisone and cortisol, increasing the

amount of glucose in the blood. This is done by the conversion of
protein and fats to glycogen into glucose. This is done by (1) the
conversion of proteins and fats to glycogen in liver, followed by
(2) breakdown of the glycogen into glucose.
 Adrenal Gland
The cortex secretes three groups of corticoids, each of
which is of a great importance:

3. Androgens are male sex hormones that,

together with similar hormones from the gonads,
bring about masculine characteristics; however,
they are present in both men and women.
Medulla of the Adrenal Gland

The medulla of the adrenal gland secretes

epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine. The
adrenal medulla responds to the sympathetic
nervous system. The hormones produced referred
to as the fight-or-flight hormones.
 Gonads
The gonads, or sex glands, includes the
ovaries in the females and the testes in the male.
The ovary is responsible for producing the
hormone estrogen and progesterone.
The testes are responsible for producing
sperm and the hormone testosterone.
 Pancreas
The pancreas is located behind the stomach
and functions as both an exocrine and an
endocrine gland. The exocrine portion secretes
pancreatic juices. The endocrine portion is
involved in the production of insulin by the B
(beta cells) of the islets of Langerhans.
 Pancreas
B cells produce insulin, which (1) promotes
the utilization of glucose in the cells, necessary
for maintenance of normal levels of blood
glucose, (2) promotes fatty acid transport and fat
deposition into cells; (3) promotes amino acid
transport into cells; (4) facilitates protein
synthesis.
 Pancreas
The A (alpha cells) secretes the hormone
glucagon. The action of glucagon may be
antagonistic or opposite to that of insulin. This is
done by stimulating the conversion of liver
glycogen to glucose. The control of glucagon
secretion is achieved by negative feedback.
Pancreas
 Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is a small, pinecone-shaped

organ attached by a slim stalk to the roof of the
third ventricle in the brain.
Pineal Gland
 Pineal Gland
The hormone produced by the pineal gland is
called melatonin. The pineal gland is stimulated
by a group of nerve cells, called the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), located in the
brain over the pathway of fibers of the optic
nerve.
 3
Disorders of the
Endocrine System
 Endocrine Gland Disturbances
Most disturbances result from (1)
hyperactivity of the glands, or (2) hypoactivity of
the gland.
 Pituitary Disorder

Hyperfunction of Pituitary
1. Gigantism
2. Acromegaly
 Pituitary Disorder

Gigantism
- An overgrowth of the long bones leading to
excessive tallness.
Pituitary Disorder
 Pituitary Disorder

Acromegaly
- This is an overdevelopment of the bones of the
face, hands, and feet.
Pituitary Disorder
 Pituitary Disorder
Hypofunction of Pituitary
- Hypofunctioning of the pituitary gland during
childhood leads to pituitary short stature (formaly
known as dwarfism).
Pituitary Disorder
 Pituitary Disorder

Diabetes Insipidus
- A disorder caused by posterior lobe dysfunction.
In this condition, there is a drop in the amount of
ADH, which causes an excessive loss of water
and electrolytes.
 Pituitary Disorder

Polydipsia
- is the medical definition of excessive thirst.
Excess thirst is an abnormal urge to drink fluids
at all times.
 Thyroid Disorder

Hyperthyroidism
- Cases of hyperthyroidism are due to an
autoimmune disorder known as Grave’s disease.
 Thyroid Disorder
Goiter
- Enlargement of the thyroid gland

Exophthalmos
- Bulging of the eyes, dilation of the pupil, and
wide-opened eyelids.
Thyroid Disorder
 Thyroid Disorder

Hypothyroidism
- Is a condition in which the thyroid gland does
not secrete sufficient thyroxine (hyposecretion).
Hashimoto’s disease – autoimmune disease
 Thyroid Disorder

1. Myxedema
- The face become swollen, weight increase, and
initiative and memory failure.
Thyroid Disorder
 Thyroid Disorder
2. Cretinism
- Developing early in infancy or childhood,
characterized by a lack of mental and physical
growth, resulting in mental retardation and
malformation.
Thyroid Disorder
 Thyroid Disorder

Thyroid cancer
- Is the most common cancer of the endocrine
system. It affects more women than men.
Diagnosed in the early stages, survival rates are
between 90% and 100%.
Thyroid Disorder
 Parathyroid Disorders

Hyperfunctioning of the parathyroid

1. Kidney stones
2. Deformity
 Parathyroid Disorders

Hypofunctioning of the parathyroid

Hypocalcemia or tetany – severely diminished
calcium level affects normal function of nerves.
Convulsive twitching develops, and the afflicted
person dies of spams in the respiratory muscles.
 Adrenal Disorders
Pheochromocytoma
- Is a tumor of the adrenal gland that causes an
excessive secretion of epinephrine, which may be
fatal. This tumor is not cancerous and must be
removed.
 Adrenal Disorders
Pheochromocytoma
- Is a tumor of the adrenal gland that causes an
excessive secretion of epinephrine, which may be
fatal. This tumor is not cancerous and must be
removed.
Adrenal Disorders
 Adrenal Disorders

Cushing’s syndrome
- Results from hypersecretion of glucocorticoid
from the adrenal cortex. This hypersecretion may
be caused by an adrenal cortical tumor.
Adrenal Disorders
 Adrenal Disorders
Hypofunctioning of the Adrenal cortex leads to
Addison’s disease.
 Pancreatic Disorder

Diabetes mellitus
- Is a condition caused by the decreased secretion
of insulin from islets of the Langerhans cells or
by the ineffective use of insulin.
 Pancreatic Disorder
Two types of diabetes:

1. Type 1
- also known as juvenile diabetes, is usually
exhibited in children and young adults.
 Pancreatic Disorder
Symptoms of Type 1 diabetes
• Polyuria – excessive urination
• Polydipsia – excessive thirst
• Polyphagia – excessive hunger
• Weight loss
• Blurred vision
• Possible diabetic coma
 Pancreatic Disorder

2. Type 2 diabetes
- is a lifelong disease that keeps your body from
using insulin the way it should. People with type
2 diabetes are said to have insulin resistance.
 Pancreatic Disorder
Characteristics and Symptoms for Type 2
diabetes
• Gradual onset
• Most common in adults over age 45
• Feelings of tiredness or illness
• Frequent urination, especially at night
• Unusual thirst
• Frequent infection and slow healing of sores