Example : 1

Find the domain and the range of the following functions

1
(a) y= 1− x 2 (b) y = 2 sin x (c) y=
x−2
Solution
(a) For domain : 1 – x2 ≥ 0
⇒ x2 ≤ 1
⇒ –1≤x≤1
Hence the domain is x set [–1, 1].
For range : As –1≤x≤1
⇒ 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 1
⇒ 0 ≤ 1 – x2 ≤ 1
⇒ 0≤ 1− x 2 ≤ 1
⇒ 0≤y≤1
Hence the range is set [0, 1]
(b) y = 2 sin x
For domain : x ∈ R i.e. x (–∞, ∞)
For range : – 1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
– 2 ≤ 2 sin x ≤ 2
–2≤y≤2
Hence the range is y ∈ [–2, 2]
(c) As denominator cannot be zero, x can not be equal to 2
domain is x ∈ R – {2}
i.e. x ∈ (–∞ , 2) (2, ∞)
Range : As y can never become zero, the range is y ∈ R – {0}
i.e. y ∈ (–∞, 0) (0, ∞)

Example : 2
Find the domain of the following functions :
1 1
(a) 3 − x + log x (b) x+ | x | (c) 1 − log10 x
10

Solution
(a) 3 − x is defined if 3 – x ≥ 0
⇒ x≤3 ............(i)
1
log10 x is defined if x > 0 and x ≠ 1
⇒ x > 0 – {1} ............(ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), set of domain is :
x ∈ (0, 1) ∪ (1, 3]
(b) f(x) is defined if : x + |x| ≠ 0
⇒ |x| ≠ – x ⇒ x>0
Hence domain is x ∈ (0, ∞)
(c) f(x) is defined if
1 – log10x ≥ 0 and x>0
⇒ log10x ≤ 1 and x>0
⇒ x ≤ 10 and x>0
⇒ domain is x ∈ (0, 10]

Example : 3
(Using factorisation) Evaluate the following limits :

lim x − 2 x − 4 lim x − a lim x − 625

3 3 3 4
(a) x →2 x 2 − 3 x + 2
(b) x →a x 2 − ax
(c) x →5 x 3 − 125

Page # 1.
Solution

lim x − 2 x − 4 = lim ( x − 2)( x + 2x + 2) = lim x + 2x + 2 = 10

3 2 2
(a) x →2 x 2 − 3 x + 2 x →2 ( x − 2)( x − 1) x →2
x −1

lim x − a = lim ( x − a)( x + ax + a ) = lim x + ax + a = 3a

3 3 2 2 2 2
(b) x →a x 2 − ax x →a x( x − a ) x →a
x

x 4 − 54
lim x − 625 = lim
4
x−5 4 .5 3 20
(c) x →5 x − 125
3 x →5 x − 5
3 3 = = [using section 2.2 (ix)]
3 .5 2 3
x−5

Example : 4
(Using rationalisation) Evaluate the following limits :

3x + 7 − 4 a + 2x − 3 x 3
x −1
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
x →3 x +1− 2 x →a 3a + x − 2 x x →1
x2 − 1
Solution

3x + 7 − 4
(a) lim
x →3 x +1− 2
Rationalising the numerator and denominator,

3 x + 7 − 16 ⎛ x +1+ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
= xlim
→3 ⎜ 3x + 7 + 4 ⎟
x + 1− 4 ⎝ ⎠

3( x − 3 ) ⎛ x +1+ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
= xlim ⎜ 3x + 7 + 4 ⎟
→3 x−3 ⎝ ⎠

x +1 + 2 ⎛2+2⎞ 3
= 3 xlim =3 ⎜ ⎟ =
→3 3x + 7 + 4 ⎝ 4 + 4 ⎠ 2
(b) Rationalising numerator and denominator we get,

a + 2x − 3 x ⎛ 3a + x + 2 x ⎞
⎜ ⎟
= xlim
→a 3a + x − 4 x ⎜ a + 2x + 3 x ⎟
⎝ ⎠

a−x ⎛ 3a + x + 2 x ⎞ ⎛2 a +2 a ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟
= xlim ⎜ a + 2x + 3 x ⎟ = 3 ⎜ 3a + 3a ⎟ = 3 3
→a 3(a − x ) ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 2 1 ⎞
⎜ x 3 − 1⎟⎜ x 3 + x 3 + 1⎟
1
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
(c) lim x 3 − 1 = lim ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
x →1
x −1
2 x →1 ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
( x 2 − 1)⎜ x 3 + x 3 + 1⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

( x − 1) 1
lim =
x →1 ⎛ 2 1 ⎞ 6
( x − 1)( x + 1)⎜ x 3 + x 3 + 1⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Page # 2.
Example : 5
(x → ∞ type problems) Evaluate the following limits :

lim x − 2x + 3 x + 1 lim 1 + 2 + 3 + ........ + n

3 2 2 2 2 2
lim x 2 + 3 x + 1 + 5x
(a) x →∞
(b) n→ ∞
(c) x →∞
5 x 3 + 7x + 2 n3 1 + 4x
Solution
In these type of problems, divide numerator and denominator by highest power of x.
(a) Dividing numerator and denominator by x3

2 3 1
1− + 2 + 3
x x x 1
= xlim 7 2 =
→∞ 5+ 2 + 3 5
x x

1 1 1
[because as x → ∞, , , ......... → 0]
x x2 x3

lim 1 + 2 + 3 + ........ + n
2 2 2 2
(b) n→ ∞
n3

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= nlim
→∞ 6n3

1 lim ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= ⎜1 + ⎟ ⎜ 2 + ⎟
6 n → ∞ ⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠

1 1
= (1 + 0) (2 + 0) =
6 3
(c) The highest power of x is 1. Hence divide the numerator and denominator by x.

lim x 2 + 3 x + 1 + 5x
x →∞
1 + 4x

3 1
1+ + +5
x x2 1+5 3
= xlim
→∞ 1 = =
+4 0+4 2
x

Example : 6
(∞ – ∞ form) Evaluate the following limits :

( ( x + 2a)(2x + a) − x 2 )
lim
(a) x→
π (sec x – tan x) (b) lim (c) lim ⎛⎜ x − x 2 + x ⎞⎟
2 x →∞ x →∞ ⎝ ⎠
Solution
lim lim sec 2 x − tan 2 x
(a) π (sec x – tan x) = π
x→ x→
2 2 sec x + tan x

lim 1
π =0
x→
2 sec x + tan x

(b) lim
x →∞
( ( x + 2a)(2x + a) − x 2 )
Rationalising the expression, we get

( x + 2a)(2x + a) − 2x 2
lim
x →∞ ( (x + 2a)(2x + a) + x 2 )
Page # 3.
 5ax + 2a 2
= xlim
→∞
2x 2 + 5ax + 2a 2 + x 2
Dividing numerator and denominator by x, we get

2a 2
5a +
x 5a
= xlim
→∞ 2
=
5a 2a 2 2
2+ + 2 + 2
x x

(c) lim ⎛⎜ x − x 2 + x ⎞⎟
x →∞ ⎝ ⎠
On rationalising the expression, we get

x 2 − (x 2 + x) −x
= xlim
→∞
= xlim
→∞
x + x2 + x x + x2 + x

Divide by the highest power of x i.e. x1

−1 −1 1
= xlim
→∞
= =–
1+ 1+
1 1+ 1 2
x
Example : 7

⎛ sin x ⎞
⎜ u sin g lim = 1⎟ Evaluate the following limits :
⎝ x →0 x ⎠

lim tan x − 3 lim sin(cos x ) cos x

(a) π (b) π
x→ x→
9x − π 2 sin x − cos ecx
2 2
3

a sin x − x sin a
(c) lim cos x − cos a (d) lim
x →a x−a x →a ax 2 − a 2 x
Solution

π
lim tan x − 3 lim tan x −
(a) π = π 3
x→ x→
3 9x 2 − π2 3
9x 2 − π2

sin( A − B)
Using tan A – tan B = we get,
cos A cos B

⎛ π⎞
sin⎜ x − ⎟
lim ⎝ 3 ⎠ 1 1 ⎛ sin θ ⎞ 2
x→
π = ⎜ u sin g lim = 1⎟ =
3 π π π
3 cos cos ( π + π) ⎝ θ → 0 θ ⎠ 3π
cos x cos (3x − π)(3x + π)
3 3 3

lim sin(cos x ) cos x lim sin(cos x )

(b) π = x→ π
x→
2 sin x − cos ecx 2 cos x

lim cos 2 x lim cos 2 x sin x ⎛ sin θ ⎞

x→
π = 1 × x→ π ⎜ u sin g lim = 1⎟
2 sin x − cos ecx 2 sin 2 x − 1 ⎝ θ → 0 θ ⎠

lim
=– π (sin x) = – 1
x→
2

Page # 4.
 ⎛ x+a⎞ ⎛x−a⎞
− 2 sin⎜ ⎟ sin⎜ ⎟
(c) lim cos x − cos a lim ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
x →a x−a x →a ⎛x−a⎞
2×⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛ x−a⎞
sin⎜ ⎟
⎛x+a⎞ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= – xlim
→a
sin ⎜ ⎟ lim ⎛ x − a ⎞ = – sin a
⎝ 2 ⎠ x →a ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

a sin x − x sin a
(d) lim
x →a ax 2 − a 2 x

a sin x − x sin x + x sin x − x sin a (a − x ) sin x + x(sin x − sin a)

= xlim = xlim
→a ax( x − a) →a ax( x − a)

⎛x+a⎞ ⎡ ( x − a) ⎤
2 cos⎜ ⎟ ⎢ sin 2 ⎥
(a − x ) sin x sin x − sin a sin a ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢ ⎥
= xlim + lim = – + lim
⎢ ( x − a) ⎥
→a ax( x − a) x →a a( x − a) a2 x →a 2a
⎣⎢ 2 ⎦⎥

sin a cos a
= +
a2 a

Example : 8

⎛ ⎞
⎜ u sin g lim a − 1 = log a ⎟
x

⎜ x →0 x ⎟ Evaluate the following limits :

⎝ ⎠

lim 2 − 2
x
lim e
x
−e a
(a) x →1
(b) x →a
x −1 x−a

lim 6 − 2 − 3 + 1
x x x
lim 3 − 5
x x
(c) x →0
(d) x →0
sin 2 x x
Solution
x −1
lim 2 − 2 = 2 lim 2 − 1 = 2 log 2
x
(a) x →1 x →1
x −1 x −1

a⎛
x
−e a e ⎜ e x − a − 1⎞⎟
(b) lim e = xlim ⎝ ⎠
x →a →a
x−a x −a

x− a
a lim e − 1 lim x− a
= e x →a
x − a x →a x−a

( x − a) e a
(1) xlim
( )
a
= e =
→a ( x − a) x+ a 2 a

Page # 5.
 lim 6 − 2 − 3 + 1
x x x
(c) x →0 sin 2 x

lim (2 x − 1)3 x − 1) x2
= x →0
x2 sin2 x

2
2 x − 1 lim 3 x − 1 lim ⎛ x ⎞
= xlim ⎜ ⎟ = loge2 loge2
→0 x →0 x →0
x x ⎝ sin x ⎠

⎡ 3 x − 1 5 x − 1⎤
lim 3 − 5 = lim ⎢
x x 3
(d) − ⎥ = log 3 – log 5 = log
x →0 ⎢ x
x →0
x ⎣ x ⎦⎥ 5

Example : 9

⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢u sin g lim (1 + x ) x = e⎥ Evaluate the following limits :
⎢⎣ x →0 ⎥⎦

1
(a) lim (b) lim xcotπx
x →0 (1 − 2x ) x x →1

Solution
−2
⎛ −1 ⎞
lim
1
lim ⎜ (1 − 2x ) 2 x ⎟
(a) x →0 (1 − 2x ) x
= x →0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

( x −1) cot πx
⎡ 1 ⎤

(b) lim xcotπx lim

= x →1 ⎢ 1 + x − 1) x −1 ⎥
x →1 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

1− x 1 π − πx 1
lim ( x −1) cot πx
lim lim ⎛ tan θ ⎞
= e x →1 = e
x →1 tan( π − πx )
= e
x →1 π tan( π − πx )
= e π ⎜ u sin g lim = 1⎟
⎝ θ → 0 θ ⎠

Example : 10
Show that the limit of :

⎧2 x − 1 ; x ≤ 1
f(x) = ⎨ at x = 1 exists
⎩ x ; x >1
Solution

Left hand limit = xlim

→1−
f(x) = xlim
→1−
(2x – 1) = 2 – 1 = 1
(we use f(x) = 2x – 1 Q while calculating limit at x = 1, we approach x = 1 from LHS i.e. x < 1)

Right hand limit = xlim

→1+
f(x) = xlim
→1+
(x) = 1
⇒ L.H.L. = R.H.L. = 1. Hence limit exists

Page # 6.
Example : 11
Find whether the following limits exist or not :

(a) lim sin 1 (b) lim x sin 1

x →0 x x →0 x
Solution
1
(a) As x → 0, →∞.
x
As the angle θ approaches ∞ , sin θ oscillates by taking values between – 1 and + 1.
1
Hence xlim
→0
sin is not a well defined finite number.
x
⇒ limit does not exist

(b) lim x sin 1 = lim x lim sin 1

x →0 x x →0 x →0 x
= 0 × (some quantity between – 1 and + 1) = 0
1 1
It can be easily seen that xlim
→0 +
x sin = xlim
→0 −
x sin =0
x x
Hence the limit exists and is equal to zero (0)

Example : 12
Comment on the following limits :

(a) lim [x – 3] (b) lim | x |

x →1 x →0 x
Solution

(a) Right Hand limit = xlim

→1+
[x – 3]

= hlim
→0
[1 + h – 3] = hlim
→0
[h – 2]
= – 2 (because h – 2 is between – 1 and – 2)

Left hand limit = xlim

→1−
[x – 3]

= hlim
→0
[1 – h – 3] = hlim
→0
[–2 – h]
= – 3 (because – h – 2 is between – 2 and – 3)
Hence R.H.L. ≠ L.H.L.
⇒ limit does not exist.
|x| −x
(b) Left hand limit = xlim
→0 −
= xlim
→0 −
=–1
x x

|x| x
Right hand limit = xlim
→0 +
= xlim
→0 + x
=+1
x
Hence R.H.L. ≠ L.H.L.
⇒ limit does not exist

Example : 13
Find a and b so that the function :

⎧ π
⎪ x + a 2 sin x ; 0≤x<
4
⎪⎪ π π
f(x) = ⎨ 2x cot x + b ; ≤x≤
⎪ 4 2
⎪a cos 2x − b sin x ; π < x ≤ π
⎩⎪ 2

Page # 7.
 is continuous for x ∈ [0, π]
Solution
At x = π/4
π
Left hand limit = lim− f(x) = lim− (x + a 2 sin x) = +a
π π 4
x→ x→
4 4

π
Right hand limit = lim+ f(x) = lim+ (2x cot x + b) = +b
x→
π
x→
π 2
4 4

⎛π⎞ ⎛π⎞ π π
f ⎜ ⎟ = 2 ⎜ ⎟ cot +b= +b
⎝ ⎠
4 ⎝ ⎠
4 4 2
for continuity, these three must be equal
π π π
⇒ +a= +b ⇒ a–b= .............(i)
4 2 4
At x = π/2
Left hand limit = lim− (2x cot x + b) = 0 + b = b
π
x→
2

Right hand limit = lim+ (a cos 2x – b sin x) = – a – b

π
x→
2

⎛π⎞
f ⎜ ⎟ =0+b
⎝2⎠
for continuity, b = – a – b
⇒ a + 2b = 0 ............(ii)
π π
Solving (i) and (ii) for a and b, we get : b = – ,a=
12 6

Example : 14
A function f(x) satisfies the following property f(x + y) = f(x) f(y). Show that the function is continuous for all
values of x if it is continuous at x = 1
Solution
As the function is continuous at x = 1, we have
lim f(x) = lim− f(x) = f(1)
x →1− x →1

⇒ lim f(1 – h) = lim f(1 + h) = f(1)

h→0 h→0

using f(x + y) = f(x) f(y), we get

⇒ lim f(1) f(–h) = lim f(1) f(h) = f(1)

h→0 h→0

⇒ lim f(–h) = lim f(h) = 1 ..............(i)

h→0 h→0

Now consider some arbitrary point x = a

Left hand limit = hlim

→0
f(a – h) = hlim
→0
f(a) f(–h)

= f(a) hlim
→0
f(–h) = f(a) ............. using (i)

Right hand limit = hlim

→0
f(a + h) = hlim
→0
f(a) f(h)

= f(a) hlim
→0
f(h) = f(a) ............. using (i)
Hence at any arbitrary point (x = a)
L.H.L. = R.H.L. = f(a)
⇒ function is continuous for all values of x.
Page # 8.
Example : 15

⎧1 + x ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
f(x) = ⎨
⎩3 − x ; 2 < x ≤ 3
Determine the form of g(x) = f(f(x)) and hence find the point of discontinuity of g, if any
Solution

⎧ f (1 + x ) ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
⎧1 + x ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 ⎪
g(x) = f(f(x)) = ⎨ = ⎨ f (1 + x ) ; 1 < x ≤ 2
⎩3 − x ; 2 < x ≤ 3 ⎪f ( 3 − x ) ; 2 < x ≤ 3
⎩
Now x ∈ [0, 1] ⇒ (1 + x) ∈ [1, 2]
x ∈ (0, 2] ⇒ (1 + x) ∈ (2, 3]
x ∈ (2, 3] ⇒ (3 – x) ∈ [0, 1)
Hence

⎧ f (1 + x ) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 ⇒ 1 ≤ x + 1 ≤ 2
⎪
g(x) = ⎨ f (1 + x ) for 1 < x ≤ 2 ⇒ 2 < x + 1 ≤ 3
⎪f (3 − x ) for 2 < x ≤ 3 ⇒ 0 ≤ 3 − x < 1
⎩
Now if (1 + x) ∈ [1, 2], then f(1 + x) = 1 + (1 + x) = 2 + x ...........(i)
[from the original definition of f(x)]
Similarly if (1 + x) ∈ (2, 3), then
f(1 + x) = 3 – (1 + x) = 2 – 2 .............(ii)
If (3 – x) ∈ (0, 1), then
f(3 – x) = 1 + (3 + x) = 4 – x .............(iii)

⎧2 + x ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
⎪
Using (i), (ii) and (iii), we get g(x) = ⎨2 − x ; 1 < x ≤ 2
⎪4 − x ; 2 < x ≤ 3
⎩
Now we will check the continuity of g(x) at x = 1, 2
At x = 1

L.H.L. = xlim
→1−
g(x) = xlim
→1−
(2 + x) = 3

R.H.L. = xlim
→1+
g(x) = xlim
→1+
(2 – x) = 1
As L.H.L., g(x) is discontinuous at x = 1
At x = 2

L.H.L. = xlim
→2 +
g(x) = xlim
→2 −
(2 – x) = 0

R.H.L. = xlim
→2 +
g(x) = xlim
→2 +
(4 – x) = 2
As L.H.L. ≠ R.H.L., g(x) is discontinuous at x = 2

Example : 16

⎧ e1/ x − 1
⎪ ; x≠0
Discuss the continuity of f(x) = ⎨ e + 1
1/ x
at the point x = 0
⎪ 0 ; x=0
⎩
Solution
1
−1
lim e − 1 = 0 − 1 = – 1
t
ex
LHL = xlim = t→
→0 − 1 −∞ e t + 1 0 +1
ex +1

Page # 9.
 1
−t
ex −1 et − 1
RHL = xlim = tlim = lim 1 − e
→0 + 1 →∞ e t + 1 t →∞ 1 + e − t
ex +1

1− 0
⇒ R.H.L. = =1
1+ 0
⇒ L.H.L. ≠ R.H.L. ⇒ f(x) is discontinuous at x = 0

Example : 17
Discuss the continuity of the function g(x) = [x] + [–x] at integral values of x.
Solution
Let us simplify the definition of the function
(i) If x is an integer :
[x] = x and [–x] = – x ⇒ g(x) = x – x = 0
(ii) If x is not integer :
let x = n + f where n is an integer and f ∈ (0, 1)
⇒ [x] = [n + f] = n
and [–x] = [–n – f] = [(–n – 1) + (1 – f)] = – n – 1
(because 0 < f < 1 ⇒ 0 , (1 – f) < 1)
Hence g(x) = [x] + [–x] = n + (–n – 1) = – 1

⎧0 , if x is an int eger
So we get : g(x) = ⎨
⎩− 1 , if x is not an int eger
Let us discuss the continuity of g(x) at a point x = a
where a ∈ Ι

L.H.L. = xlim
→a −
g(x) = – 1
Q as x → a– , x is not an integer

R.H.L. = xlim
→a +
g(x) = – 1
as x → a+ , x is not an integer
but g(a) = 0 because a is an integer
Hence g(x) has a removable discontinuity at integral values of x.

Example : 18
Which of the following functions are even/odd?

ax − 1 ⎛ 1+ x ⎞
(a) f(x) = (b) f(x) = x log ⎜ ⎟
a +1
x
⎝ 1− x ⎠

⎛ ⎞
f(x) = log ⎜ x + x + 1 ⎟
2
(c) f(x) = |x| (d)
⎝ ⎠
Solution

a −x − 1 1− ax
(a) f(–x) = = = – f(x) ⇒ f(x) is odd
a−x + 1 1+ ax

−1
⎛ 1− x ⎞ ⎛ 1− x ⎞ ⎛ 1+ x ⎞
(b) f(–x) = – x log ⎜ ⎟ = x log ⎜ ⎟ = x log ⎜ ⎟ = f(x)
⎝ 1+ x ⎠ ⎝ 1+ x ⎠ ⎝ 1− x ⎠
⇒ f(x) is even
(c) f(–x) = |–x| = |x| = f(x)
⇒ f(x) is even

Page # 10.
 ⎛ 1+ x2 − x2 ⎞
⎛ − x + 1+ x2 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ x + x 2 + 1⎞
(d) f(–x) = log ⎜ ⎟ = log ⎜ ⎟ = – log ⎜ ⎟ = – f(x)
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ x + 1+ x
2
⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⇒ f(x) is odd.

Example : 19
Which of the following functions are periodic ? Give reasons
(a) f(x) = x + sin x (b) cos x
2
(c) f(x) = x – [x] (d) cos x
Solution
If a function f(x) is periodic, then there should exist some positive value of constant a for which
f(x + a) = f(x) is an identity (i.e. true for all x)
The smallest value of a satisfying the above condition is known as the period of the function
(a) Assume that f(x + a) = f(x)
⇒ x + a + sin (x + a) = x + sin x
⇒ sin x – sin (x + a) = a

⎛ a⎞ a
⇒ 2 cos ⎜ x + ⎟ sin =–a
⎝ 2⎠ 2

⎛ a⎞ a
⇒ 2 cos ⎜ x + ⎟ sin = – a
⎝ 2⎠ 2
This cannot be true for all values of x.
Hence f(x) is non-periodic
(b) Assume that f(x + a) = f(x)
⇒ cos x + a = cos x

⇒ x + a = 2np ± x

⇒ x+a ± x = 2nπ

⇒ 2x + a ± 2 x 2 + ax = 4n π
2 2

⇒ 2x ± 2 x 2 + ax = 4n π – a
2 2

As this equation cannot be an identity, 3 f(x) is non-periodic

(c) Assume that f(x + a) = f(x)
⇒ x + a – [x + a] = x – [x]
⇒ [x + a] – [x] = a
This equation is true for all values of x if a is an integer hence f(x) is periodic
Period = smallest positive value of a = 1
(d) Let f(x + a) = f(x)
⇒ cos2 (x + a) = cos2x
⇒ cos2 (x + a) – cos2x = 0
⇒ sin (2x + a) sin (a) = 0
this equation is true for all values of x if a is an integral multiple of π
Hence f(x) is periodic. Period = smallest positive value of a = π

Example : 20
n
Find the natural number a for which ∑ f (a + k ) = 16(2
k =1
n
– 1) where the function f satisfies the relation

f(x + y) = f(x) f(y) for all natural numbers x, y and further f(1) = 2.
Solution
Since the function f satisfies the relation f(x + y) = f(x) f(y)
It must be an exponential function.

Page # 11.
 Let the base of this exponential function be a.
Thus f(x) = ax
It is given that f(1) = 2. So we can make
f(1) = a1 = 2 ⇒ a=2
Hence, the function is f(x) = 2x ..........(i)
[Alternatively, we have
f(x) = f(x – 1 + 1) = f(x – 1) f(1) = f(x – 2 + 1) f(1) = f(x – 2) [f(1)]2 = .............. = [f(1)]x = 2x]
Using equation (i), the given expression reduces to :
n

∑2
k =1
a+k
= 16 (2n – 1)

⇒ ∑2
k =1
a
. 2k = 16 (2n – 1)

⇒ 2 a ∑2
k =1
k
= 16 (2n – 1)

⇒ 2a (2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + ..............+ 2n) = 16 (2n – 1)

⎡ 2(2n − 1) ⎤
⇒ 2 ⎢ 2 − 1 ⎥ = 16 (2n – 1)
a
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⇒ 2a+1 = 16 ⇒ 2a+1 = 24
⇒ a+1=4 ⇒ a=3

Example : 21
Evaluate the following limits :

1
3− x tan3 x − 3 tan x x 4 sin + x2
lim 3 + 3 − 12
x
(i) (ii) lim (iii) lim x
x →2 3 3− x
−3 x/2 x→π / 3 ⎛ π⎞ x → −∞
1+ | x 3 |
cos⎜ x + ⎟
⎝ 6⎠
Solution

lim 3 x + 3 3 − x − 12
(i) Let L = x →2
3 3− x − 3 x / 2

27
3x + − 12
3x
⇒ L = xlim 27
→2 − 3x / 2
3x

3 2 x − 12.3 x + 27
⇒ L = xlim
→2 (3 x / 2 )3 − 3 3

(3 x − 9)(3 x − 3)
⇒ L = xlim
→0 (3 x / 2 − 3)(3 x + 9 + 3.3 x / 2 )

(3 x / 2 + 3)(3 x − 3)
⇒ L = xlim
→2 ( 3 x + 3. 3 x / 2 + 9 )

6 .6 36 4
⇒ L= = =
9 + 3 .3 + 9 27 3

Page # 12.
 tan3 x − 3 tan x π
(ii) lim
Let L = L = x→ and x– =t
π/3 ⎛ π⎞ 3
cos⎜ x + ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠

⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
tan3 ⎜1 + ⎟ − 3 tan⎜ t + ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
⇒ L = tlim
→0 ⎛ π ⎞
cos⎜ t + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

⎡ ⎛ π⎞ ⎤
tan(3t + π) ⎢3 tan 2 ⎜1 + ⎟ − 1⎥
⇒ L = tlim ⎣ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎦
→0
− sin t

− tan( 3t ) lim ⎡3 tan 2 ⎛ t + π ⎞ − 1⎤

⇒ L = tlim . t →0 ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
→0 − sin t ⎣ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎦

tan( 3t ) 1 ⎡ 2⎛ π⎞ ⎤
⇒ L = 3 tlim × tlim × tlim ⎢3 tan ⎜1 + ⎟ − 1⎥
→0 3t → 0 sin t → 0
⎣ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎦
⇒ L = 3 × 1 × 1 × 8 = 24

1
x 4 sin + x2
(iii) Let L = xlim x
→−∞
1 + | x3 |

Divided Numerator and Denominator by x3 to get

1
sin
1
x sin + x 2 x +1
x 1/ x x
L = xlim
→−∞ 1 = 1 ( − x )3 (Q for x < 0, |x3| = – x3)
+|x|3
+
x3 x3 x3

→ (1)+ → (0)
⇒ L = xlim =–1
→−∞ → (0) + ( −1)

Example : 22

⎧ π
⎪(1+ | sin x | <x<0
a /|sin x|
;
⎪ 6
Let f(x) = ⎨ b ; x=0
⎪ tan 2 x
π
⎪ e tan 3 x ; 0<x<
⎩ 6

Determine a and b such that f(x) is continuous at x = 0

Solution
Left hand limit at x = 0

⎡ a ⎤
L.H.L. = xlim f(x) = lim ⎢ (1+ | sin x |)|sin x| ⎥
→0 − x →0 − ⎣ ⎦

⇒ L.H.L. = hlim
→0
f(0 – h)

⎡ a ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⇒ L.H.L. = hlim ⎢ (1+ | sinh |)|sinh| ⎥ = ex ⎢u sin g : lim(1 + t ) t = e⎥
→0
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ t →0 ⎥⎦
Page # 13.
 Right hand limit x = 0
tan 2 x
R.H.L. = xlim
→0 +
f(x) = xlim
→0 + e
tan 3 x

⇒ R.H.L. = hlim
→0
f(0 + h)

tan 2h
⇒ R.H.L. = hlim
→0 e
tan 3h

2 ⎛ tan 2h 3h ⎞ 2
⎜ . ⎟
⇒ R.H.L. = hlim
→0 e
3⎝ 2h tan 3h ⎠
= e3
for continuity
L.H.L. = R.H.L. = f(0)
2
⇒ ex = e 3 = b

2
⇒ a= , b = e2/3
3

Example : 23
2n
⎛ πx ⎞
Discuss the continuity of f(x) in [0, 2] where f(x) = nlim ⎜ sin ⎟
→∞
⎝ 2 ⎠
Solution

⎧0 ; | x | < 1
Since nlim x2n = ⎨
→∞
⎩1 ; | x | = 1

2n
⎛ πx ⎞
∴ f(x) = nlim ⎜ sin ⎟
→∞
⎝ 2 ⎠

⎧ πx
⎪0 ; sin <1
⎪ 2
= ⎨ πx
⎪1 ; sin =1
⎪⎩ 2

πx
Thus f(x) is continuous for all x, except for those values of x for which sin =1
2
i.e. x is an odd integer
⇒ x = (2n + 1) where x ∈ Ι
Check continuity at x = (2n + 1) :

L.H.L. = lim f(x) = 0 ............(i)

x →2n +1

and f(2n + 1) = 1 ............(ii)

from (i) and (ii), we get :
L.H.L. ≠ f(2n + 1),
⇒ f(x) is discontinuous at x = 2n + 1
(i.e. at odd integers)
Hence f(x) is discontinuous at x = (2n + 1).

Page # 14.
Example : 24

⎧
⎪ 1 − cos 4 x ; x<0
⎪ x 2
⎪
Let f (x) = ⎨ a ; x=0
⎪ x
⎪ ; x>0
⎩⎪ 16 + x − 4

Determine the value of a, if possible, so that the function is continuous at x = 0.

Solution

⎧
⎪ 1 − cos 4 x ; x<0
⎪ x 2
⎪
It is given that f(x) = ⎨ a ; x=0
⎪ x
⎪ ; x>0
⎩⎪ 16 + x − 4

is continuous at x = 0. So we can take :

lim f(x) = f(0) = lim+ f(x)
x →0 − x →0
Left hand limit at x = 0
1− cos 4 x
L.H.L. = tlim
→0 −
f(x) = tlim
→0 − x2

Now, L.H.L. = hlim

→0
f(0 – h)

1− cos 4h 2 ⎡ sin t ⎤
⇒ L.H.L. = hlim = lim 2 sin 2h = 8 ⎢u sin g : tlim = 1⎥
→0 h2 h→0 ⎣ → t ⎦
h2 0

Right hand limit at x = 0

x
R.H.L. = tlim
→0 +
f(x) = tlim
→0 + 16 + x − 4

Now, R.H.L. = hlim

→0
f(0 + h)

h
⇒ R.H.L. = hlim
→0
16 + h − 4
Rationalising denominator to get :

h ⎛ ⎞
⇒ R.H.L. = hlim ⎜ 16 + h + 4 ⎟ = 8
→0 h ⎝ ⎠
For function f(x) to be continuous at x = 0,
L.H.L. = R.H.L. = f(0)
⇒ 8=8=a
⇒ a=8

Example : 25
Ler {x} and [x] denote the fractional and integral part of a real number x respectively.
Solve 4{x} = x + [x].
Solution
We can write x as :
x = integral part + fractional part
⇒ x = [x] + {x}
The given equation is 4{x} = x + [x]
Page # 15.
 ⇒ 4{x} = [x] + {x} + [x]
⇒ 3{x} = 2[x] .............(i)
⇒ 3{x} is an even integer
But we have 0 ≤ {x} < 1
⇒ 0 ≤ 3 {x} < 3
⇒ 3{x} = 0, 2 [become 3{x} is even}
2 3
⇒ {x} = 0, and [x] = {x} = 0, 1 ........... (using i)
3 2

2
⇒ x=0+0 or x= +1
3

5
⇒ x=0 or x=
3

Example : 26

⎧ [cos πx ] ; x ≤1
Discuss the continuity of f(x) in [0, 2] where f(x) = ⎨
⎩| 2x − 3 | [ x − 2] ; x > 1
where [ ] : represents the greatest integer function.
Solution
First of all find critical points where f(x) may be discontinuous
Consider x – [0, 1] :
f(x) = [cos πx]
[f(x)] is discontinuous where f(x) ∈ Ι
⇒ cos πx = Ι
1
In [0, 1], cos πx is an integer at x = 0, x = and x = 1
2

1
⇒ x = 0, x = and x = 1 are critical points ............(i)
2
Consider x – (1, 2] :
f(x) = [x – 2] |2x – 3|
In x ∈ (1, 2) [x – 2] = – 1 and
for x = 2 ; [x – 2] = 0
3
Also |2x – 3| = 0 ⇒ x=
2

3
⇒ x= and x = 2 are critical points ............(i)
2

1 3
combining (i) and (ii), critical points are 0, , 1, , 2
2 2
On dividing f(x) about the 5 critical points, we get

⎧ 1 ; x=0 Q cos( π0 ) = 1
⎪ 1
⎪ 0 ; 0<x≤ Q 0 ≤ cos πx < 0 ⇒ [cos πx] = 0
⎪ 2
⎪ 1
−1 ; < x ≤ 1 Q − 1 ≤ cos πx < 0 ⇒ [cos πx ] = −1
⎪ 2
f(x) = ⎨
3
⎪− 1(3 − 2x ) ; 1< x ≤ Q | 2x − 3 | = 3 − 2x and [ x − 2] = −1
⎪ 2
⎪ 3
⎪− 1(2 x − 3) ;
2
< x < 2 Q | 2x − 3 | = 2x − 3 and [ x − 2] = −1
⎪ Q [ x − 2] = 0
⎩ 0 ; 2

Page # 16.
 Checking continuity at x = 0 :

R.H.L. = xlim
→0 +
(0) = 0 and f(0) = 1
As, R.H.L. ≠ f(x)
⇒ f(x) is discontinuous at x = 0
Checking continuity at a + x = 1/2
L.H.L. = lim − f(x) = 0
1
x→
2

R.H.L. = lim f(x) = – 1

−
1
x→
2

As L.H.L. ≠ R.H.L.,
1
f(x) is discontinuous at x = .
2
Checking continuity at x = 1 :

L.H.L. = xlim
→1−
f(x) = – 1

R.H.L. = xlim
→1+
f(x) = – 1 = xlim
→1+
(2x – 3) = – 1
and f(1) = – 1
As L.H.L = R.H.L. = f(1)
f(x) is continuous at x = 1
Checking continuity at x = 3/2 :
L.H.L. = lim − (2x – 3) = 0
3
x→
2

⎛3⎞
R.H.L. = lim + (3 – 2x) = 0 and f ⎜ ⎟ =0
3 ⎝2⎠
x→
2
⎛3⎞
As L.H.L. = R.H.L. = f ⎜ ⎟ ,
⎝2⎠
f(x) is continuous at x = 3/2
Checking continuity at x = 2 :

L.H.L. = xlim
→2 −
(3 – 2x) = – 1 and f(2) = 0
As L.H.L. ≠ f(2),
f(x) is discontinuous at x = 2

Example : 27
sin 2 x + A sin x + B cos x
If f(x) = is continuous at x = 0, find the values of A and B. Also find f(0).
x3
Solution
As f(x) is continuous at x = 0

f(0) = xlim
→a
f(x) and both f(0) and xlim
→a
f(x) = are finite

2 sin 2x + A sin x + B cos x

⇒ f(0) = xlim
→0 x3
As denominator → 0 as x → 0,
∴ Numerator should also → 0 as x → 0.
Which is possible only if (for f(0) to be finite)
sin 2(0) + A sin (0) + B cos 0 = 0
⇒ B=0

Page # 17.
 sin 2x + A sin x
∴ f(0) = xlim
→0 x2

⎛ sin x ⎞ ⎛ 2 cos x + A ⎞ ⎛ 2 cos x + A ⎞

⇒ f(0) = xlim ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎜ ⎟
→0 ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x 2
⎠ x →0 ⎝ x2 ⎠
Again we can see that Denominator → 0 as x → 0
∴ Numerator should also approach 0 as x → 0 (for f(0) to be finite)
⇒ 2+A=0 ⇒ A=–2

⎛ 2 x ⎞
⎛ ⎞
⎜ − 4 sin ⎟ ⎜ − sin 2 x ⎟
⎛ 2 cos x − 2 ⎞ ⎜ 2⎟ ⎜ 2⎟
⇒ f(0) = xlim ⎜ ⎟ = lim ⎜ x 2 ⎟ = lim ⎜
x 2 ⎟ =–1
→0 ⎝ x →0
⎠ ⎟ x →0 ⎜
2
x ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠

So we get A = – 2, B = 0 and f(0) = – 1

Example : 28

64 x − 32 x − 16 x + 4 x + 2 x − 1
Evaluate xlim
→0 ( 3 + cos x − 2)sin x
Solution

64 x − 32 x − 16 x + 4 x + 2 x − 1
Let L = xlim
→0 ( 3 + cos x − 2)sin x
On rationalising the denominated, we get

2 6 x − 25 x − 2 4 x + 22 x + 2 x − 1
L = xlim
→0 (cos x − 1) sin x ( 3 + cos x + 2)
On factorising the numerator, we get

L = xlim
→0
(2 x − 1)[2 5 x − 2 5 x (2 x − 1) + 1
(cos x − 1) sin x
× xlim
→0 ( 3 + cos x + 2)
( 2 x − 1)[(2 5 x − 2 3 x ) − ( 2 2 x − 1)]
⇒ L = xlim ×4
→0 (cos x − 1) sin x

( 2 x − 1)( 2 2 x − 1)(2 3 x − 1)
⇒ L = xlim ×4
→0 (cos x − 1) sin x

⎛ 2 x − 1⎞ ⎛ 22x − 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ lim ⎜ ⎟
⇒ L = 4 xlim
→0 ⎜ ⎟ × 2 x →0 ⎜ 2x ⎟
×3
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

⎛ 23 x − 1 ⎞ ⎛ x2 ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞
lim ⎜ ⎟ lim ⎜ ⎟ lim ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ ×
⎝ − 2 sin ( x / 2) ⎠
x →0 x →0 2 x →0 ⎝ sin x ⎠
⎝ 3x ⎠
⇒ L = 4 (ln 2) = 2 (ln 2) × 3 (ln 2) × (–2) ⇒ L = – 48 (ln 2)3

Example : 29
(i) If f is an even function defined on the interval (–5, 5), then find the four real values of x satisfying

⎛ x +1⎞
the equation f(x) = f ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ x + 2⎠

1
⎛ 1 + 5x 2 ⎞ x2
(ii) Evaluate : xlim ⎜ ⎟ .
→0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 + 3x
2
⎠

Page # 18.
 ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛5⎞
(iii) If f(x) = sin2x + sin2 ⎜ x + ⎟ = cos x cos ⎜ x + ⎟ and g ⎜ ⎟ = 1, then find g [f(x)].
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝4⎠

( π)
(iv) Let f(x) = [x] sin where [ ] denotes the greater integer function. Find the domain of f(x) and
[ x + 1]
the points of discontinuity of f(x) in the domain.
Solution

⎛ x +1⎞
(i) It is given that f(x) = f ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x + 2⎠

⎛ x +1⎞
⇒ x= ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ x2 + x – 1 = 0
⎝ x + 2⎠

− 1± 5
⇒ x= ...........(i)
2
As f(x) is even, f(x) = f(–x)

⎛ x +1⎞ −3± 5
–x= ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ x2 + 3x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x= ...........(ii)
⎝ x + 2⎠ 2
One combining (i) and (ii), we get :

− 1± 5 −3± 5
x= and x = .
2 2

1
⎛ 1 + 5x 2 ⎞ x2
(ii) Let L = xlim ⎜ ⎟
→0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 + 3x
2
⎠

1
⎛ 1 + 5x 2 ⎞ x2
⇒ L = xlim ⎜1 + − 1⎟
→0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 + 3x
2
⎠

1
⎛ 2 ⎞ x2
⇒ L = xlim ⎜1 + 2x ⎟
→0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 + 3x
2
⎠

⎛
⎜ 2 ⎞
⎟ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎜ 1 + 3x ⎟
⇒ L = xlim ⎝
2
⎠
=e2 ⎢u sin g : lim(1 + t ) t = e⎥
→0 e ⎢⎣ t →0 ⎥⎦

⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
(iii) It is given that f(x) = 1 – cos2x + sin2 ⎜ x + ⎟ + cos x cos ⎜ x + ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

⎡ 2⎛ π ⎞⎤ 1 ⎡2 cos x cos⎛⎜ x + π ⎞⎟⎤

= 1 – ⎢cos x − sin ⎜ x + 3 ⎟⎥ +
2
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦ 2 ⎣ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦

⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
cos⎜ 2x + ⎟ cos⎜ ⎟ cos⎜ ⎟
⎛ π⎞ π ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝3⎠ ⎝3⎠ 5
= 1 – cos ⎜ 2x + ⎟ cos + + =1+ =
⎝ 3 ⎠ 3 2 2 2 4

Page # 19.
 5
⇒ For all values of x, f(x) = . (constant function)
4

⎛5⎞
Hence, g[f(x)] = g ⎜ ⎟
⎝4⎠

⎛5⎞
But g ⎜ ⎟ = 1 ⇒ g [(f(x)] = 1
⎝4⎠
Hence, g[f(x)] = 1 for all values of x

( π)
(iv) Let f(x) = [x] sin
[ x + 1]
Domain of f(x) is x ∈ R excluding the point where [x + 1] = 0
(Q denominator cannot be zero)
Find values of x which satisfy [x + 1] = 0
[x + 1] = 0
⇒ 0≤x+1<1
⇒ –1≤x<0
i.e. for all x ∈ [–1, 0), denominator is zero.
So, domain is x ∈ R [–1, 0)
⇒ Domain is x ∈ (–∞, –1) ∪ [0, ∞)
Point of Discontinuity
As greatest integer function is discontinuous at integer points, f(x) is continuous for all
non-integer points.
Checking continuity at x = a (where a – 1)

⎛ π ⎞
L.H.L. = hlim [a – h] sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
→0
⎝ [a + 1 − h ] ⎠

⎛π⎞
⇒ L.H.L. = (a – 1) sin ⎜ ⎟ ............(i)
⎝a⎠

⎛ π ⎞
R.H.L. = hlim [a + h] sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
→0
⎝ [a + 1 + h] ⎠

⎛ π ⎞
⇒ L.H.L. = a sin ⎜ ⎟ ............(ii)
⎝ a + 1⎠
From (i) and (ii), L.H.L. ≠ R.H.L.
⇒ f(x) is discontinuous at x = a (i.e. at integer values of x)
So, points of discontinuity are x ∈ Ι ∩ D. (i.e. integers lying in the set of domain)
⇒ x ∈ Ι – {–1}.

Page # 20.