NS 1 Properties of Fluids a 1.1. DEVELOPMENT OF FLUID MECHANICS Matter exists in two states, viz., the solid state and the fluid state. The fluid state is further divided into two states: (1) the liquid state, and (2) the gaseous state. Fluid mechanics is the science dealing with the behaviour of fluids at rest and in motion, The fundamental principles employed in fluid mechanics are the same as that used in the mechanics of solids. But fluid mechanics is somewhat more difficult than solid mechanics, because in the mechanics of solids we deal with separate, tangible entities, whereas in fluid mechanics we deal with a continuous mass. Before the development of fluid mechanics, the science of mechanics of fluids was studied in two separate disciplines, viz., classical hydrodynamics and hydraulics. Classical hydrodynamics deals with a hypothetical ideal fluid having no viscosity. The results obtained from the study of classical hydrodynamics are of very little practical use as they are hypothetical. Hydraulics deals mainly with practical problems of flow of water. This is an applied science which is based on the results obtained from laboratory experiments; the results obtained are usually reduced to empirical formulae which have very limited use. Hydraulics is a very old science—perhaps as old as human civilisation. The excavations of Mohenjodaro and Harappa have proved that even 3,000 B.C., Indians had sufficient knowledge of the principles of hydraulics. However, the main developments in hydraulics took place in last three hundred years when Darcy, Bernoulli, Bazin, Ganguillet, Kutter, Manning, Chezy and others gave their theories. Classical hydrodynamics developed almost simultaneously with hydraulics. Notable contribution in classical hydrodynamics werexmade by Euler, D'Alembert, Airy, Lagrange, Saint-Venant, Stokes, Kelvin, Rayleigh, Rankine, Lamb and Kirchhoff. : Fluid mechanics combines classical hydrodynamics and hydraulics. This is a judicious combination of rational approach of classical hydrodynamics and experimental techniques of hydraulics. In fluid mechanics, rational equations are developed which can be applied to real fluids of all kinds. Experiments are conducted only to verify theoretical results or to supplement any information required in the analysis. Fluid mechanics, because of its vast application, occupies an important place in engineering. Fluid mechanics may be divided into three branches: 1. Hydrostatics, which is the study of Mids test 2. Hydrokinematies, which deals with kinematic quantities such as velocity and acceleration, an: Hydrodynamics, which deals with forces exerted by fluids or upon fluids in motion. The origin of fluid mechanics can be traced back to the beginning of the twentieth century when ot his boundary layer theory. This theory had Prandtl, who is rightly called the father of fluid mechanics, gave his boundary lay eine eerie a tremendous effect upon the understanding of the motion of real fluids. In fact, the theory isa Ot classical hydrodynamics and hydraulics. Blassious, Karman, Nikuradse, Boussinesd. Oo Pinu Reynolds, Froude, Rouse and several other scientists have contributed in the mechani __aeetiltaadFLUID MECHANICS, HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULIC MACH In this tex: f tthe fundamen lamentals of fluid mei hydeautg at ef fet Huid mechanics, along with the relevant portions of hydraulics and 1.2. DEFINITION OF A FLUID A fluid isa substance fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected 10a shear stress. Even the slightest shear force will cause the fluid wo Now This behaviour of fluids is different from that of solids. A solid lds. This difference in behaviour of fluids and always requires a certain amount of shear Stress before it ~olids is due to their molecular structure. In solids, the position 6F'motecules 1s fixed in space. Individual molecules in solids are very close to one another and the inter-molecular forces are rather large. In fluids. the molecules can move and their position is not fixed in space. The spacing between molecules of fluids ts large and the intermolecular forces are relatively small. A fluid is characterized by the relative ease of the mobility of molecules. A further difference between solids and fluids is their relative ability to resist external forces. A solid forces. A fluid can sustain only compressive forces and n cases, a fluid may sustain a small amount of tensile subjected to a shearing force, it deforms can withstand tensile, compressive and shearit that too when it is confined in a container. In certa siress, but its tensile strength is usually neglecied. When a fTuid continuously as long as the force acts. Thus the shearing stress exists in a fluid when it is in motion. When the motion ceases, the shearing stféss disappears Compressibility is the property which distinguishes a liquid from a gas. Gases are extremely compres- sible and expand indefinitely when all external forces are removed. Thus a gas can remain in equilibrium only when it is completely confined in a container. Liquids are relatively incompressible. The cohesion bet- ween particles in liquids holds them together due to which they cannot expand indefinitely. Consequently. a liquid may have a free surface, whereas a gas does not have a free surface. A vapour is gascous in form but its temperature and pressure are such that it is close to the liquid phase in characte Fluid as Continuum All fluids are composed of small molecules which are in constant motion. These molecules agitate and collide with one another. The average distance that a particle moves before collision is known as the mean Jree path. This distance is very small. It may be noted that one m’ of air at STP contains about 2.5 x 107° molecules, which have the mean free path of about 5 x 10 mm. In most engineering applications, the size of the passage through which the fluid flows is very large in comparison with the size of the molecules and the mean free path. The average effects of the movement of molecules on the properties of the fluid are almost constant. The engineer is generally interested in the average or macroscopic effects of molecules. For all practical purposes, the fluid is assumed as a continuum, i.e. a continuous medium. Fluid properties, such as mass density, viscosity, pressure, tempera- ture, are assumed to have definite values at each point of the continuum. These properties are considered to be continuous functions of space and time. am However, the concept of continuum is not valid for gases at very low pressure. In that condition, the mean free path is relatively large and is of the same order as that of the smallest significant dimension of the fluid medium, In such a case the microscopic behaviour of the molecules has to be considered. The mechanies based on molecular basis is known as rarefied gas dynamics, which is outside the scope of This text : 1.3. DIMENSIONS AND UNITS. 1. Dimensions. Physical quantities used in fluid mechanics are expressed in five fundamental siinensions, 1iz., length (L), mass (IM), force (F), time (7) and temperature (¢). Temperature is important (hb i= compressible flow problems and is not of frequent occurrence in fluid mechanics. Thus there are wre sulnnsions that are commonly used in flow problems. However, only three fundamental dimensions “tet to describe any fluid phenomenon. Either force (F) or mass (M) can be taken as anLOPERTIES OF FLUIDS ay : independent dimension. These two dimensions are interrelated by Newton's se 7 c on’s secon if mass [AM ake HET= Mass U4] Acectetaton 1/7 mass (MJ is taken as an independent dimension yee sion, Force [F : ‘Thus there are two systems of dimension, ree [Fis a derived law of motion: dimension and vice (1) M-L-T system, (2) F-L-T versa, Mor F a lamenta 7 . (2) F-L-T system, depending upon : or F is taken as a fundamental dimension. ‘The dimension’ af any physical quantity may be dened terms of fundamental dimensions. quantity derived in ‘or example, the dimensions of velocit are respectively (L./ 7], [L/T "] and [M/L'|, The dimensions we oes quantity. For example, velocity is defined as distance per unit time therefore wise, the dimensions of acceleration and mass density are brackets. 2. Units. Various physical quantities are measured in different standards called unit basically two systems of units, viz. (1) Absolute system and (2) Gravita system, the unit of mass is chosen and the the other hand, in the gravitational s therefore, based on F-L-T system. acceleration and mass dens ied from the definition of thi its dimension is [L/T]. Like- obtained. Dimensions are written in square y e ‘There are pnal system. In the absolute unit of force is derived. It is thus based on M-L-T system, On 'ystem, the unit of force is chosen, and the unit of mass is derived, It is, SI Units System International d’ Unites (abbreviated as SI units) has been adopted by most of the countries, including India. It is being gradually introduced in India. This is an absolute system of units. In this system, the unit of mass is chosen as kilogram (kg). The derived unit of force is newton (N). One newton (N) is the force which imparts an acceleration of | m/sec? to a mass of | kg. Thus 1N = 1kg x 1 m/sec? (a) Sometimes, larger units of force are used. 1 kilo newton (1 KN) = 10°N 1 mega newton (1 MN) = 10°N The length unit is metre (m) and the unit for time is second (s). In SI units, the symbol for time unit second is s, but sec is also frequently used. When it is impractical to use N and m themselves and the use of prefix is convenient, the prefix representing 10 raised to a power which is a multiple of 3 is recommended in SI units. For example, the distance may be measured in mm (m x 10°), km (m x 10°), etc. The unit em (m x 10%) is also common. In SI units, generally the units kg (mass), metre and seconds are used. The derived unit N or KN are also commonly used in engineering practice. [Note. 1 N is also equal to 10° dynes in C.G.S. units]. MKS Units / Metre—Kilogram—Second (abbreviated as MKS) system of units, commonly used in India till now, is ravitational system of units. In this system, the unit kilogram force (kgf) is chosen. The derived unit of nage is one metric slug (abbreviated as slug). One kgf imparts an acceleration of 1 m/sec” to a mass of one slug. Thus : . I kgf = 1 (metric) slug x I m/sec’ 7 Sometimes, a larger unit of force of tonne (1) is used. 1t = 1000 kgf In some cases, smaller unit of force gram (gmf) is used. 1 gmf = 10° kgf ‘The units of length and time are metre (m) and second (sec) as in SI unitsFLUID MECHANICS, HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULIC MACHiy a Relations} { Between SI and MKS Units The weight of one kg mass of material eight of one kg mass of material on earth iv one kgf. In other words, one kgf imparts an ac, wg ration of g(= 9.81 m/sec’) to a mass of one 1 kg. Thus pio Tkef = 1kg x 9.81 i From Eq. (a) and (c), the force 7 lkgf = 981N (d) From Eqs. (b) and (c), the mass hy 1 (metric) slug = 9.81 kg se) Eqs. (d) and (¢) are extremely useful for conversion from one system to the other. ' The following relations between the two units should be carefully noted: I kgf = 1000 gmf = 9.81 N 1 (metric) slug = 9.81 kg = 9810 g 1 m= 100 cm = 1000 mm / In this text, ST units are used. The unit kg represents mass in SI units. 1.4, MASS DENSITY, SPECIFIC WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY “~— 1. Mass Density. Mass density is defined as the mass per unit volume. It is usually represented by Greek letter p (rho). It is measured in kg/m’, A molecule has a certain mass regardless of its state. The mass density is proportional to the number of molecules in a unit volume of the fluid. Mass density is independent of the gravitational pull, It has a fixed value at a constant temperature and pressure. It increases with increase in pressure, but decreases with increase in temperature, which is mainly due to change in the spacing of molecules. Mass density of water at 4°C is 1000 kg/m’. 2. Specific Weight. Specific weight is defined as the weight of fluid per unit volume. It is usually _ represented by Greek letter y (gamma). The unit of measurement is N/m’ . [Note. In some texts, the specific weight is expressed as w]. Specific weight represents the force exerted by the gravity on a unit volume. It depends on both mass density and the acceleration due to gravity. The specific weight changes from one place to another, depending upon the changes in the acceleration due to gravity. As in the case of mass density, the specific weight changes with change in temperature and pressure. Specific weight and mass density are related by the equation: p= dl) e Fi ion due to gravity. The value of “g’ will be taken 9.81 m/sec’, unless mentioned where g is the accelera otherwise. : / / Specific weight of water is generally taken as 9.81 kN/m’, unless mentioned otherwise ie volume is the volume occupied by unit mass of the fluid. It is represented ciprocal of mass density. It is measured in m’/kg units we(1.2) v,=t p “4, Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the Ls ay of the flui vn as relative density a standard fluid. It is represented by S. It is also known as relat / . enor guid. the standard fluid is water at 4°C. For gases, the standard fluid is sometimes taken eae bs free from carbon dioxide at 0°C or hydrogen at the same temperature. The standard Mui ree from carbon dic wdrog mentioned if it is different from water. V3. Specific Volume. Spe: by V,. Specific volume is id to the mass density ofee ROPERTIES OF FLUIDS Specific gravity is dimensionless and has no units. Obviously, for any fluid, p = p, S or Y= WS where Yu fluid s the specific weight of water, py is the mass density of water and S is specific gravity of the Illustrative Example 1.1, (a) Ten m' os il weis i pa of kerosene oil weighs 78.48 kN. Calculate its specific weight, (b) The specific volume of a certain gas is 0.70 m'/kg. Determine its specific weight and mass density. 78.48 Solution. (a) Specific weight, y = = 7.848 kKN/m> Mass density, p= 8 Specific gravity, s (b) Mass density, eee ; eA P = Specific volume ~ 0:70 ~ 143 ke/m Specific weight, 14.03 N/m? Ms. viscosity ~ Viscosity is a property of a fluid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses. An ideal fluid has no viscosity. In reality there is no fluid which can be classified as a perfectly ideal fluid. However, the fluids with very little viscosity are sometimes considered as ideal fluids. Viscosity of v, k-—v—4 Fuids is due to cohesion and imeraction (7777/7 MMMM TTD — * between particles. ‘An expression for viscosity may be MOVING PLATE obtained by considering two large plates which are placed at a small distance Y apart (Fig. 1.1). The space between plates is filled with a fluid. The lower plate is stationary, whereas the upper plate is moving with a velocity V. Particles of the fluid in contact with each plate would adhere to the surface and there would be ren “no slip. Thus the velocity of the fluid : particles adjacent to the upper plate would be V and that adjacent to the lower plate would be zero. If the iiatance Yi small, the velocity gradient will be a straight line. Experiments indicate that the required force (P) is proportional to the area of the plate (A) and the velocity V, and is inversely proportional to the distance Y, ie., FT STATIONARY PLATE Px AVW/Y If the constant of proportionality is taken as Ht, P=paA WY ‘The shearing stress (7) may be written as PY =hy . at= FLUID MECHANICS, HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULIC MACHI\py The above equation can also be expressed in differential form Let us consider a fluid layer of thickness dy at a distance y Let us assume that velocity v changes by dv in thickness dy, They by similar triangles vid Y¥~ dy Therefore t=u a ; Eq. 1.3 is known as Newton’s equation of viscosity. The ratio dv/dy is known as the velocity gradient. The constant (mu) is called the coefficient of dynamic viscosity or simply the coefficient of viscosity. The coefficient of viscosity may be defined as the amount of tangential stress required to maintain unit relative velocity between two parallel layers of fluid at unit distance apart. Fluids which obey Eq. 1.3 are known as Newtonian Fluids. The fluids which do not obey this law are Non-Newtonian Fluids. Fig. 1.2 shows the Rheological diagram. The figure also shows ideal fluids which have zero shear stress. Non-Newtonian fluids can be further BINGHAM PLastic PSEUDO PLASTIC NEWTONIAN SHEAR STRESS t ———» DILATANT IDEAL FLUID (u = 0) divided into two types: RATEOF STRAIN 4 —__, 1. Dilatent fluids and iy 2. Pseudoplastic fluids : : aaa 1. Dilatent fluids exhibit an increase in viscosity with an increase in shear stress. The relation between shear stress and the rate of strain is v expressed as teak # where n > 1 (a) i i dex, i is called the consistency index and the index n is called the flow behaviour in: eee ig a high concentration of powder behave as dilatant ‘Wet beach sand and some water solutions contai = Pscudoplastic fluids exhibit a decrease in viscosity with an increase in shear stress. They follow the seu law ; , cak(%) where n <1 wal dy ind starch suspensions are examples of pseudoplastic fluids. Greases, mayonnaise ai Bingham plast behave like eee tics behave as solids until the yield stress tp is reached. Beyond to, they astic: vt lastics is expressed as our of Bingham plasti p Newtonian fluids. The behavic 7 tem tHlG | lo) eeePROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 7 Some common examples of Bingham laste oe Plastics are chocolate mixtures, grease, paint, paper pulp and | eld) sauare brackets indicate that only dimensions are being considered. The ‘an be obtained from Eq. (d) by Newton’s second law of motion, namely, S L t= im & | = ea ere Ma w= wal] [2] In SI units, the unit of dynamic viscosity is N-s/m? or kg/(m-s) or (kg m™! s), The unit N-s/m? is also called pascal-second (Pa-s). In CGS (Centimetre—Gram—Second) units, viscosity is measured in poise which is equal to one dyne-sec/em? or one gm (mass)/cm-sec. The unit is named after Poiseuille, a pioneer in the field. Some- times, a smaller unit centipoise which is equal to one-hundredth of poise is used. The viscosity of water at 20°C is approximately equal to one centipoise. Thus the viscosity of a fluid in centipoise indicates the relative viscosity with respect to water. 1 N-s/m? or 1 poise As mentioned before, dimensions of tin M-L-T c Therefore, 0 10 poise 0.1 N-s/m? Kinematic Viscosity In fluid problems, the coefficient of dynamic viscosity H usually occurs together with mass density p in the form p/p. In such problems, it is convenient to use another coefficient called the coefficient of kinematic viscosity v (nu). It is the ratio of the coefficient of dynamic viscosity to mass density. Thus B 14) ve The dimensions of v can be obtained from Eq. 14. mM){[b] [ze M= [a MITLT i i s. In CGS units, it is measured in stoke, which See a eae sed after Soke Asmar unit centistoke which is one hundredth of is equal to one cm’/sec. The unit is nam« er: * Gere 10" msec. a stoke is sometimes used. In SI units, the unit is one m’/sec. y, 1 so iene Viscosity is practically independent of pressures at ordinary pressures, But ao fe Presi en a aa eae ye sco tlds Sect li reaee tae iecous oil is heated, it flows easily). On the contrary, the viscosity of gases eee temperature. This behaviour of gases is because of different intermolecular increases with increase 1” Mey P Tiquids, the viscosity is mainly due to cohesion which decreases with characteris Overture. In 058. the viscosity is due to molecular activity. As the molecular activity increase in te .8 increases with tempera ‘The effect of viscosity on a fluid phen FLUID MECHANICS, HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULIC MACH, ture, the viscosity of gases also increases with rise in temperature, parameter called Reynolds Number (Na). given by Vdp _ Vd DoT so where V is the velocity and d is any characteristic length ‘The Reynolds number is also abbreviated as Re. ; Ilstrative Example 1.2. A fluid has a dynamic viscosity of 0.50 poise. Calculate the velocity gradien and the intensity of shear stress at the boundary ifthe fluid is filled between two parallel plates 5 cm apart and one plate is moving at a velocity of 1 m/sec, other plate is stationary. Assume distribution of velocity as V = 1 — k (0.05 ~ y) where y is in metres. Solution. The equation of the parabola is Obviously, Therefore, Now From Eq. 1.3, t Therefore, V=1-k(.05-y? V = Owheny = 0 Qk = 400 and the equation becomes V = 1.0 - 400 (0.05 - yy? ae a 2 (0.05 ~y) = 800 (0.05 ~ (5) 1 = (0.5 x 0.1) 800 (0.05 - y) » mn ( romenon is usually expressed in terms of a non-dimensiony +— Imsec ——» Sem y | Fig. 13. [Note. 1 poise = 0.1 N-s/m’) The maximum shear stress occurs at the lower plate where y = 0. Tmax = (0.5 x 0.1) (800)(0.05) = 2N/m? 41.6. BULK MODULUS A fluids can be compressed by the application of pressure. However, gases are more compressible tian liquids. Liquids are compressed by so little an amount that, in most of the cases, they are assumed to be incompressible. Owing to elasticity, strain energy is stored in fluids as they are compressed. Elasticity of fluids is measured in terms of bulk modulus of elasticity (K) ‘The mechanics of elastic compression of fluids may [Fig. 1.4 (a)]. Let the initial volume of the fluid be V. If a force P is now gradually applied, there will be an increase in pressure. This increase is given by p = P/A, where A is the area of cross-section of cylinder. The volumetric strain is given by dV, where dV is the change in volume. A plot can be obiained between P/A and dV/V for different value of P (Fig. 1.4 (6)] The bulk modulus of elasticity is defined as the slope of the 'y be demonstrated by means of a cylinder and piston sta — > rm Fig. 1.4.9 tressstrain curve [Fig. 1.4 (b)] at the point under consideratio 7 Thus — =av/V (15) The negative sign indicates a decrease in v. /olume with an i i sa eee increase in p. Steepening of th i them ated Proce Re cans Be compres ed, it becomes increasingly difficult to eae . sticit i Compressibility is inversely proportional to bulk mmodalue (®), ‘ni an inrege in mare i patie } tate eoetle ot lasticity K is expressed in KNém?, Bulk modulus of elasticity of water is approxi- ly 2.1 210" WN ‘at of air is 105 kN/m*, This indicates that air is 20,000 times more com- pres han eae a is 80 times more compressible than steel (K = 170 GN/m?). 7 . Find the ch ? itis subject increase in pressure of 1962 kNin?. Take K = 2.16 I Re mm ofwater when iis oWjecied 2 on dp _ Solution. From Eq. 1.5, K = av/v or 2.16 x 105 = - 1962 av/V or dV = (-9.1 x 104) x V = 9.1 x 10m 1.7. GAS LAW A perfect gas obeys the gas law: pV, = RT or p = pRT (1.6) where p is the absolute pressure (N/m?), V, is the specific volume (m’/kg), p is the mass density (kg/m) and T is the absolute temperature in degrees kelvin (K), obtained by adding 273 to temperature in degree Celsius (r”), Thus T = 273 +1°C The constant R is known as the gas constant. Its value depends upon the type of gas. Its value for air at 20°C is 287 N-m/(kg-K) or 287 J/(kg-K), where J is the symbol for joule. In reality, there is no gas which may be called a perfect gas, However, ait and other gases which are far removed from the liquid phase behave somewhat like a perfect gas. / Expansion or compression of gases takes place according to various laws of thermodynamics. For more details about gases and compressible fluids, see Chapter 13. Universal Gas Constant ‘According to Avagadro’s hypothesis, all pure gases have the same number of molecules per unit Volume at the same temperature and pressure. It follows that the mass density of a gas is, proportional to the molecular mass. Thus if m, and mz denote molecular mass, a a) mm P2 From Eg. 1.6, for the same temperature and pressure. pi _& mR weil)FLUID MECHANICS, HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULIC MACHINE From Eqs. (a) and (5). mR, = Ra Ro = constant Ro will be constant for all perfeg, s universal gas constant. The constant Ro aa Nees wl Oe 5312 J{kgmol. K), where one kgmol is equal to the produc, -m ol. K) or 83 The constant ite molecular mass, also known as molar mass: The molecular mass of air gases. Its value is 8312 N of one kg mass of the gas 20°C is about 29.0. ; recess the universal gas constant Ro is also expressed as 8312 Jkg-K). AL, ADIABATIC AND POLYTROPIC PROCESSES eee ding to various laws of thermodynamics. The Compression or expansion of a gas takes place, accor processes commonly occurring in practices are as follows 1. Isothermal process 2, Adiabatic process 3. Polytropic process 1, Isothermal process. An isothermal process takes place Boyle’s law, j pV, = constant ' at constant temperature. The gas follo’ or p/p = constant « 2. Adiabatic process. In an adiabatic process, no heat is exchanged. The gas follows the adiabatic law, — pV,* = constant or p/p = constant (2) in which k is the adiabatic constant. The adiabatic constant k is equal to the ratio of cy and c,, where cp is the specific heat of the gas at constant pressure and c, is the specific heat at constant volume. ¢p is equal to the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a kg mass of the gas through 1°C when pressure remains constant. It is given by ., = ( os (ra) On , is equal to the amount of heat required to change the temperature of a kg mass s ‘when volume remains constant. It is given by = ee ee - 1 o-(r5} The values of cp, ¢, and k depend upon the fee ype of gas and the t and other diatomic gases at standard temperature, the value of k a 3. Polytropic process. The process is said to be polytropic when i perature. For air, oxygen, hydrogen roximately equal to 1.40. t follows the law pV! = constant or p/p" = constant where 1 is polytropic constant. os Obviously, the isothermal and adiabatic of n for isothermal and adiabatic processes at \./ 19: VAPOUR PRESSURE All liquids have a tendency to vaporize. They tend to change from the liquid to th te 1 gaseous stale Processes are special cases of Fe respectively unity and 1-40. Polytropic process. The valuesproreRTIES OF FLUIDS u Molecules are continuously projected from the free surface of liquids to the atmosphere. These ejected molecules afe in gaseous state and exert their own partial vapour pressure on the liquid surface. This Mesut i known as the vapour pressure of the liquid (p,) As the molecular activity increases with temperature, the vapour pressure also increases with rise in temperature. Boiling of the liquid occurs when the extemal pressure imposed on the liquid is equal to or jess than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature. Consequently, the boiling point of liquid depends upon both the temperature and the ambient pressure. If the space above the liquid is confined, the partial vapour pressure exerted by the molecules increa- ses till the rate at which the molecules re-enter the liquid is equal to the rate at which they leave the surface. When this equilibrium condition is reached, the vapour pressure is called the saturation vapour pressure. If the pressure on the liquid surface is lower than or equal to the saturation vapour pressure, boiling occurs. The saturation vapour pressure is of great practical use in fluid problems. If the pressure at any point ina fluid phenomenon approaches the vapour pressure, the liquid starts vaporizing. Vapour bubbles which are created in the region of low pressure are carried with the liquid to the region of high pressure. These bubbles collapse in the region of high pressure and explosion of bubbles takes place. This explosion causes damag. to the walls of the conduit and also creates air pockets in the flow. The phenomenon is known as cavitation. Because of the destructive nature of cavitation, its occurrence in flow problems should be avoided. This is possible if the pressure at any point in the fluid phenomenon is not permitted to fall to the saturation vapour pressure. (For more details about cavitation, see Appendix-B) ‘As the temperature increases, the vapour pressure increases till the boiling point is reached for the ambient pressure. Water boils at 100°C at which temperature the vapour pressure 101.03 kN/m” is equal to the atmospheric pressure. Water will boil at 20°C if the ambient pressure is reduced to 2.35 kN/m’. In problems of flow of water, in order to avoid cavitation, pressure is usually not permitted to fall below about 24.5 kN/m? (absolute). Illustrative Example 1.4. A vertical cylinder 30 cm diameter is fited at the top with a tight but frictionless cylinder and is completely filled with water at 20°C. The outside of the piston is exposed to ‘atmospheric pressure 98.1 kN/n?. Calculate the minimum force applied to the piston which will cause the water to boil if py at 20°C = 2.35 kN/m’. ‘\ Solution. As water cannot expand, a space filled with vapours is obtained as soon as the piston is moved upwards, Boiling will occur when the net downward pressure is equal to vapour pressure. Let P be the force applied in upward direction. Therefore, P = 981 x (5) (037-235 x (i) (0.30) or P = (98.1 - 2.35) (3 } x 0.3? = 6.16 kN Vi.10, SURFACE TENSION Liquids have properties of cohesion and adhesion. Both these properties are forms of molecular attraction. Cohesion enables a liquid to resist small amount of tensile stresses, whereas adhesion enables it to adhere to another body. Surface tension is due to cohesion between particles at the free surface. Surface tension is caused by the forces of cohesion at the free surface. A liquid molecule in the interior of the liquid mass is surrounded by other molecules all around it and is in equilibrium. At the free surface of the liquid, there are no liquid molecules above the surface to balance the forces of the molecules below it (Fig. 1.5 (a)]. Consequently, there is a net inward force on the molecule. This force is normal to the liquid surface. At the interface between a liquid and a gas (i.e, at free surfaces), a thin layer of molecules- 2 FLUID MECHANICS, HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULIC MAciy a| is formed because of the difference of forces above and below the layer. It is because of this film that a thin small needle can float on the free surface. The layer acts as a membrane. Surface tension is the force required .to ‘maintain the film of the liquid at the surface. The surface tension 6 (sigma) is defined as the force in the liquid surface normal to a line of unit length drawn on the surface. It has the dimension [F/L] and is measured in N/m. For water at 20°C, the value of & is approximately (0735 N/m. For (@) mercury, its value is 0.51 N/m. [Note. As the surface tension is a measure of — gg Recon) energy per unit area, itcan be expressed as Ym? or N-m/m*] Surface tension decreases with increase in temperature. It depends upon the fluid in contact Po with the liquid surface. It is usually quoted in #———dx——_» contact with air. . Fig. LS dx Expression for pressure difference Let us consider a small element of the liquid. The surface of the element is of double curvature, | Po — with radii Ry and Ry (Fig. 1.5 (b)]. The pressures inside and outside the element are p;and po respectively. The element must be in equilibrium under the pressures and the surface tension forces PLAN ae Gdx and ody. Resolving the forces in the direction ® normal to the element. (; — po) de dy = 20 dy sin@ + 20 dx sin B 20 dy ie |? rea $e] dx dy xt) Fig. 15. or (Ri - Po) dx dy " or () - Po) dx dy RR tae or Pi - Po) =O RtR wT) ‘This is the general expression which gives the pressure difference between the inside and outside ofthe surface. For a spherical surface, Thus @i- Po) = (18) Eq, 1.8 is modified for soap bubbles. Soap bubbles have both inside and out surfaces on which surfis® tension acts. 46 : Thus Pike) Bol eae os wf 8 @)— CC EEISEE'SS7 a gor eRTIES OF FLUIDS ora cylindrical surface, Ry = R (say) and R Thus —p=%\ . . 219) 11. CAPILLARITY Capillary action is due to we Ce , prin ve eae ae ca ee If the effect of cohesion is less significant than surface with which it is in contact and will rise at the point of contact. On the other hand, if the cohesion predominates, the liquid will not wet the surface and the liquid surface will be depressed at the point of contact. This is the reason why water rises in a small glass tube placed in water. If the {ube is placed in mercury, the level of mercury is depressed in the tube. If a liquid wets the solid boundary, there is @ @ ® decrease of pressure within the liquid (pp | 84 130 Carbon monoxide | 1-16 28.01 297 | sgoxio | 157x10% | 1040 1.40 | Chtorine 321 n 17 | 1.29.10 | 0.40% 10 ame | 138 | Methane 0.667 16.04 518 1.34 10° | 2.01 x10 2190 131 | Hetium 0.166 4.00 2077 | 19xio$ |1s7xto$) 5230 1.66 ‘Argon | 1.661 39.94 208 a24xio | 13sx10% | __ 522 167 | fe rf? = -now f, ps 5 or at] = —p2nh) Evy, . r bio N 1 . = 1 aes - = 2nph(0-V (a) Now 1 revolution/sec = 2 % radians/secFLUID MECHANICS, HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULIC Macuny eS -0.981 x 0.476 = ~2"xpUx0.30 x 0.628 or = 0981 x 0.476 | 2 2m X 0.30 x 0.628 ~ 9395 N-s/m: Ilustrative Example 1.8. At a di : epth of 6.8 km in the ocean, the pressure is 68.67 MN/m aby “imosPheric pressure. Assuming specific weight of water at he surface equal to 10 kN/m! and the me, lk modulus of elasticity equal to 2.453 x 10' MNIm?. caledlan ie change in specific volume from fe surface to 6.8 km depth. Also calculate the specific weight at that depth, . Solution. From Eq. 1.5, =~ Eq. . dv/V avd 68.67 or wv=-2.__6 = = 0.028 v K 2.453 x 10° > Mass density at surface =o So 2 = 1020 kg/m? aa 1 Specific volume at the surface = Toon m/kg = 0.98 x 10% m*/kg Change in specific volume = 0.028 x 0.98 x 10° m/kg = 0.027 x 107 m/kg Specific volume at 6.8 km depth = (0.98 — 0.027) x 103 = 0.953 x 103 m°/kg Specific weight at 6.8 km depth = as x 10° x 9.81 = 10.294 KN/m* Mlustrative Example 1.9. A cubical block weighing 196.2 KN and having a 200 mm edge is allowes to slide down on an inclined plane surface making an angle of 20° with the horizontal on which there vs thin film of a liquid having a viscosity of 2.158 x 10" N-s/m?. What terminal velocity will be attained if th film thickness is estimated 10 be 0.025 mm? v. Solution. From Eq. 1.3, «gf “g The component of weight in the direction of plane causes sliding, 196.2 x.c08 70° _ 5 163 4 oy & ‘Thus 03 x 02 : . dy © Lama k 10 dy As dy = 0.025 x 10° m, dv = 19.435 m/sec. : ir ir ity ive Example 1.10. In measuring the unit surface energy of a mineral oil (specific gravil asa ie eee method, a tube having an internal diameter of 1.5 mm is immersed to a depth of 1. coe vil Air is forced through the tube forming a bubble at the lower end. What ‘magnitude of the wi ee +» will be indicated by a maximum bubble pressure intensity of 147.15 Nim? (U.PS.C caren 12.5 x 10° x 0.85 x 9.81 104.23 kN/m? Solution. Po =,goPeERTIES OF FLUIDS 17 Pi~ Po = 147.15 — 104.23 = 42.92 N/m? From Eq. 1.8, pj—py = 25 R Therefore, o = 42:92 x 15 x 109 22) Illustrative Example 1.11, e)yerine. Determine zs Pas A space of 20 cm depth between two large plane surfaces is filled with drag a very thin plate “0.80 min are, fm AA Aeaaccccssssccsssiies berween the plane surfaces at a speed of | vp ns if the plate is at a distance of 0.75 cm in a fom ove of the surfaces. Take t= 0.834 Sumieoe- : Nes’. Solution. (See Fig. 1.7), aaa Velocity gradient at Upper surface 9 = 10 0.75 x 107 Lower surface = = —_10 _ 1.25 x 107 Force on the upper surface = 1 (dv/dy) A or Fy = 0.834 x 102X080. ggo6n, 0.75 x 10 Force on the lower surface, LO x 0.80 Fy = 0.834 x 12x 080 _ 5338 * 1.25 x 107 Total force = F) + F; = 88.96 + 53.38 = 142.34N Illustrative Example 1.12. A vertical gap of 22 mm contains oil of specific gravity 0.90 and viscosity 2.0 N-s/m’. A square plate of | mx 1 'm sides and 2.0 mm thick weighing 20 N is lifted through the gap at a constant speed of 0.1 m/s. Estimate the force and the power required, Solution. (See Fig. 1.8). From the equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction, j FoaWwt+h force due to viscosity = 2 Au (dv/dy) 0.10 = 20 x (1 x 1) x 20 x 95, = 40N F = 20+40=60N Therefore, SUMMARY 1. Fluid mechanics is the Science of the mechanics of liquids and gases. 2 A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress. 3. An ideal fluid is one in which there are no shear stresses between the fluid layers as it deforms.18 FLUID MECHANICS, HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULIC MACH, 4. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear stress. An ideal fluid has no viscosity 5. The compressibility of « Mud is measured in terms of bulk modulus of elasticity. Liquids are genera considered incompressible. 5. The compressibility of a fluid is measured in terms of bulk modulus of elasticity. 6. A perfect gas is one that obeys Gas Law. 7. Liquids evaporate because of continuous escape of molecules from the liquid surface. These molecules exen partial pressure, known as vapour pressure, on the liquid surface. 8. When the pressure at any point falls to vapour pressure, boiling occurs. It leads to cavitation, 9. Surface tension is an apparent tension which exists in the surface layers of liquid where it is in contact with other fluids (such as, air). Surface tension effects are significant only when there is a free surface and the boundary dimensions are small. 10. Capillary action is due to surface tension, It depends on the relative magnitudes of adhesion between the liquid and solid and the cohesion of the liquid. OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS 1. The dynamic viscosity of gases (a) increases with an increase in temperature (b) decreases with an increase in temperature (©) does not depend upon temperature 2. The bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid (@) decreases with an increase in pressure _(b) increases with an increase in pressure (©) does not depend upon pressure 3. A perfect gas is one which (a) has no viscosity ( follows gas law 4. The height of liquid in a ca @ increases (6) increases with a decrease in diameter (c) decreases with an increase in surface tension (@) increases with an increase in specific weight 5. Cavitation occurs in a pipe flow when (@) the pressure becomes negative (the pressure is very high {c) the pressure is equal to vapour pressure (d) the fluid in the pipe is a gas 6. The pressure within a soap bubble is (a) the same as that of the surrounding air (6) less than the external pressure (©) greater than the extemal pressure (d) equal to the vapour pressure 7. Write whether the following statements are True (7) or False (F) (@) If cohesion predominates, the liquid surface is depressed at the line of contact, (8) The soap solution has high surface tension. (€) The pressure inside a water droplet is directly proportional to the radius, (@) Shear stresses cannot exist when the fluid is at rest (¢) Kinematic viscosity of air is more than that of water. 8, Match the dimensions of the following: (a) Specific weight OLY (6) Dynamic viscosity Wi FL (©) Vapour pressure (id (F/Ly (@) Surface tension wen (e) Kinematic viscosity @) FT/2) 9. Give the reasons for the following (@) A small insect can walk on water surface. (b) Mercury is used in a barometer. (c) The universal gas constant is same for all gases, PR1S, 16. 17, 18, 19, 1.10. Lan 112, 1.13, e114, 115. pRoPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1 12 13, 14, 19 (a) Sap rises in a tree. (€) Petrol evaporates more readily than water. (Ans. 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (b), 4. (6). 5. (0,6. (c), 7. (@) T, (b) T, (c) F, (a) T, (e) T; 8. (@) (i, (6) (), 0) D, (d) (it), (e) (iv); 9. (Refer to text} PROBLEMS Define specific weight, mass density ’ ty, Specific volume and specific it} i FE ‘of mercury weighs 1329 kN, calculate its specific weight, nase density, ; 3 cific volume and specific (Ans. 132.9 kN/m’; 13550 kg/t 1B: 38 x 10 m'/kg; 13.55] What is meant by viscosity? The velocity distribution in a fluid over a plate i i plate is given by the expression v= 1/4 y, in m/sec at a distance y metres from the plate. Calculate the shear stress at thi wherein v is the velocity 1 plate surface. j1 = 9.80 poise. [Ans. 0.245 Nim?) 0.1962 N/m? and the velocity gradient is 0.25 m/second/ [Ans. 0.785 N-sim*) Ata point in a layer of glycerine, the shear stress is m, Calculate the coefficient of dynamic viscosity Define bulk modulus of elasticity, A liquid has a volume of 0.01 m? at a pressure of 7.36 MN/m? and a volume of 0.0099 m? at a pressure of 14.72 MN/m”, Calculate the bulk modulus of elasticity. [Ans. 736 MN/m?] Explain the phenomenon of capillary action A clean glass tube 0.025 cm diameter contains mercury at 20°C (a = 0.51 N/m). What will be the capillary depression? Take angle of contact = 140°, Specific gravity of mercury = 13.60. [Ans. 46.8 mm] A capillary tube having an inside diameter 5 mm is dipped in water at 20°C. Determine the height of water which will rise in the tube. Take 6 (surface tension) = 0.0735 N/m, and o angle of contact at 60°. Specific weight of water at 20°C = 9.69 kN/m*, (MLE) {Ans. 3.00 mm] Define a fluid. What is the difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid? What is the difference between a fluid and a solid? Differentiate between compressible fluids and incompressible fluids. Write Newton's equation of viscosity. What do you understand by the Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids? Define compressibility. How is it related to bulk modulus of elasticity? What is vapour pressure? What is its significance in flow problems? What do you understand by the term ‘cavitation’? : ; What is surface tension? Derive an expression for capillary rise in a glass tube. liquic i ity of 0.01 poise and specific weight of 15.64 KN/m”, Calculate the kinematic viscosity fe oe ee ° re [Ans. 6,30 x 10° stokes, 6.3 x 107’ m*/sec] The velocity distribution over a plate is given by v = (1/3) y-y . in whi ‘at a distance y metres above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y = 0 a stich vi the ve SNe " : {Ans. 0.278 N/m?, 0.111 N/m?) By increasing the pressure of aliquid from 7.5 MN/m? to 15.0 MN/m”, the volume ofthe liquid decreases by 15 +r cent, Determine the bulk modulus of the liquid. [Ans. 500 MN/m?] iestautie lift consists of a 25 cm diameter ram which slides in a25.015 cm diameter cylinder; the annular pas being filled with an oil having a kinematic viscosity of 0.05 stokes and specific gravity of 085. Ihe i 5 of the ram moves in rate of travel ‘of the ram is 15.25 cm/sec, find the frictional resistance wl m moves ae a ube 0.20 mm in diameter contains a mercury column with water above the mercury. The surface water is ne the capillary depression of the mercury. tension of mercury in contact with water is 0.36 Nim. Determine the capillary depression of the Migs Take @ = 130° By how much and y does the pressure in a cylindrical jet of water $ mm in diameter exceed the Pressure of eS surrounding atmosphere if the surface tension of water is 0.073 Nim? he ns. 29:2) Determine the capillary rise of water in a soil of average diameter 0,05 mm. Assure the average sso pres in soil to be one-fifth of the soil diameter. Take 6 = 0.0735 N/m. xFLUID MECHANICS, HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES 1.20. Four kilometres below the surface of the ocean, the pressure is 40.85 MPa, Determine the sf sea water at that depth if the specific weight at the surface is 10.06 k N/m! Gre weahtof ‘Take K = 2.34 GPa. : Ans. 10.24 k Nim) » 1.21. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = 3/4 y — y?, in which w is the velocity in eat a distance of y meters above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = 0.15 m. Take dynam: | (Ans. 0.375 Nim} @ 1.22. The space between two square plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is 60 cm. The thickness ofthe oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 m/s, requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain th: speed. Determine (i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the cil in stokes, if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95. "TAMIE) [Ans, 13.62 P; 14.34 St} » 1.23. Two parallel plates are held apart, and the space between them is filled with crude oil. A force of 1.962 N is required to drag the upper plate of 900 cm? area at a constant velocity of 0.8 mvs. The viscosity of oil is 1.36 poise, What is the size of the space between the plates? Assume straight-line velocity distribution. [AMIE| [Ans. 5 mm} 1.24. A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft and concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 0.50 m/s when a force of 392.4 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed if a force of 1962 N is applied. Temperature of the sleeve remains constant. [AMIE] {Ans. 2.5 ms} 1.25. Air is introduced through a nozzle into a tank of water to form a stream of bubbles. If the bubbles are intended to have a diameter of 2 mm, calculate by how much the pressure of the air at the nozzle must exceed that of the surrounding water. Assume the surface tension as 7.16 x 10-° N/m. [AMIE] {Ans, 143.23 N] v 1.26, A150 mm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of 151 mm diameter, Both cylinders are 250 mm high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 11.772 N-m is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 rp.m., determine the viscosity of the liquid. {AMIE [Ams, 0.847 N-sim’] 1.27. Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter when immersed in () water, and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercun at 20°C in contact with air are 0.0736 N/m and 0.51 N/m, respectively. The angle of contact for water is 7 and that for mercury is 130°. (upsd [Ans, 7.50 mm; ~ 2.46 mm] 1.28. A circular disc of a diameter d is slowly rotated in a liquid of large viscosity Hat a small distance h from ¢ fixed surface. Derive an expression for torque T necessary to maintain an angular velocity © [Ans. dpo/ G20) 1.29, Given surface tension (water in contact with air) as 0.0736 N/m, what is the correction to be applied owe capillary rise in the manometric reading in the tube 3 mm diameter? u Ans. 10 mm]