International Journal of Modern Manufacturing Technologies

[Link] ISSN 2067–3604, Vol. XV, No. 1 / 2023

[Link] 10.54684/ijmmt.2023.15.1.131

ANALYSIS OF A VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

WORKING WITH R22
Feiza Memet

Constanta Maritime University, Marine Engineering Faculty, Department of General Engineering Sciences, 104 Mircea cel
Batran Street, 900663 Constanta, Romania

Corresponding author: Feiza Memet, feizamemet@[Link]

Abstract: Marine refrigeration has to comply with environmental constraints and with efficiency improvement as well. R22
was a refrigerant governing marine refrigeration systems. After 2020, it is legally in use in old systems, relying on recycled
supplies, because of its poor environmental properties. In this paper, it is developed a theoretical analysis of a single stage
vapour compression system working with R22, on basis of energy and exergy analysis. The thermodynamic analysis
consists in the assessment of the influence of evaporator temperature on the performance of the system- by the use of the
laws of thermodynamics. The evaporation temperature varies in the range (6.5-9.5) oC, when the ambient temperature is
[Link] obtained results will show that the Coefficient of Performance will increase together with the evaporator
temperature increase, while the specific work consumption and specific total exergy destruction will decrease. For the
maximum considered value of the evaporator temperature, COP value increases with 14% in comparison with the value
obtained for the minimum evaporator temperature. In addition, the specific work consumed by the compressor will
decrease with 5.81%, while for the specific total exergy destruction the decrement is of 2.4%. Seen that for the highest
evaporator temperature it is reached the performance improvement, for 9.5 oC are also determined the exergy destructions in
the main components of the system. It is found that in the compressor, in the evaporator, in the condenser and in the
throttling valve, exergy losses are 5%, 36%, 56% and 3%. Exergy analysis reveals that the most inefficient components of
the system are the two heat exchangers of the system.
Key words: vapour, compression, R22.

1. INTRODUCTION

Refrigeration systems used in maritime transport of perishables or in air conditioning on board the ships are
mostly of vapour compression type. This technology is based on the elastic properties of the vapours. In such a
system, the pressure increase occurs at the compression of the refrigerant vapours while the pressure decrease is
obtained by vapours expansion, in the throttling valve.
On board of any kind of ship, the refrigeration plant plays a key point. Being recognized for their important
energy consumption, the performance analysis should be carried out carefully, on thermodynamic basis [1].
Marine refrigeration specialists have to cope with the specific energy aspects and with environmental issues, as
well. Their important tasks should be considered under the following circumstances: in tonnage, the maritime
transport of perishables is a niche market in continuous increase; in the last decades was registered a growth of
approximately 3% per year.
Recommended by its thermodynamic and thermos-physical properties, R22 was extensively used in marine
refrigeration applications such as fishing vessels, passenger ships or cargo ships.
R22 is a refrigerant of Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) type. Its Chlorine content (translated in poor
environmental behaviour) and the requirement for a transition from HFCF to more environmental friendly
refrigerants – as an effect of the Montreal Protocol and Vienna Convention, resulted in the careful study of R22
based refrigeration cycles, from energy efficiency point of view [2], [3].
Showing an Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) of 0.055 and a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1810, R22
will be phased out in the light of the Montreal Protocol, in 2030.
After 2020, R22 it is legally in use only in old systems, relying on recycled supplies. In this situation, marine
refrigeration has two options: to completely replace the refrigeration plant and to substitute R22 with a more
environmental friendly refrigerant, showing a null ODP and a lower GWP. The first solution is a long term
option, but implies high costs. The second solution is suitable if the plant is in good conditions.
Seen the fact that many old marine refrigeration systems will continue to use R22 on board and taking into the
consideration the energy consumption concern, the improvement of these systems have to be a priority.
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During thermodynamic processes encountered in the vapour compression refrigeration systems, significant
amount of heat are transferred between the system and the environment. It is known the fact that the heat
transfer taking place at a finite temperature difference and frictions are important sources of irreversibility [4].
The focus on irreversibilities is mandatory for getting accurate results. The performance analysis based only on
the first law of thermodynamics, allowing COP (Coefficient of Performance) assessment, do not provide
information on how, where and how much of performance is degraded; at this point, exergy analysis – based on
the first and second laws of thermodynamics, turns to complete the performance assessment and optimization
[5].
The purpose of this paper consists in the use of the energy and exergy analysis, in order to understand the
influence of the evaporator temperature increase on the Coefficient of Performance and on the exergy
destructions.

2. MARINE REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS – CONSTRUCTIVE AND WORKING ASPECTS

The refrigeration systems that are found on commercial vessels are an extremely important component in the
process of transporting perishable goods and storing provisions for the crew on board.
The refrigeration plant of a reefer ship is responsible for regulating the temperature of the ship's perishable or
temperature-sensitive cargo, such as food, chemicals, or liquefied gas.
Reefer ships are also known as cold storage ships. It is possible to employ the same plant or a smaller unit in
order to maintain the temperature of the various provision rooms that are used to store food items for the crew
members [6, 7].
The refrigeration plant on board the ship's primary objective is to safeguard the ship's cargo and any perishable
goods from being harmed in any way while they are being transported in order to maintain its quality and
viability.
The growth of micro organisms, oxidation, fermentation, and drying out of cargo are all avoided thanks to the
use of refrigeration.
The main element parts found in refrigeration units are given in Figure 1 [8]. Also, below are provided the key
roles of the encountered components.

Fig. 1. The layout of a marine refrigeration system, [8]

Compressor: A reciprocating single or two stage compressor is often utilized for the process of compressing and
providing the system with the refrigerant;
Condenser: A condenser of the shell and tube type it is found in the system in order transfer the heat from the
refrigerant to the environment (sea water- in our case);
Receiver: Keeps the excess refrigerant so that maintenance may be performed;

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Drier: The correlated drier in the system is made of silica gel, and its purpose is to remove any moisture that
may be present in the refrigerant;
Solenoids: A variety of different solenoid valves are utilized in the process of controlling the flow of refrigerant
into the hold or the room. There is a master solenoid installed in the main line, and additional solenoids can be
found in each of the different cargo holds and chambers;
Expansion valve: They control the refrigerant flow; it enables the refrigerant to decrease its pressure through out
an isenthalpic process;
Evaporator: It is an essential component of the plant due to the fact that here, the refrigerant absorbs heat from
the space/ medium to be cooled;
HP and LP cut out: LP cut out is regulated automatically, which means that when the suction pressure lowers,
the compressor will stop running and the control system will restart the compressor when the suction pressure
begins to build again. There is a high pressure cut out, sometimes known as HP, that may be manually reset;
The Oil Differential Pressure switch evaluates the difference between the measured pressure of the lubricating
oil and the pressure of the crankcase. In the event that the differential pressure falls below a pre-set minimum
(which is around 1.2 bar), the compressor will trip, and in order to restart it, a manual reset will be required.
Before arming the circuit, there is a time delay that was put into it so that there would be enough time for the
lubricating oil pressure to build up when the machine was first started, [7].

2.1. Functioning of solenoid valve

The sensor initially detects the solenoid valve outflow process. It opens the solenoid valve when it detects a
specified fluid flow. This energizes the valve and generates a magnetic field that moves the plunger against the
spring. The plunger rises, opening the orifice. Now fluid flows from the entrance port to the outlet port.
The plunger and orifice aperture stay constant if the solenoid valve current is constant. If the sensor detects a
need for increased fluid flow, it increases current via the solenoid valve, which generates more magnetic field
and lifts the plunger. This opens the aperture and increases fluid flow from inlet to output. The sensor sends less
current to the solenoid valve if fluid flow is lower.
The sensor cuts off current to the solenoid valve when the fluid is no longer needed. The solenoid valve
deactivates, the plunger drops to the bottom, and the orifice closes, preventing fluid passage from the inlet port
to the exit port.

Fig. 2. Solenoid Valve model, [9]

The principal parts of a solenoid valves are visible in Figure 2, [9]:

1 – Valve body – it connects the solenoid valve. The valve controls liquid or air flow in the process flow
pipeline. In an automatic valve, the solenoid valve controls flow instead of the handle;
2 – Inlet port - Fluid enters the automatic valve through this port and enters the final procedure;
3 – Outlet port – it releases fluid from the automated valve. The solenoid valve controls fluid flow from inlet to
output. The outlet port connects to the fluid-requiring process;
4 – Coil/Solenoid – Solenoid coil body. Solenoid coils have hollow cylindrical bodies. Steel covers the metallic
body. Solenoid valves have coils;
5 – coil winding – the solenoid has numerous loops of enamelled wire wound around ferromagnetic material
like steel or iron. Coil forms hollow cylinder. The spring controls the plunger or piston inside the hollow part of
this coil, which is encased in steel;
6 – lead wires - electrically connected solenoid valve exterior connections. These cables power the solenoid
valve. These wires carry current to the solenoid valve while it is energized and stop when it is de-powered;

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7 – plunger or piston – this cylindrical metal element is in the solenoid valve's hollow portion. The hollow space
generates a magnetic field when the solenoid valve is powered. Thus, the plunger moves vertically in the hollow
cavity. The spring keeps the plunger in place when the solenoid valve's electrical power is cut;
8 – spring – the spring and magnetic field push the plunger inside the empty space. The solenoid valve's
magnetic field moves the plunger, but the spring stops it. The spring against the magnetic field keeps the
plunger in the position that stops current to the solenoid valve. The hollow space spring is critical. First, the
plunger is vertical, so the spring helps retain it in place after the solenoid valve current is stopped. Second, the
spring stops the plunger from moving when fluid flows through the valve body. The plunger would go up when
fluid is present and down when fluid is absent without the spring. The spring forces the plunger to control fluid.
The plunger moves only when the solenoid valve is energized;
9 – orifice – fluid flows through the valve's opening. It connects the input and outlet ports. From this port, fluid
flows from the intake to the outlet. In normal valves, the valve disc at the bottom of the stem covers this
opening. The plunger controls the orifice opening in solenoid valves, while the handle controls it in ordinary
valves. The plunger is controlled by the spring and solenoid valve current.

2.2. The Manufacturing Process of Industrial Valves

The principle type of valves is presented in Figure 3, [10]. Complex industrial valve production. Not simply a
valve invention. Raw material acquisition, machining, heat treatment, welding, and assembly boost efficiency.
Before selling them, producers should test valves thoroughly, [11].

Fig. 3. Classification of valves, [10]

The main stage of valve manufacturing is presented below:

 Order and Design
First, a customer needs to place an order, whether it's for a custom valve or something from the list of styles that
are already available. For a customizable one, the company shows the customer a design. After getting approval
from the customer, the sales person places an order. The customer also gives the company a fee that has already
been set.
 Taking stock
The manufacturing staff will look for the raw materials for the stem, spool, body, and bonnet once the orders
have been placed and the design process has begun. If there aren't enough materials, the group in charge of
making things will get them from suppliers.
 Filling out the list
Once all of the items are there, the manufacturing team goes back over the list to make sure everything is there.
At this point, the final draft of the plan is also given the go-ahead. Also, the quality inspection team carefully
checks all the materials. This is done to make sure that the raw materials are good.
 Production Process: At the valve plant, blue industrial valves are put in wooden boxes.
This includes most of the things that are done during the process of making industrial valves. Each of the major
parts is made separately. Most of the time, there is a list of all the extra parts and what material to use for each.
At this point, the team leader gives a schedule for the real making, from when an operation starts to when it's
done. Also, the leader often makes a thorough plan for how things will work.
The two most usual ways that valves are made are presented next.
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How to Cast
Look at the picture below to get an idea of how the cast method works. This is not the whole process, though.
Body: A piece of material that was already made and cleaned. After cleaning, you turn something. Turning is
the process of using a lathe or a turning machine to cut away extra material. It's done by putting the body, which
has already been made, on a mount and turning machine. This machine spins very quickly. A single-point cutter
cuts the body into the exact shape you want as it turns. Turning can also make lines and holes, among other
things.
The next step is to plate different parts of the body with a metal, usually copper. Copper finishing makes sure
that the body is completely and properly sealed.
The next step is to make the body shine. Then, workers make the threads that allow some valve parts to be
attached to other parts or pipes. Since valves need holes, this is also the time for holing. Keep in mind that each
valve has holes of different sizes, based on what you need. This is where rules and laws come in.
The valves are then painted with Teflon or another material. After drawing, it's time to bake. Teflon sticks to the
body when it is baked.
Seat: The seat goes through the same process as the rest of the car. Since the seat is inside the body, it
needs to fit perfectly to its attachment so that the valve can close better. While the body is only made of Teflon,
the seat is also wrapped in rubber to make sure it fits tightly.
Stem: Just like the stem, it doesn't need a lot of work to make. Rather, it's important to cut these to the right
size.
Made-up Method
This list of steps can be used to explain the made method. In the same way, the steps below only show what the
fake method is.
Cutting and Hammering: After choosing the materials, the next step is to cut them to the lengths and sizes that
are needed. The next step is to make each piece by heating it to a certain degree and then hammering it.
Trimming: The next thing to do is trim. This is where the roughness or extra material is taken off. The
body is then flashed to give it the right shape for a valve.
Sandblasting: The next step is to blast it with sand. This keeps the valve clean and smooth. How big the
sand is based on what the customer wants or what the standards are. First, the valves are sorted to get rid of the
broken ones.
Machining: The size and form of threads, holes, and other features are also changed by machining. Again,
this depends on the design and needs of the customer.
How to Treat the Outside: Some acids and other chemicals are used to treat the surface of the valve.
 Put together a technician in a plant to watch the process of making valves.
During the assembly step, workers put all the parts of the valve together. Often, people put things together by
hand. At this point, techs give the valves their production numbers and their names based on the rules they have
to follow, such as DIN, API, and the like.
 Pressure Test
During the pressure test phase, the valves must be put under pressure and checked to see if they leak. In some
cases, the closed valve is filled with air at 6–8 bar pressure for a certain number of hours. Depending on the size
of the valve, it could take anywhere from 2 hours to a day.
If there is a leak after the set amount of time, the valve is fixed. If that doesn't happen, the valve will move to the
next step.
In other cases, water pressure is used to find a leak. If the water level goes up and the valve doesn't leak, it
passes the test. This means that the pressure isn't too much for the valve to handle. Whenever there is a leak, the
valve goes back to the warehouse. Before running another set of pressure tests on this group of valves, the techs
will check to see if any of them are leaking.
 Quality checks and inspections
At this point, the QA team would carefully check the valves for leaks and other production mistakes.

3. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN HEAT EXCHANGERS

In a refrigeration system, the condenser is the heat exchanger able to reject heat from the system to a cooling
medium, this amount of heat being known as condenser load. Within the vapour compression refrigeration
systems, the most frequently used condensers are: air cooled condensers, water cooled condensers and
evaporative condensers.

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On board of old ships using R22, the most common are shell and tube horizontal condensers, in which the
refrigerant flows through the shell and the cooling medium (water) flows inside the tubes. As seen in Figure 4,
the condenser is split into the following sections: superheated vapour, condensation and sub cooled liquid [12].
In the superheated vapour section, superheated vapours of R22 are cooled from temperature T svi till Tsve;
subscripts svi and sve mean inlet and exit from the superheated vapour section. In the condensation section, the
temperature of the refrigerant reaches the saturation temperature (Tc). This temperature is kept constant during
condensation. In the last section, the liquid refrigerant is subcooled to Tlsc.
The cooling water enters in the condenser with its lowest temperature (T wi) and, along the mentioned zones will
reach higher temperatures as follows: Twtp, Twsh and Twe – at the condenser exit; subscripts tp and sh means two-
phase and superheat.
Along the three discussed sections, the wall temperature is assumed to be constant and shows three levels: Ttsh,
Tttp and the lower one – Ttsb, where t means tube, sh means superheat, tp means two-phase and sb means
subcooling.
Evaporators are heat exchangers used to extract heat from the environment needed to be cooled, through out the
evaporation of a refrigerant. Depending on their construction, evaporators can be bare tube, plate type, shell and
coil, finned tube, shell and tube or tube in tube type.

Fig. 4. Schematic temperature profile in the condenser, [12]

On board of old ships, the evaporator is shell and tube type and it is known as chiller. Their large application is
based on their advantages such as: performance, compactness and easy maintenance.
A shell and tube evaporator is made up of closely spaced straight tubes arranged in parallel; they form a tube
bundle to be placed in a cylindrical body (the shell); such type of evaporators can be flooded (the refrigerant
circulates outside the tube) or dry expansion type (the refrigerant circulates inside the tubes) [13].
A schematic representation of a dry expansion type evaporator is given in Figure 5 in order to be seen that the
refrigerant (R22) will evaporate inside the tubes (the red arrows) in order to cool the brine (the blue arrows)
[14].

Fig. 5. Brine-refrigerant shell and tube evaporator, [14]

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Tubes are made from copper or copper alloys, since freons do not react with these materials. In order to get a
more compact design, finned tubes are recommended. Exterior fines are obtained through out rolling; they
present a height of 1.45- 1.60 mm and are quite close one to an other in order to get a beading coefficient in the
range (3.5- 3.8).
In order to increase the speed of the secondary fluid (brine) flowing perpendicular on the tube bundles, inside
the shell are fitted baffles. As a direct result, it is obtained an enhancement of the heat transfer coefficient on the
secondary fluid side. A key aspect is related to the uniform distribution of the refrigerant on the horizontal
pipes. If this distribution is not appropriate, some of the pipes will be supplied in a preferential manner.
Usually, in order to achieve an adequate distribution of the refrigerant on the horizontal pipes, it is
recommended the use of a distributor device or the maintaining of the refrigerant pressure at the evaporator inlet
at a minimum value.

4. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The focused system, also known as mechanical refrigeration system, and the specific processes are described
below [15-17]. The schematic diagram of vapour compression refrigeration system is provided in Figure 6, [18].

Fig. 7. p-h diagram of the vapour compression

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of a vapour refrigeration
refrigeration system
system, [18]

The simpler vapour compression refrigeration system has four main components: two heat exchangers
(condenser and evaporator), a compressor and a throttling valve.
The processes taking place in each main component are shown in Figure 7, by taking advantage of pressure-
enthalpy diagram.
The representation is specific for the cycle without sub cooling and super heating.
Dry saturated vapour (1) are compressed in the compressor until superheated state (2). Entering in the condenser
with state (2), vapours are firstly cooled and then condensed.
The condenser works at the high value of the pressure (p cond), processes taking place in this heat exchanger
occurring with heat release.
The resulted saturated liquid (3) goes to the throttling valve, to be expanded at constant enthalpy; during the
process 3-4, the pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant decrease.
The liquid-vapour mixture (4) enters in the evaporator and changes its phase (4-1), for cooling purposes. The
evaporation process takes place at low pressure (pevap) and occurs with heat absorption.

5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

The concept of entropy, introduced throughout the second law of thermodynamics, is a measure of thermal
disorder; it is conserved in reversible processes (since there is no entropy generation) and it is irreversibly
generated in the real ones.
Exergy, also introduced throughout the second law of thermodynamics, it is seen as the amount of work
performed by a system when it reaches the thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment. According to this
law, exergy is not conserved in real processes.
The involvement of exergy in thermodynamic analysis enhances conventional energy analysis applied to
existing refrigeration plants, in order to optimize them. This tool, called exergy analysis is able to assess exergy
efficiency and exergy destructions.

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Exergy efficiency (or second law efficiency) indicates how much of the work capacity can be used, while
exergy destruction gives the measure of resource degradation.
It is possible to find the total exergy destruction in the system, by the help of the sum of exergy destruction in
the main devices of the analysed system (compressor, condenser, throttling valve and evaporator).
The mathematical formulation of the developed analysis implies the setting up of specific assumptions and
writing of the below given equations [19-26].
Assumptions are as follows: the four main devices of the system are analysed at steady state conditions; are
neglected pressure losses in the pipelines of the two heat exchangers; are neglected losses of potential and
kinetic energies and are neglected heat losses and heat gains, as well.
The specific refrigeration load (kJ/kg):
q14  h1  h4 (1)
where: h1 – specific enthalpy at evaporator outlet and h4 – specific enthalpy at evaporator inlet.
The specific heat evacuated at the condenser (kJ/kg):
q23  h2  h3 (2)
where: h2 – specific enthalpy at condenser inlet and h3 – specific enthalpy at condenser outlet.
The specific work input to the compressor (kJ/kg):
w21  h2  h1 (3)
where: h2 – specific enthalpy at compressor outlet and h1 – specific enthalpy at compressor inlet.
The Coefficient of Performance, or the overall cycle performance, also known as first law efficiency, is given by
the rate between the refrigeration load and work input:
COP  h1  h4  h2  h1  (4)
For any state, the specific exergy is (kJ/kg):
ex  h  h0   T0 s  s0  (5)
where: s – specific entropy, (kJ/kgK); T – absolute temperature, (T) and subscript “0” – stands for reference
state.
For the compressor, specific exergy destructions (kJ/kg):
   
id .comp  c p T2  T1   T0 c p lnT2 T1   w12 (6)

where: cp – specific heat of the refrigerant, (kJ/kgK).

For the condenser, specific exergy destructions (kJ/kg):
    
id .cd  c p T3  T2   c p T0 c p lnT3 T2   c p T3  T2 1  T0 T3   (7)

For the throttling valve, specific exergy destructions (kJ/kg):

  
id .thv  c p T4  T3   T0 c p lnT4 T3   (8)

For the evaporator, specific exergy destructions (kJ/kg):

     
id .ev  c p T1  T4   T0 c p lnT1 T4   c p T1  T4 1  T0 T1  (9)

Specific total exergy destructions (kJ/kg):

iTOT  id .comp  id .cd  id .thv  id .ev (10)

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The below provided results are obtained for an ambient temperature of 28oC, when the evaporator temperature
takes different values: 6.5oC, 7.5oC, 8.5oC and 9.5oC, while the condenser temperature is kept constant.
Figures 8, 9 and 10 reveal the variation of specific work consumption, Coefficient of Performance and total
specific exergy destruction with varying evaporator temperature of R22, in the above mentioned range.
The graphs show that variations in evaporator temperature have a significant influence on Coefficient of
Performance and specific total exergy destruction values.
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The increase of evaporator temperature leads to COP increase and to work consumption decrease and total
exergy consumption decrease as well. At higher evaporator temperature, the saturation pressure increases.
Also, the enthalpy of R22 refrigerant results to be higher. That is why the refrigerating effect in the evaporator is
boosted, so the cooling capacity as well.
The increment of evaporator temperature will be found in less energy consumption, as it is seen from the change
in specific work consumed with respect to evaporator temperature.

Fig. 8. Variation of specific work consumption Fig. 9. Variation of COP with evaporator temperature
with evaporator temperature

Fig. 10. Variation of specific total exergy

Fig. 11. Specific exergy destructions in the main
destruction with evaporator temperature
components of the system, at an evaporator temperature
of 9.5oC

A better cooling capacity with less energy consumption means a better performance of the old vapour
compression system working with R22.
Rising the value of evaporator temperature from 6.5oC to 9.5oC, the difference between the cold room and the
sea water temperature is diminished.
Thus, exergy destructions are decreased. The explanation is based on the fact that irreversibilities diminish
under such circumstances.
It is well known that for low temperature differences, irreversibilities are lower; low irreversibility is equivalent
with low exergy degradation.
Based on these observations, the performance of such kind of old plants can be improved. Since, for this case of
study, the best performance was noticed for the maximum evaporator temperature (for 9.5oC), have been
assessed the exergy destructions in the four main components of the plant. Thus, the following image is
provided (Figure 11).
The exergy analysis is showing once again its benefits, from Figure 8 being possible to see which devices are
the most inefficient. It is obvious the fact that the two heat exchangers of the system (condenser and evaporator)
are highly inefficient, in comparison with the throttling valve and the compressor.

7. CONCLUSIONS

In this paper a single stage vapour compression refrigeration cycle’s performance runned by R22 was
investigated. Energy and exergy analysis with respect to evaporator temperature was performed, resulting
graphical illustrations.

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The variation of evaporator temperature influences the performance of the cycle. The increase of this
temperature from 6.5oC to 9.5oC leads to more than 10% COP increase, 5.81% specific work consumption
decrease and 2.4% specific total exergy destruction decrease.
Being obvious that best performance is found for the highest evaporator temperature value considered (9.5oC),
the exhibited exergy loss in the main components of the system reveals that because of high irreversibilities and
friction, exergy destruction in the condenser occupies 56% of the total exergy destruction in the system.
Around 36% destruction was registered in the evaporator, while the compressor and the throttling valve present
relatively lower exergy destructions.

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Received: December 17, 2022 / Accepted: June 15, 2023 / Paper available online: June 20, 2023 © International
Journal of Modern Manufacturing Technologies.
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