What does gender mainstreaming mean?

• The ECOSOC Agreed Conclusions 1997/2 provided a clear definition of the mainstreaming strategy as:

“…the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation,
policies or programs, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns
and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and
programs in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality
is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.”

How is gender mainstreaming done?

1. Step 1: Understanding the Connection
The first step is to figure out how gender equality is connected to the area you are working on. For example, if
you are working on issues like the environment, poverty, or health, you need to ask:

o How do these issues affect men and women differently?

o Why is it important to include both men and women equally?
This step helps to understand that promoting gender equality is important for fairness, human rights, and
achieving development goals.

2. Step 2: Finding Opportunities

The next step is to look for chances to include gender perspectives in your work. These chances (or entry
points) can be found in activities like:

o Doing research and analysis.

o Writing policies.

o Using statistics that show differences between men and women.

o Organizing training sessions or conferences.

o Planning and running projects or programs.

3. Step 3: Choosing the Right Approach

After finding opportunities, you need a plan to include gender perspectives in your work. This plan should help
you influence:

o Goals (what you want to achieve).

o Strategies (how you will achieve it).

o Resources (money, time, and effort).

o Outcomes (the results of your work).

For example:

o Include gender equality in job descriptions or project goals.

 o Develop rules and guidelines that focus on gender.

o Work with gender specialists or experts.

o Train everyone involved to understand and apply gender equality ideas.

By following these steps, organizations can make sure their work is fair and helps both men and women equally.

Where Does the Gender Mainstreaming Strategy Come From?

The idea of gender mainstreaming has evolved over decades as a strategy to achieve gender equality. It
emerged from the realization that earlier efforts, though impactful for some, didn’t address the deeper structural
issues that create and sustain gender inequality.

1. Early Approaches: Targeted Programs for Women

In the initial years, strategies focused on specific programs and activities for women. For example,
there were projects designed exclusively for women’s education, healthcare, or employment.

o Results: These efforts were beneficial, especially for women who participated directly.

o Limitation: They didn’t tackle the root causes of inequality, such as discriminatory policies,
social norms, and unequal access to resources. As a result, they couldn’t create large-scale, long-
lasting change.

2. Integration of Women (1970s)

By the 1970s, there was a shift toward integrating women into broader development activities rather
than isolating them in separate programs. The idea was to make women active participants in all sectors
of development, like economic planning, healthcare, and education.

o Challenge: The integration happened too late in the planning processes, after major decisions
about goals, resources, and strategies were already made. Women’s unique contributions, needs,
and priorities were ignored.

o Result: This approach increased women’s participation but failed to address structural barriers
or achieve gender equality on a broader scale.

3. Emergence of Gender Mainstreaming (1980s)

By the 1980s, the need for a new approach became clear. Gender mainstreaming emerged as a strategy
to make gender equality a core consideration in all development activities.

o The term “mainstreaming” emphasizes the need to include gender equality in the mainstream of
planning and decision-making processes from the very beginning.

o Key Objective: To influence goals, strategies, and resource allocation by addressing gender
concerns early on. This approach aimed to create real, structural changes in policies and
programs.

Mandate for Gender Mainstreaming

The strategy of gender mainstreaming is backed by global commitments, frameworks, and directives:

1. Beijing Platform for Action (1995)

This landmarks agreement established gender mainstreaming as the primary strategy for achieving
gender equality worldwide. It required that all sectors and areas of development integrate gender
equality considerations.

2. ECOSOC Agreed Conclusions (1997)

These conclusions laid down important principles for mainstreaming:
o All issues and problems must be analyzed to understand gender differences and disparities.

o No issue should be assumed to be gender-neutral. Gender analysis is essential to uncover

underlying inequalities.

o Women’s equitable participation must be expanded in decision-making at all levels.

3. UN General Assembly Resolutions (1997)

o Required all United Nations programs and budgets to visibly integrate a gender perspective.

o Called for the use of gender-disaggregated data, specific gender studies, and targeted strategies.

4. Security Council Resolution on Women, Peace, and Security (2000)

o Recognized the need for gender mainstreaming in peacekeeping operations and conflict
resolution, highlighting how conflicts affect women and men differently.

Who Is Responsible for Gender Mainstreaming?

1. Leadership Responsibility
The responsibility for implementing gender mainstreaming lies with the highest levels of management
within governments, organizations, and the United Nations.

o Leaders must develop systems to ensure accountability.

o Progress should be monitored using clear indicators of success.

2. Role of Gender Specialists

o While mainstreaming makes all personnel responsible for promoting gender equality, gender
specialists still play a crucial role.

o Their roles evolve to include advising, catalyzing, and supporting efforts by others rather than
directly implementing mainstreaming strategies.

o Gender specialists need strong organizational support, sufficient resources, and access to senior
management.

Feminism: A Comprehensive Overview

Definition of Feminism
Feminism is the belief that men and women should have equal rights, opportunities, and respect in every sphere
of life. It fights against patriarchy, a system where men hold dominant positions and women are often
marginalized.

 Patriarchy Explained:
Patriarchy is an ideology that places men in a position of superiority. This system affects how resources,
power, and opportunities are distributed, often leaving women with fewer rights and choices.

Purpose of Feminism:
1. Equality: Ensures equal rights in education, employment, and social opportunities for men and women.

2. Respect: Aims to eliminate practices, traditions, or laws that degrade or discriminate against women.

3. Challenging Stereotypes: Confronts societal beliefs that limit individuals based on gender.

What is Feminist Theory?

Feminist theory expands feminism into broader academic discussions. It analyzes human experiences and social
life from a woman-centered perspective.

Key Features of Feminist Theory:

1. Focus on Women’s Experiences:

o The starting point for feminist theory is understanding women’s roles and struggles in society.

o It includes analyzing issues like wage gaps, access to education, and reproductive rights.

2. Understanding Gender Inequality:

o Examines how power dynamics between genders are created and maintained in society.

o Looks at laws, traditions, and cultural norms that perpetuate inequality.

3. Interdisciplinary Nature:

o Involves various fields such as sociology, history, philosophy, art, economics, and anthropology.

o Encourages collaboration across disciplines to address complex gender issues.

Purpose of Feminist Theory:

 To critique existing social and political systems.

 To offer solutions that promote gender equality.

 To amplify women’s voices and perspectives in academic and practical fields.

Basic Principles of Feminism

Feminism is built on four key principles, which guide its ideas and actions:
1. Working to Increase Equality:
 o Feminism is not just about discussing gender issues; it calls for real action to bring change.

o Example: Advocating for equal pay laws or maternity leave policies.

2. Expanding Human Choices:

o Feminism believes everyone should have the freedom to explore their interests, talents, and
career paths without being limited by societal expectations.

o Example: Encouraging men to take up caregiving roles or women to enter fields like
engineering.

3. Eliminating Gender Stratification:

o Gender stratification refers to societal structures that prioritize men over women.
o Feminists fight against discrimination in education, employment, and leadership positions.

4. Ending Sexual Violence and Promoting Sexual Freedom:

o Feminism advocates for women’s control over their bodies, including their reproductive rights.

o Example: Campaigning against sexual harassment or restrictive abortion laws.

Key Questions Feminists Ask:

1. What about women? (What roles do women play in society?)

2. Why is the world like this? (Why do inequalities exist?)

3. How can we improve society for everyone?

4. What about differences among women? (How do race, class, or ethnicity affect gender experiences?)

Historical Waves of Feminism

First Wave (19th–20th Century)

 Timeframe: Late 1800s to early 1900s.

 Focus: Political and legal rights for women, especially the right to vote.

 Achievements:
o Women’s suffrage movements gained momentum in countries like the USA and the UK.

o Key Event: In 1920, women in the USA gained the right to vote with the 19th Amendment.

Second Wave (1960s–1980s)

 Timeframe: Mid-20th century.

 Focus: Social and cultural equality, gender roles, and reproductive rights.

 Key Achievements:

o Women gained access to higher education and entered the workforce in greater numbers.
 o Campaigns for reproductive rights, including access to birth control and legal abortion.

 Key Idea: Introduction of gender as a concept to analyze societal roles and behaviors.

Third Wave (1990s–Present)

 Focus: Intersectionality and representation.

 Key Themes:

o Addressing issues like gender violence and workplace harassment.

o Advocating for representation of women in leadership, media, and government.

o Embracing diversity among women’s experiences (race, ethnicity, class).

Varieties of Feminist Theories

1. Radical Feminism

 Beliefs:
o Sexism is deeply ingrained in society and can only be removed by dismantling traditional
systems.
o The traditional family structure is seen as oppressive because it places men in power.

 Goal: Eliminate the concept of gender altogether.

 Example: Campaigning against patriarchal traditions that force women into caregiving roles.

2. Socialist Feminism (Marxist Feminism)

 Beliefs:

o Capitalism is a major source of gender inequality.

o Men in power maintain their economic status by excluding women.

 Goal: Reform the economy into a socialist system to create equal opportunities.

 Example: Advocating for workplace reforms to reduce wage gaps.

3. Liberal Feminism

 Beliefs:

o Men and women should have equal access to rights and opportunities.

o Society wrongly assumes women are less capable than men.

 Goal: Achieve equality through legal, social, and political reforms.

 Example: Fighting for laws that ensure equal pay or prevent workplace discrimination.
4. Cultural Feminism
  Beliefs:

o Society benefits from encouraging feminine qualities such as empathy and nurturing.

 Goal: Value women’s unique approaches and perspectives in societal roles.

 Example: Highlighting the importance of caregiving professions like nursing and teaching.
5. Postmodern Feminism

 Beliefs:

o Challenges fixed ideas about gender, identity, and social norms.

o Focuses on diverse perspectives rather than universal truths.

 Goal: Break down traditional gender categories.

 Example: Encouraging inclusive discussions about non-binary and transgender experiences.

Modern Applications of Feminism

1. Education:

o Increasing enrollment of girls in schools and universities.

o Introducing gender studies in curriculums.

2. Workplace Equality:

o Campaigning for equal pay.

o Promoting women in leadership roles.

3. Ending Violence Against Women:

o Legal reforms to combat domestic violence, harassment, and trafficking.

4. Representation in Media and Politics:

o Increasing the presence of women in films, advertisements, and government offices.

Conclusion

Feminism is a dynamic movement that has evolved over centuries to address the changing needs of society. By
understanding its principles, waves, and theories, we can work toward a world where everyone—regardless of
gender—has equal opportunities and respect. Feminism is not just for women; it benefits everyone by creating a
more just and inclusive society.

GENDER IDENTITIES AND ITS TYPES

GENDER IDENTITY

Gender identity is someone's internal experience of gender and how they choose to express themselves
externally. We cannot assume someone's gender identity based on their chromosomes, genitalia, clothing, roles,
or otherwise. Gender identity may evolve and change over time.

There are two overarching categories of gender identity:

 Cisgender: Someone who is cisgender identifies with the sex they were assigned at birth. For example,
a cisgender woman identifies with being a female, the sex assigned at birth.

 Transgender: An umbrella term encompassing everyone who experiences and identifies with a different
gender than the one they were assigned at birth. The word also encompasses those who identify as a
gender other than man or woman, including nonbinary and genderfluid.

Gender expression has two overarching categories as well:

 Conforming: the individual's behavior, clothing, and appearance are consistent with what is expected by
society.

 Non-conforming: the individual deviates from the norms of society when it comes to the way they
express their gender. Both cis- and transgender people can be gender non-conforming. For example,
cisgender women do not necessarily conform to all feminine constructs in terms of roles, activities,
domestic responsibilities, clothing preferences, hairstyles, etc.

Types of gender identities:

Gender identities exist on a spectrum and are not limited to a fixed number. However, some commonly
recognized types of gender identities include:

a) Binary Gender Identities

1. Male (Man)

2. Female (Woman)

b) Non-Binary Gender Identities

1. Genderqueer:

Rejecting traditional categories of male and female.

2. Genderfluid:

Moving between different gender identities over time.

3. Agender:
Identifying as having no gender or being gender-neutral.

4. Bigender:

Identifying as two genders simultaneously or at different times.

5. Demiboy:
 Partially identifying as male but not entirely.

6. Demigirl:

Partially identifying as female but not entirely.

7. Two-Spirit:
A cultural identity specific to some Indigenous peoples in North America.

Other Identities

1. Cisgender:

When gender identity aligns with sex assigned at birth.

2. Transgender:

When gender identity differs from the sex assigned at birth.

3. Intersex:

People are born with biological characteristics that don’t fit traditional definitions of male or female.
4. Androgynous:

A mix of both male and female characteristics.

Culturally Specific Genders

Some societies recognize genders beyond the binary, such as:

1. Hijra:

A third-gender identity in South Asia.

2. Fa'afafine:
A third-gender identity in Samoa.

3. Bakla:

A Gender Identity in the Philippines.

Approaches to Women, Gender, and Development (Simplified)

The way we approach gender and development has changed over time, influenced by practices of aid
organizations, donor trends, private sector norms, and academic research. By the late 20th century, all gender-
related approaches were combined into a single framework called Gender and Development (GAD). However,
some experts argue that the term "gender" is often used to mean only "women," which is not accurate. Recently,
the role of men and masculinity has also been studied, but this has raised debates as gender equality is still far
from achieved.

Different Approaches Over Time

Approaches to Gender and Development
1. The Welfare Approach

Until the early 1970s, development policies were directed at women primarily in their roles as wives and
mothers, focusing on mother and child health and reducing fertility. It was assumed that economic growth
strategies would trickle down to the poor, indirectly benefiting women as the economic status of their husbands
improved.
However, Boserup (1970) challenged this assumption, showing that women often did not benefit from
increased household income and were losing status. This approach largely viewed women as passive
beneficiaries rather than active participants in development.

2. The Women in Development (WID) Approach

The rise of the women’s movement in Western Europe and North America, the UN International Year for
Women (1975), and the International Women’s Decade (1976–1985) spurred the establishment of WID
policies. This approach aimed to integrate women into economic development by promoting income
generation projects for them.
However, WID was criticized for marginal success due to misconceptions about women's availability and
treating women as a homogenous group. By the 1980s, advocates shifted to highlighting women's potential
contributions to development instead of merely exposing the negative effects of development on women.

3. Gender and Development (GAD)

Emerging in the mid-1970s in the UK, GAD focused on gender relations—the socially constructed power
dynamics between men and women. It analyzed how development reshaped these relations, emphasizing the
role of class, ethnicity, age, and marital status in influencing outcomes.
Proponents differentiated between practical gender interests (improving women's roles) and strategic gender
interests (empowering women to take on new roles). GAD advocated for systemic change in power structures
through gender mainstreaming in development agencies.

4. Women and Development (WAD)

Presented at the 1975 UN Women’s World Conference in Mexico City, WAD criticized Northern feminist
approaches for ignoring the realities of developing countries. Advocates emphasized that poverty and colonial
legacies were more pressing concerns than gender equality.
The DAWN Network, founded in the South, sought to amplify developing countries’ perspectives. By 1990,
WID, GAD, and WAD converged to some extent, though variations in approach remained.

5. The Efficiency Approach

This approach aligned with the structural adjustment programs (SAPs) of the 1980s, arguing that gender
analysis improved project outcomes by recognizing men's and women's distinct roles.
While pragmatic, the efficiency approach was criticized for prioritizing what women could contribute to
development over how development could improve women’s lives.

6. The Empowerment Approach

In the 1980s, empowerment emerged as a grassroots strategy aimed at social transformation and achieving
gender equality. Unlike mainstream institutions that viewed empowerment as a tool for productivity, feminist
activists saw it as a method for building self-confidence and self-esteem among women.
The approach often involved community-level participation and emphasized organizational skills to empower
women as active decision-makers.

7. Gender and the Environment (GED)

Rooted in ecofeminism, particularly the works of Vandana Shiva, GED highlighted the link between women
and environmental conservation. While some argued for an essentialist view, others adopted a materialist or
feminist political ecology approach to address the intersection of gender and environmental sustainability.

8. Mainstreaming Gender Equality

Adopted widely after the 1995 UN Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing), this approach aimed to
integrate gender perspectives into all aspects of policy design, implementation, and evaluation. It sought to
prevent the perpetuation of gender inequalities and reduce male backlash against women’s projects.
Mainstreaming gender equality became central to poverty alleviation programs, aligning with donor-
supported development efforts.

9. The Human Rights Approach

Dominant in recent decades, this approach is embedded in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and
emphasizes social justice and intersectionality. The concept gained momentum with the rise of young
feminisms and digital activism, enabling marginalized groups to engage in development processes.
By addressing intersecting oppressions, this approach seeks to promote inclusive development that accounts
for diverse identities and experiences.

The three approaches—Gender Neutral, Gender Responsive/Aware, and Gender Transformative—

represent broad strategic approaches used in the field of gender and development. They describe the levels of
integration and focus on gender issues within development work. These three approaches can be seen as
overarching categories or modern frameworks under which the earlier nine approaches can be classified or
understood.

Relationship Between the Nine Approaches and the Three Broad Approaches:

1. Gender Neutral Approach:

 o Definition: This approach does not consider gender differences. It assumes that men and
women will benefit equally from development interventions, ignoring the specific needs or
inequalities faced by either gender.

o Connection to the Nine Approaches:

 The Welfare Approach aligns with this category. It assumed that improving men’s
economic status (e.g., by increasing their income) would automatically benefit women
and children. This ignored the specific challenges women faced.
 The Efficiency Approach also has elements of being gender neutral because it focuses
on economic benefits without deeply addressing women's needs.

2. Gender Responsive (or Gender Aware) Approach:

o Definition: This approach acknowledges gender differences and tries to respond to them. It
aims to ensure that women and men benefit equally from development programs by addressing
their specific needs.
o Connection to the Nine Approaches:

 The WID (Women in Development) approach fits here because it tried to include
women in development projects, like income-generation activities.

 The GAD (Gender and Development) approach also aligns because it goes beyond
recognizing women's needs to focus on gender relations and their influence on
development.

 Mainstreaming Gender Equality is gender responsive because it seeks to integrate both

women’s and men’s perspectives into all development efforts.

3. Gender Transformative Approach:

o Definition: This approach aims to change the structures and norms that create and sustain
gender inequalities. It focuses on empowering women, promoting gender equality, and
challenging existing power relations.

o Connection to the Nine Approaches:

 The Empowerment Approach directly connects with this category as it emphasizes

grassroots participation and social transformation.

 GAD also has transformative aspects, as it highlights the need to restructure power
dynamics and tackle systemic inequalities.

 Human Rights Approach shares transformative goals by focusing on justice, equality,

and inclusion for women and other marginalized groups.
How the Nine Approaches Fit Within the Three Broad Approaches:

Broad Approach Associated Approaches from the Nine

Gender Neutral Welfare Approach, Efficiency Approach

Gender WID Approach, GAD Approach, Mainstreaming Gender Equality, GED (Gender
Responsive/Aware and Environment)

Empowerment Approach, GAD Approach, Human Rights Approach, WAD (Women

Gender Transformative
and Development)

Key Takeaway:

 The three modern approaches are broad frameworks that reflect different levels of engagement with
gender issues in development.

 The nine specific approaches are historical and conceptual strategies that fall under these broad
categories based on their focus and goals.

 Over time, development work has shifted from gender-neutral to gender-responsive and
transformative approaches, showing a growing understanding of the importance of addressing gender
inequality at its root causes.