Understanding Social

Learning Styles Using the

Social Thinking–Social
Communication/Characteristi
cs Summary (ST-SCS)
Michelle Garcia Winner, MA, CCC-SLP and
Pamela Crooke, PhD, CCC-SLP (Early
contributions by Stephanie Madrigal, MA,
CCC-SLP)
Updated: Sept, 2022
© 2022 Think Social Publishing, Inc.

The obvious goal for professionals working with learners

with social communication differences and/or challenges is
to better define key factors in assessment and then use the
information to develop effective and practical social
supports. When determining the social communication
learning style or characteristics, we have found it most
helpful to start from ground zero, which means we don’t use
a diagnosis (or lack of diagnosis) as a variable. Instead, we
examine the individual’s current social learning strengths
(and challenges) and consider mental health factors, social
developmental level, temperament (for lack of a better
word), likes/dislikes, and their personal social desires or
goals.

We first need to acknowledge that the social communication

learning process is fraught with complexity because it is also
a social emotional process. Most of us tend to respond
emotionally (internally and perhaps externally) to those who
are around us and how they treat us and others. This means
we need to consider factors related to social language as
well as social emotional processing. Key factors include
being able to read the context, responses related to non-
verbal cues (i.e., situational cues), what one knows or
doesn't know about the communication partner, how we
think and feel about what they say and do (tone of voice,
facial expression, word choice, gestures, etc.). And, to
complicate matters, the social communication process is
synergistic and dynamic and constantly evolves with age.

Social Thinking (thinking socially) vs. Social Skills

The term Social Thinking® was created by Michelle Garcia

Winner in the late 1990s to move teaching beyond and
beneath the level of encouraging students and clients to
simply memorize and use social skills. The early work
focused on how social cognition (thinking socially),
metacognition, and emotional processing could be used to
build supports through language and cognitive-based tools.
Her motivation was to move away from a “one size fits all”
approach to teaching more deeply about the social world.
She began documenting what most clinicians and teachers
know: some approaches are better suited for certain kids
while others are not. And that in order to figure out the most
effective, efficient, and practical teaching tools, we need to
understand the learner’s strengths, their needs, and their
goals. This deeper look at learner characteristics led to a
series of articles and hypotheses over the years. This article
will suggest ways to understand the social learner without
relying solely on standardized testing and to use what we
learn to build better teaching and support programs.

A Model for Understanding How the Social World Works

One way to think about describing the social world is to use

the rich research and evidence base from the social
sciences. If you are at all familiar with the Social Thinking
Methodology (STM), then you know that we love to build
models, visuals, and combine theory to form logical and
practical ways for people to understand the social learning
process. These models are always dynamic and changing
because the evidence that informs them is dynamic and
changing. In 2017, we proposed a visual model to help define
the social thinking process and then build teaching supports
based on the individual learner. From the information
processing literature, we propose that that building social
thinking for social competencies starts with a four-tier
process that includes: social attention, social interpretation,
and social problem solving (or decision making) to figure out
how to socially respond. Social responses can include what
we do with our bodies, eyes, facial expressions, words, etc.
This four-tiered process is summarized in the Social
Thinking–Social Competency Model (ST-SCM) (Winner &
Crooke, 2017).

Social competencies can include but are not limited to:

Social attention - We notice and/or observe where we are,

who is present, and what’s happening). Gathering
information through social observation allows us to make
sense of our observations through—

Social interpretation - We use our social minds to consider

the information we’ve gathered to assign meaning. We also
consider our own/others’ thoughts and feelings while using
knowledge about how the world works (world-based
knowledge) to—

Socially problem solve - We consider potential dilemmas,

others’ points of view, and our own social goals to decide
whether or not to—

Socially respond - We take action (or not) with our bodies

and words. We may comment or instead hold that thought.
We might move toward a group or move away. Our social
responses are based on accomplishing our own social
goal(s) or social desires.

The ST-SCM is evidence-aligned and grounded in the

seminal work related to social information processing, social
learning theory, and social cognition. In our model, social skill
production does not stand alone. Instead, it is based on how
we move through the four steps above. In other words, social
skills are the output of a complicated observational,
interpretive, and problem-solving process. This means the
production of social skills is not simply an act resulting from
memorized behaviors produced on cue but are in fact a
result of the social mind’s intricate social reasoning.

So, thinking socially (social thinking) occurs when we

consider the context (e.g., where we are, who the people
are, and what’s happening) and what we know about our
own and others’ thoughts, emotions, beliefs, desires,
motives, prior knowledge, and experiences in that situation.
We use this information to interpret and possibly respond to
others. We use our social thinking even when we are not
intending to interact with another person. For example,
whenever we read fiction, our social brain needs to figure out
what we know about the character’s thoughts, feelings, and
beliefs. We interpret intentions of characters in movies and
online. Thinking socially (social thinking) is a building block
for social competencies (Crooke et al., 2016).

Corey was an autistic third grader who had superior

language and cognitive abilities as measured by
standardized tests. His performance on these and other
academic tests prompted teachers and support staff to
assume he didn’t need other supports. After all, his “raw
intelligence” made learning new fact-based information
extremely easy. He rarely had to read or hear something
more than one time before he learned the concept – except
for social. Corey had memorized basic social skills for the
classroom and consistently “raised his hand” to answer
questions; however, when the teacher called on other
students to answer, Corey would walk over to those students
and hit them. When asked, “Why are you hitting those kids
when they answer the question?” Corey replied very matter-
of-factly, “Those kids are stealing my answers!”

Different Social Learning Styles and Characteristics

The ST-SCS was developed, in part, because of a desire to

better describe a range of unique learning styles by looking
at patterns in social learning characteristics. In the example
above, having a better understanding of Corey’s social
communication learning style could help to guide the
development of more refined teaching and support tools.
Not all autistic learners have the same social characteristics,
just as non-autistic students have differing social
characteristics. It was at this point that Winner began
looking more closely at the different social learning styles
and discovered there were some who were a good fit for the
Social Thinking Methodology and others who were a better
fit with different social skills approaches. For example, a
more skill-based intervention seemed to be helpful for those
students whose social communication learning style was
more literal and concrete. These students needed more
supports for understanding the social world, and the
cognitive and language demands of the Social Thinking
Methodology (STM) would bog down their learning. On the
other hand, some students with strengths in cognition,
language, and academics tended to be a good match for the
metacognitive tools and language-based activities found in
the STM. From this early work, she developed the
Perspective Taking Scale which included three learning style
subtypes. The perspective taking scale was published in
articles, books, and websites and eventually evolved into six
different learning subtypes found in the Social Thinking–
Social Communication/Characteristics Summary (ST-
SCS).

This learning style characteristic summary is dynamic and

continues to change according to the latest research,
extensive clinical experience, and family input (ASHA
definition of evidence-based). While the ST-SCS has yet to
be included in a formal research study, the components are
certainly evidence-informed and based on a foundation of
evidence-based concepts and definitions. Therefore, the ST-
SCS should be thought of as a descriptive tool to help
interventionists better understand the learning nuances of
the students and clients with whom they work and teach.
The ST-SCS should never be used to diagnose or measure
progress.

Characteristics Found in the ST-SCS

A key factor in developing social thinking and social

competencies is having social awareness of oneself and
others to observe social contexts and how people share
space within these contexts. Observation requires
awareness of one’s surroundings and the people within
them. We noticed that our students had different types of
social awareness of the place, people, and what was
happening in their environment. These same learners, on the
other hand, had extreme awareness of shapes, sounds, or
other items of interest. The hypothesis based on these
different types of social awareness is that some social
learners have a strong sense of social attention that is
intuitive while others need different levels of support to use
social attention. The team began to refer to this
phenomenon as one’s “social radar” system. This led to
developing six social learning styles (includes two subtypes)
that are now found in the ST-SCS. These social learning
styles are on a continuum from a very strong social radar to
a developing or fully supported social radar. By initially
defining one’s intuitive social radar, teaching and supports
can be developed that tap into this learning style. It is
important to note that the social learning styles are not
about a diagnosis and represent characteristics found in all
types of learners, both neurotypical and Neurodivergent.

These social communication learning styles include:

Neurotypical Social Communicator (NSC)

Nuance Challenged* Social Communicator (NCSC)
*NCSC includes social anxiety and
attention/executive functions as mediators of social
communication
Emerging Social Communicator (ESC)
Challenged Social Communicator (CSC)
Significantly Challenged Social Communicator
(SCSC)
Self-Protective (Resistant) Social Communicator
(RSC)

Multidimensional Characteristics of Learning Styles

The ST-SCS represents multidimensional characteristics
based on the synergistic and dynamic ways in which social
cognition and social metacognition impact social and
academic learning and emotional health. The characteristics
used to define the different styles of learning include:

1. Understanding one’s own and others’ minds (including

the use of social radar)
2. Emotional coping (mental health challenges)
3. Social problem solving
4. Peer interaction including play
5. Self-awareness
6. Academic skills
7. Bullying, tricks, mental manipulation

The Influence of Neurology

We postulate that the variance in people’s social learning

styles is, in part, due to unique neurology present at birth.
These hard-wired social characteristics, in turn, impact and
influence future social and sensory learning. Neurotypical
and Neurodivergent individuals represent a huge range of
cognitive, sensory, and language skills and it is logical that
not everyone learns concepts in the same manner, depth, or
speed. In other words, learners are unique so tools and
outcomes should be unique too.
This can be confusing for parents who assume that because
two children have the same diagnostic label, they should
have similar teaching or support programs and will have the
same outcomes. This is both unfair to the student and the
families. Rather, describing different social communication
learning styles allows for teams to describe, for example,
why a particular student may be more literal in their language
arts class, or struggle with more abstract content.

We feel it is important to work with families and teams to

develop a logical guideline for the learning strengths and
struggles unique to each to best support each student.
While prognoses are often problematic, in that educators
and families may underestimate the person’s learning
trajectory, they can also be a place to have honest
discussions about what happens in the future. The reality is
that federal monies to support adult programs, transitioning
into adulthood, nuances of the work world, and building
mature relationships are limited in scope and having honest
discussions early can mean proactive lifetime supports.
Many people don’t want to talk about prognoses, but
avoiding these tougher discussions is not the solution either.
As a reminder, IEPs are short-lived. Most of a person’s life
does not include an IEP, so at some point we need to focus
on helping individuals to live as independently as possible
while experiencing well-being in their social and career
goals.
Important: This ST-SCS is not a scale that reflects
development nor is it “recovery-based.” In a nutshell, it is a
way to describe the strengths and needs of individual
learners. The descriptive categories are meant to be a
resource to describe students eight years of age and older
because 3rd to 4th grade tends to be a time when social
communication learning styles are solidified. In other words,
individuals don’t usually move from one social learning style
to another after this point. It is also important to recognize
that social development continues to evolve throughout
childhood and even in adulthood. What was too difficult to
understand when young can be, in part, aided by maturity.
When we look at a person’s progress, we need to focus on
how the individual has improved compared to themselves
rather than how that person compares to others of the same
age.

Using this descriptive tool is in no way meant to limit the

growth of an individual or their potential, but rather should
help with selecting teaching materials and guide discussions
about realistic expectations for learning and independence
or the lack thereof. Again, this tool is not about trying to
move individuals to the next learning summary style. It
should never be used as a measurement tool for determining
progress in therapy or as a pre/post teaching tool because
that would imply that the scale is linear, which it is not. It is
also not designed for use with preschool children (we use
modified play scales for this age range) or with older adults
(category descriptions do not fully describe their issues and
needs). Finally, note that many individuals will have
characteristics in more than one category. The idea is to
determine which learning characteristics best describe the
individual globally.

Learning Styles and Social Communication

Characteristics

The following ST-SCS learning styles are described below

with an initial emphasis on strengths, followed by areas of
noted relative differences and/or challenges. Reminder:
These learning styles are based on 30+ years of
observations, dynamic assessments, and family input.
Please take these descriptions in the manner they are
intended: To help readers think more deeply about the social
learner with whom they work and teach.

Neurotypical Social Communicator (NTSC)

General description: This social learning style tends to

acquire social milestones in what is described as a
neurotypical trajectory. They learn social thinking intuitively,
often with little effort, but benefit from social reminders for
social problem solving. This group has a wide range of
academic strengths and challenges.
Observable social, emotional, sensory, and academic
learning characteristics of the NTSC often include (also
explained in further detail throughout this section):

While some individuals in this group show delays in

expressive and or receptive language, their social
development is a relative strength.

This group tends to be flexible in working with a range

of people and changing situations, in play-based, peer-
based, and academic situations.

While they do make social errors across their lives

(sticking their foot in their mouth, not always being
sensitive to what someone is thinking or feeling, etc.),
these hiccups tend to be part of a social learning
process where the person learns from their social
mistakes and, hopefully, avoids doing the same in the
future. In fact, these mistakes are a way for them to
become more adept socially to meet their social goals
(e.g., joining groups, conversations, dating, advocating,
expressing opinions, etc.)

These social learners may seek counseling from friends

or mental health professionals for social issues over the
course of their lifetimes. They may be overwhelmed by
social demands and face anxiety and depression.
Strengths: Intuitive and/or strong social emotional
connection to others and an astute social radar system.
Demonstrates a range of appearing “very cool” to not cool at
all. Can adapt their social behavior to meet their own social
desires or the social expectations of the group (social
chameleons). Some prefer big groups of people while others
prefer a smaller social circle or will stick with a trusted friend.
Can establish and maintain peer networks to feel connected
within whatever community they choose. Either know or can
learn how to determine when others are dishonest, trick, lie,
or manipulate them or take advice from trusted others if they
are not aware of the deceit.

Teaching and supports: Some may seek the help of

counselors to navigate the complicated waters of social
emotional relationships, work, and life pressures. Many seek
the counsel of friends and family. Some may need additional
academic or executive functioning support. This group of
learners is a good fit for most components of the Social
Thinking Methodology.

Prognosis: This group has equal opportunities to succeed

and opportunities to fail in work, relationships, and social
problem solving. However, they have an intuitive foundation
of tools and strategies, along with flexibility, to make social
choices and cope with the outcomes of those choices.
Nuance Challenged Social Communicator (NCSC)

The NCSC includes both socially anxious individuals as well

as those who struggle with attention and executive
functioning. While these two subtypes of learners often have
a foundation of social competencies, we hypothesize their
social anxiety or sustained social attention and/or executive
functions challenges, prevent them from accessing their
social cognitive information.

NCSC-A (Socially Anxious Style)

General Description: These individuals are often described

as “blenders and faders” with anxiety. They blend in or
subtly fade out when anxiety strikes. Some people may
describe them as shy, and they often fly “under the radar” of
professionals or parents noticing because they avoid social
situations outside of their families. They tend to have a
highly developed social radar or one that functions with
great exaggeration. Rather than recognize that we all have
thoughts about what others do and say (usually in benign
ways), they may hyper-exaggerate this idea and overly focus
on their and others’ thoughts.

Observable social, emotional, sensory, and academic

learning characteristics of the NCSC-A often include (also
explained in further detail throughout this section):
 This group, we hypothesize, is neurologically
predisposed to experience more anxiety and to
intuitively doubt their social abilities.

Their resistance to interacting in situations that make

them uncomfortable can mean they appear to have
greater social challenges than they do because when
comfortable or around family and close friends, they
appear at ease and able to access their social
competencies.

However, with social anxiety they appear highly

uncomfortable. They may over focus on their feelings of
anxiety and retreat from others, leading some to think
they are aloof or not interested in others.

This group tends to respond to teaching and strategies

that specifically address their anxiety and not solely
social competencies.

Strengths: These learners tend to have strengths in the

areas of language, academics, and cognition. However,
many are anxious about their workload and may succumb to
anxiety, unable to complete their assignments. It may be that
this group has difficulty with executive functioning, which
may at the core of their anxiety. This could impact not only
their social relatedness (social executive functioning) but
also their organizational skills (organizational executive
functioning). Some of the students in this group we have
worked with may be slightly more literal and naïve than
others their age; however, this may result from a lack of
overall social skills practice because they shy away from
relating to people when they feel uncomfortable. Individuals
in this category often excel in careers that allow them some
level of predictability and fewer demands to interact with co-
workers or clients.

Areas of concern: Many individuals are mistakenly thought

to have behavior issues because of a refusal to participate in
activities that are anxiety-provoking. Group work can be
difficult throughout school and work, and many learn
strategies to avoid social interactions, including isolating
themselves through books, computer gaming, videos, etc.
Sensory integration/sensory processing issues need to be
ruled out with this group and are generally, to date,
unexplored. It is reported that those with social anxiety,
when compared to other types of anxiety, have the hardest
time gaining and sustaining employment.

Teaching and supports: The NCSC-A benefits from

strategies and lessons from the Social Thinking
Methodology combined with other mental health/anxiety
approaches for treating social anxiety. The focus of supports
is to help these learners appreciate they often do have social
competencies, but that anxieties can get in the way of them
accessing what they might already know. Anxiety certainly
gets in the way of them practicing their social competencies.
The key is to explore and celebrate competencies through
guided practice, role play, and exposure prior to actively
attempting to minimize the social anxiety. Mental health
professionals should be actively involved in working with this
group. Social learners in the NCSC-A tend to work well with
the next group, NCSC-EF, or those considered to be
neurotypically developing.

Prognosis: Those born with higher levels of social anxiety

usually need to develop strategies to manage their anxieties
throughout their lifetimes, their prognoses, with supports, is
good.

NCSC-EF (Executive Functions/Attention Mediated

Style)

General description: These students demonstrate what we

would consider to be well-developed social radar in that they
are highly aware that they have thoughts about what other
people do and say and that others notice their words and
actions too. They also understand that each person has their
own unique perspective of the world. However, they often
struggle with attention and perception of the subtleties of
social cues and may be less attuned to others’ facial
expressions, body stances, and gestures, thereby limiting
the feedback they receive from others when interacting. As
the nuanced demands of social communication increase
with age, so does the discrepancy in how these learners are
perceived by their peer group.

Observable social, emotional, sensory, and academic

learning characteristics of the NCSC-EF often include (also
explained in further detail throughout this section):

Average to superior verbal language skills and cognition

with no delays in language development when younger.

More executive functioning challenges that may make

written expression and organizational skills more
difficult than would be expected given their academic
intelligence.

Attentional issues are also commonly found in this

learning style.

Anxiety is also common in this learning style but may be

less about the social aspect of anxiety and more about
executive functions and missing core information due to
attention issues.
Tend to prefer the attention of adults and may seek
them out as often as possible to talk to, even during
recess and lunch breaks at school.

If born with a more extroverted personality, they can be

described as egocentric. If more introverted, they tend
to withdraw from group communication. This withdrawal
can be perceived by peers as not interested in being
with others, even though they often crave group
membership.

As they age into upper elementary school and beyond,

may be keenly aware of social missteps in others, but
not always aware of their own.

Peer rejection may be significant, and there is usually an

awareness of non-acceptance from their peer group.

Unfortunately, there is a high incidence of bullying in

this group. Peers see these social learners as similar in
academic knowledge and assume their intuitive social
understanding is the same as theirs. To make matters
worse, adults see these students as “smart, charming,
and engaging” and assume their peers see the same.

Teaching and counseling professionals often consider

them “neurotypical” because they see adequate to
exceptional performance on academic testing. As a
result, they assume there are no social learning issues.

Parents often report that their children report feeling

rejected and disconnected from their peer group.
Professionals may dismiss these concerns because the
student they see at school easily relates to adults.

There is a high risk for developing social anxiety, OCDs,

and depression by upper elementary school and
beyond. For many, by the time they are pre-teens and
teens, mental health supports are critical.

There may or may not be a history of sensory-based

issues in early childhood.

Can explain the basic social rules (“talk the talk”), even
when young but struggle to apply in the moment with
nuance. Often struggle with the social executive
functioning of perspective taking (“walk the walk”).

While able to pass theory of mind tasks, they may

struggle to see how their intentions are read by their
peers during communication. They may also struggle to
read communication nuances to intuit others’ subtle
communicative intentions.
 Professionals should consider evaluating executive
functioning (EF). EF issues can impact how productive
at completing schoolwork they are, even if they are
acquiring all the academic knowledge.

This group often fails to qualify for services because

their struggles are too “mild.” The reality is that their
challenges are apparent and are not mild to the peer
group.

These learners may be confused by subtle abstract

language such as the way people communicate
indirectly with each other.

Often achievement-oriented and bright, this learning

style has a characteristic of struggling to do their work
independently because of organizational issues. It is not
uncommon to see lack of preparation or being
overwhelmed by having to assume responsibility not
only for work but also sleep schedule, hygiene, meal
planning, budgeting, completing homework on time,
developing peer relations, dating, and coping with their
own sexual needs.

Strengths: This group tends to be solid to extremely good

language users and many have keen academic intelligence,
scoring well to exceptionally well on tests. They may also
demonstrate many other talents, such as in music, arts, or
even athletics. They can be voracious learners, specifically in
the realm of science (also in literature, history, or any number
of varied topics).

Areas of concern: Some individuals may have academic

issues, mostly related to feeling overwhelmed by the
executive functioning load and inadequate social emotional
coping mechanisms. Others may be bogged by attentional
issues and anxiety related to overwhelm. Some may have
dysgraphia (difficulty coordinating the physical act of
writing) while also having simultaneous difficulty organizing
ideas, sorting related details, or considering the reader’s
interpretation while also focusing on grammar and
punctuation. Yet when tested on each individual area of
written language, they perform well. Some NCSC-EF may
have other learning disabilities that may or may not be
related to their social learning differences and/or challenges,
such as difficulties learning abstract math concepts or
dyslexia.

Peers can be very unkind to this group because they

perceive them as academically equal or superior. If they talk
too much in class or in a meeting, they may be perceived as
a “know-it-all” or “show off.” They may state their thoughts
about another person without fully realizing how that person
feels upon hearing this perceived criticism. This group is
most at risk for persistent bullying, teasing, and trickery, not
only as children but into their adult years. This group may
unintentionally (or sometimes intentionally) provoke or insult
others and struggle to fully understanding the depth and
complexity of social emotional concepts, such as making
and keeping friends, what it takes to maintain a marriage,
and so on.

Teaching and supports: For those who are 11 years old or

older, supports must focus on the possibility of comingled
issues related to anxiety, depression, and social
competencies (or lack of). They often need support to deal
with feelings of social rejection and imperfection. Many
strategies from the Social Thinking Methodology can be a
part of the learning supports for this learning style.

Teaching should focus on exploring social emotional nuance

and sophistication, including understanding how intentions
are perceived by oneself and by others. These students
require time to practice nuance-based social thinking and
skills, which include dynamically adjusting social behaviors
based on the people and context. Other key areas include an
emphasis on self-advocacy, assuming increased
responsibility with regard to life skills, practice in the
community, and accepting responsibility for their own
learning. This group of learners is a good fit for most
components of the Social Thinking Methodology.

During the school years, focus less on pushing for complex

academic classes to allow for building organizational skills
for managing their workload when it is less intense. It’s
important to help the students learn at what level they can
learn to manage their own assignments and how to advocate
for themselves as they leave the high school campus and
enter the academic world of the university system. Some,
while very bright, do not learn to effectively manage their
homework/classwork; these students would likely benefit
from a transition to college program that teaches self-
management of academic homework. Or, if the student has a
strong history of rejecting the idea of completing
classwork/homework, vocational training programs shouldn’t
be ruled out to help maximize their learning strengths in a
more hands-on type work environment. With maturity, these
same students may be able to participate in a university-
level academic program after they gain further maturity and
insight into how they best learn and self-organize to produce
written assignments.

Prognosis for NCSC (A and EF styles): Prognosis for these

two groups can be quite good, but also fragile. They have
solid chances to succeed in intellectual goals,
getting/maintaining a job, finding a life partner, etc. However,
they also have significant risks because there is no safety
net.

Some adults with this social communication learning style

ultimately seek counseling or are told they need counseling
for their lack of nuance-¬based social emotional connection
with others (usually referred from spouse, friends, children,
or at times even their workmates). Others have made
choices in careers and partners that allow them a very
stable, happy life but seek counseling to understand why
they struggled in the past. With those who face tremendous
challenges with completing their schoolwork, it is important
to be realistic about their potential for being able to do the
coursework in a college/university program.

Emerging Social Communicator (ESC)

General description: May appear awkwardly engaged.

Parents, teachers, and peer note that social differences
and/or challenges may not be apparent until after engaging
in interactions or when sharing space over time.

This social learning style represents the largest range of

individuals within the ST--SCS. Social learning
characteristics vary among those who are ESCs, but there
are some core characteristics that are similar across social
learners (social interpretation and critical thinking for social
situations). While ESCs tend to show differences and
challenges when young, maturity is their friend, and social
strategies can be very effective throughout their lives as
they establish and work toward their own social goals.

Note: In general, ESCs have a greater need for basic social

lessons before moving into deeper metacognitive strategies
and tend to work well together in groups. However, there are
times when a student with this social learning style has very
strong cognition and/or language and there may be benefit
in putting them in a social group with NCSC-(A/EF). Please
remember that ESCs tend to be much more literal learners
so there may be some lag in the speed and efficiency in
learning the concepts and strategies.

Observable social, emotional, sensory, and academic

learning characteristics of the ESC often include (also
explained in further detail throughout this section):

Are often described as friendly when engaged, but

socially aloof.

Social radar system may not be highly in tune with what

is happening around them from a social situational
perspective.

Measured verbal and performance IQ may span from

mild cognitive challenges to gifted. Most often have a
history of a language learning delay or disorder.
May have a range of sensory needs that are prominent
when young and may continue throughout adulthood
(flapping, toe walking, rocking, food sensitivities, etc.).

Often desire social interaction but struggle to relate to

peers of their own age without facilitation. Seek out
interactions with adults or peers much younger.

Neurological differences in tone of voice, voice

loudness, and pitch.

Neurological differences in posture or rigid movements

when communicating or sharing space with others.

Reading situational and physical social cues (facial,

gestural, tonal, etc.) is very difficult, as well as
understanding their own and others’ emotions.

Common perseverations in thoughts or interests that

are described as unusual for their age. Given these
intense interests, they may develop strong specific skills
related to their areas of interest.

Thinking through social perspective taking requires

extra time to process and respond to social information.
Tend to fail the early theory of mind tests when in
preschool/early elementary school but may be able to
pass these same tests as they get older.

Development of joint attention and pronouns tend to

develop much later.

Lean toward literal or rigid interpretation of spoken and

written language, which is likely to impact their ability to
interpret reading of literature. Many are described as
having auditory processing or central auditory
processing struggles.

Significant executive functioning issues affecting

homework and written expression.

Usually are very literal and concrete thinkers without an

understanding that social inferencing (interpreting
situational cues, determining the motive of the
communicative partners, interpreting the words spoken,
assessing the tone of voice) is needed to determine the
intended message.

Decoding written language and comprehending factual

information can be a strength, while comprehending
literature or the social nuance of the classroom can be
difficult.
Narrative language may be a struggle as they try to
organize and convey thoughts through verbal and
written language in a way others can easily understand.
To narrate one’s story with language requires the
speaker to consider what the listener or audience
knows and doesn’t know (perspective taking) and how
to share (narrate) the information in a manner that
makes sense to this other person’s life experiences.

In written work, there is a tendency to be highly

disorganized and over focus on details with challenges
in organizing their thoughts or write summary-based
information (book reviews, etc.). Most need extensive
assistance to understand the myriad social and work
expectations delivered each school day.

On the other hand, some ESCs have an artful ability to

convey their own thoughts in writing based on their own
interests and perspective if they can create written work
free from others’ guidelines and expectations. For
example, they may write a good science fiction fantasy
story but can’t produce an essay assigned by the
classroom teacher. This can be very frustrating to the
teacher, parent, and student alike as there is often a
discrepancy between self-generated written expression
based on a student’s area of interest versus completing
homework assignments requiring the student to take
perspective of the teacher’s expectations, etc.

With regard to anxiety, most ESCs experience anxiety

tied to the imperfections of how the world works
compared to the way they think the world should work.
There can be issues with transitions, understanding
what may be next on their schedule, or why their
schedule may need to change on any given day. They
may also become easily confused in dynamic social
environments, which may lead to emotional as well as
sensory dysregulation. This group, from our
observation, does not have severe social anxiety.

Most often need supports to be aware of where they are

in space, who is around, hygiene, etc., usually called
self-awareness.

Parents often describe their children with this learning

style as “smart but clueless.”

May have strong scientific visual learning strengths but

might not.

Often enjoy concrete humor such as slapstick rather

than irony and sarcasm, which are abstract and much
harder to understand.
Can be motivated to work hard when offered behavioral
systems (behavior plans) provided an explanation is
given.

Attending in groups (groups to classrooms) can be

difficult without strategies and supports. Consequently,
they are much better at concentrating and learning
when only required to focus their social attention in a
smaller group (e.g., 1-3 other people). The irony is that
we often expect these students to do well in classroom-
based learning because of their high measured
IQ/learning. As a result, a paraprofessional is assigned
to “pay attention in the group” and then translate the
information to the individual. This can take autonomy
away from the learner and further complicate
independence around learning.

Adapting what they do and say around others in the

moment can be very difficult, and peers tend to
describe these learners as “awkward” or unusual.

Because self-awareness can be difficult, teachers

describe ESCs as talking out of turn, talking for an
extended length of time, and difficulty working in peer-
based groups. Teachers and parent describe these
learners as “known to be off-topic, tangential, or
perseverative in communication,” but truly enjoy
communicating with a variety of listeners.

This social learning style is often celebrated early in

development for their incredible honesty. This is likely
due, in part, because lying involves the social
complexity of understanding the other person’s
perspective, which can be extremely difficult. However,
with age and practice, ESCs learn about tricks and lying
and may attempt simple tricks or lies.
Recognizing others’ communication intentions
usually requires extra teaching and support.
Teaching the concept of “stranger danger” starts
with teaching that others have different thoughts or
may try to manipulate their thoughts.

As ESCs age up, it is important to continue to teach

about how some tricks are for fun and other tricks can
put people in danger. This issue continues into
adulthood and teaching should extend into the concept
of mental manipulation (email scams, false advertising,
and people who target their trusting/unaware nature).

Bullying is less pervasive for this social learning style in

that the peer group is far more forgiving of their
differences because the differences are more obvious.
In fact, friendship clubs and peer mentoring programs
are usually designed for these social learners.

The reality is that there are social hierarchies on

playground and at school. While we wish this were not
the case, it remains a fact in most schools. ESCs are
mostly unaware of these hierarchies and think they are
part of a friend group simply because they are near
other students. Peer mentors can be helpful in coaching
and including these students as well as teaching other
students about the ESCs’ learning differences.

Assistance with gaining employment is usually needed

for job interviewing skills. However, once in a job fits
their thinking and learning style, they can be highly
productive and very successful workers. This learning
style does best when engaging in tasks where they
work around others but aren’t required to interact
dynamically with others as part of their job description.
Many are excellent scientists, computer programmers,
horticulturists, animal scientists, or the many variations
of those and other areas.

Work peers may continue to notice differences in social,

critical thinking and problem solving, but may provide
help or mentoring. In some ways, their obvious
differences can be protective in that others are more
likely to be more supportive and forgiving of social
 hiccups.

Strengths: Many ESCs, but not all, have stronger visual

learning skills than auditory processing ones. Many are
excellent text decoders and can read (decode) early in
development. Individuals often do best academically in the
early years of school when their attention to detail makes
them strong rote learners. These learners tend to excel as
they age in the areas related to their interests. Some ESCs
are model students because they are devoted to following
routines (class rules, group rules), including studying. If born
with a temperament or a tendency toward hard work and
tenacity, many are quite successful at meeting academic
course requirements, even if unable to fully understand the
work. There are many adult ESCs who live most of their lives
achieving different university degrees because they are
excellent classroom learners but may not excel at applying
that knowledge outside the classroom.

Areas of Concern: This learning style tends to do well

comprehending fact-based information but struggles to
interpret information based on predicting what people are
thinking and feeling. Hence, there are often difficulties
tackling grade-level curricula in middle and high school even
when test scores in a given subject (such as reading
comprehension) indicate grade-level scores.
Depending on personality, some may struggle to figure out
how to enter into peer groups and initiate social language
and non-verbal communication to actively maintain
interaction within the group, while others with more assertive
personalities may barge into peer groups and dominate the
conversation without realizing they are out of step with the
group. There is also a tendency to be far more naïve than
their peer group, not anticipating others’ motives, which may
make them more susceptible to being tricked without
realizing this is happening to them.

Teaching and supports: This learning style benefits from a

variety of supports ranging from routine social skill programs
when young to more sophisticated lessons and strategies
from the Social Thinking Methodology. When young,
interventionists may need to focus on establishing or
enhancing joint attention skills, sharing enjoyment with
others, and supporting needs in sensory regulation. In
addition, expressive and receptive language skills are
typically an area of continued focus. A blend of behavioral,
relationship development, sensory integration, and speech
and language services will all be important. This group
benefits from continued learning about social thinking at
basic levels throughout their lives. Progression of lessons
must start with first learning they have their own thoughts,
others have thoughts, and finally how and why people
manipulate those thoughts. Please see this article for a
series of lessons and a longer description of how to develop
a teaching and support plan for these learners (Crooke &
Winner, 2022).

Transition to adulthood: It is critical to honestly explore

abstract and critical thinking, as well as how the individual
independently manages their own unmodified homework
assignments. This will help to determine readiness or fitness
for attending an academically based college/university
program after high school or moving into the work world. If
the individual has a history of requiring intensive or full adult
support to help them through academic coursework, then
college may not be the best next step. Make sure to include
a discussion about vocational training programs or
encouraging a work pathway. Many ESCs are practical,
hands-on learners, and vocational training provides them a
more direct path to developing skills for independence.

Prognosis: ESCs live happy, successful, and fulfilled lives,

usually with guided independence across their adult years.
Parents are often concerned about their naïve understanding
of the world and tend to want them to live at home for a
longer period. This may slow but does not eliminate their
own march toward independence. Many ultimately live
independently but have a trusted team of adults (parents,
other relatives, or paid caregivers) to help when dealing with
social critical thinking and significant changes in their
routine. For example, an autistic 32-year-old client of ours
lived in his own apartment, prepared his own meals,
maintained hygiene, took the bus around the community
(although he had a driver’s license), paid his bills, maintained
a job, and kept his apartment relatively clean. However, when
life changes occurred (moving to a new apartment, applying
for a new job, dealing with a bus schedule change), he
usually needed his parents to help problem solve.

Challenged Social Communicator (CSC)

General Description: Rote learners who tend to need

significant academic, adaptive, and social support. Highly
distracted in unstructured situations but tend to thrive in
highly structured situations. This group tends to be easily
recognized by their obvious social learning differences
and/or challenges from a very early age and often get an
early diagnosis of autism.

Observable social, emotional, sensory, and academic

learning characteristics of the ESC often include (also
explained in further detail throughout this section):

Easily overwhelmed in unstructured social contexts or in

situations with more than a few people. They are detail
focused and are described as having “context
blindness.”
Described as extremely “aloof,” these individuals have a
desire to interact with others but struggle to maintain
social attention.

When overwhelmed by people or other sensory

information, CSCs tend to use sensory tools to calm
themselves to a greater extent than ESCs. Anxiety
within this group is exclusively related to changes in
their world, including routines, people, environment, etc.
They do not experience social anxiety.

Most often a history of, and ongoing challenges with

expressive and receptive language. Many in this
learning style have difficulty understanding and using
pronouns. There is also a tendency to use echolalia
(echoed speech) throughout childhood and into
adulthood.

This group typically fails theory of mind tests (first order

thinking and second order thinking) into adulthood. The
concept of mental manipulation (related to second
order theory of mind testing) may be taught (with direct
and intensive teaching) cognitively/conceptually to
some extent to those with some strengths in cognition
and language as they move into upper elementary and
middle school.
Stranger danger must be taught using explicit rules.
This is a must!

CSCs may struggle to discern reality from fiction; many

get cartoon or movie characters stuck in their heads
and insist that these characters are real or that
characters on TV are real.

This social communication style learns best with direct

instruction. This includes how to understand others’
perspectives while playing games. For example, the
point of playing a game is to keep the other person from
knowing your cards/plan. Perspective taking and self-
awareness struggles can get in the way of the learner
understanding the need to whisper or hide their cards.

Many are good text decoders and math calculators.

Comprehending inferential information in math word
problems can be very difficult for them. As the
curriculum becomes more inferentially based, this
group of social learners show significant struggles in
understanding grade-level assignments, even with full
support from a paraprofessional.

Spoken, narrative, and written language are very

difficult, and adults intuitively try to support
communication in this group by asking 20 questions to
try to decipher the story.
 Tendency to lack awareness of time or feel a sense of
urgency to finish tasks. Their parents often state that
they are not accidental learners in that they don’t
absorb new learning from simply being exposed to new
experiences. Instead, parents have reported (and we
have noted ourselves from years of clinical experience)
that these individuals have to be explicitly taught
concepts related to social learning and social skills.

With an extreme focus on details without understanding

how those details connect to form a concept or
complete a task, employment can be challenging. If
asked to do the same task in a new environment, they
must relearn all the steps of the task since they haven’t
conceptualized the task to begin with. However, once
employed in a predictable/routine job, these individuals
tend to keep it. This group tends to feel most
comfortable adhering to a schedule. Once they are
taught how to use a system of transportation to move
around their communities, they are usually punctual and
do tend to learn (with direct instruction) to be more and
more efficient in productivity over time.

Strengths: This social communication learning style

represents a wide range of cognition. Most individuals in this
group are described as having “splinter skills” in specific
academic areas, such as decoding and remembering factual
information. Many also have visual learning strengths over
auditory processing but not universally. Individuals tend to
be concrete thinkers and crave/need structure for their best
performance. Because this group finds comfort in routine
and predictability, they may do very well in jobs based in
redundancy and routines. Because the CSC’s social learning
differences are immediately apparent to their peer groups,
they tend to receive positive support and coaching from
same-age peers.

Assessment: Most standardized tests will reveal significant

delays in social language, problem solving, adaptive
functioning, and expressive and receptive language.
Qualifying individuals in who have this social communication
style for IEPs or other supports is usually not a problem. The
challenge is finding the right supports and teaching to help
them function as independently as possible. Placing CSCs in
a full-inclusion program with a sole emphasis on grade-level
curriculum neglects the functional and adaptive support
they need for navigating adulthood.

Areas of concern: Because these learners tend to overly

focus on facts and struggle with conceptual and critical
thinking, teaching and supports must be tailored to their
strengths rather than the grade-level curriculum. These
learners need tasks and concepts to be broken down into
understandable pieces, and this can be a challenge to even
the most seasoned classroom teachers. These social
learners need very implicit, direct teaching not only in school
but in the community because transferring knowledge
learned in the classroom can be very difficult. For example,
counting money in the classroom may not be an obvious
connection to using money in the community. There is
usually a need for ongoing support throughout school by
paraprofessionals and job coaches for later life.

Teaching and supports: This group of learners is not a

good fit for most components of the Social Thinking
Methodology. Some parts of the STM can be used for
teaching but the work should not be applied broadly. CSCs
require extensive and intensive therapies that are important
for establishing a shared intentional communication system,
including: joint attention skills, sharing enjoyment with
others, helping to establish sensory regulation, and constant
focus on expressive and receptive language. These learners
benefit from many different types of support but tend to be
placed in ABA programs exclusively. While some behavioral
teaching may be beneficial to this group, it should not be the
only type of support given. Emphasis on sensory,
expressive/receptive language, relationship development,
and adaptive skills should also be part of the supports under
consideration.

Highly structured programs that teach toward independence

and problem solving, such as structured TEACCH
([Link]), can be tremendously helpful. Teaching
should be selected by exploring the individuals’ unique
strengths and challenges to tap into eclectic teaching
regimens. Additionally, relationship-based interventions such
as Floortime/DIR can be helpful, and the SCERTS model
([Link]) is ideal for these learners. Vocational
training when in high school and transitional post-secondary
programs are also excellent for helping to prepare these
social learners for adulthood. From a social thinking
perspective, it will be very important to only use the
components of the Social Thinking Methodology that focus
on building their awareness and understanding of their own
and others’ social thoughts. Social Thinking curriculum
packages are not a good fit for this group.

Please see this article for a series of lessons and a longer

description of how to develop a teaching and support plan
for these learners (Crooke & Winner, 2022).

Prognosis: CSCs may require significant guidance

throughout their adult years and may live at home or in a
supported living environment. When given routines that
match their interests and needs, living as independently as
possible is an option. Employment and relationships require
support, and highly structured and routine-based jobs are
good choices for these individuals.

Significantly Challenged Social Communicator (SCSC)

General description: Highly attentive to internal thoughts and

sensory input. Often unaware of social situations or people
without support.

Observable social, emotional, sensory, and academic

learning characteristics of the ESC often include (also
explained in further detail throughout this section):

Many individuals with this social communication

learning style are non-¬verbal or minimally verbal.
Echolalia is common. Benefit from intensive
interventions to encourage more functional
communication systems, whether based on the use of
verbal speech and language, augmentative
communication (computer-based visual
communication), and/or sign language. The purpose of
communication development programs is to help them
more effectively get their wants and needs met without
experiencing emotional and/or sensory dysregulation.

Sensory integration needs may be met through

engaging in repetitive patterns related to the sensory
world (e.g., flipping a string, flapping their arms, rocking
their bodies, pacing back and forth, etc.).

While there may not be a sophisticated understanding

of the social world, these learners tend to have strong
preferences for who they want to be with.

Do not tend to be bullied.

Auditory processing can be a struggle and sounds,

including speech, can be uncomfortable for them.

Academics often focus on tools (writing, reading) to

express basic wants, needs, or directions.

Learn and do best when routines are at the forefront of

all parts of the home and school day. Disruptions in
routines can cause great distress. Tend to be much
better learners in their areas of specific focus or interest
and learn best when the activities they engage in are
visual, concrete, and have a logical progression they
can be taught to follow.

Self-soothing routines to minimize physical aggression

toward self and others can be very helpful.
Strengths: Some, but not all, have strong islands of
intelligence (e.g., talented artist, math calculation skills,
ability to complete puzzles, digital or computer navigational
skills, etc.). This group of learners does best in a highly
predictable environment and may learn core rote concepts
related to their academic skills (math facts, reading
decoding). Some are excellent text decoders and do best
when given visual supports like fact-based visual schedules.
A small percentage of SCSC may have unusual areas of
strengths and are referred to as “savants.” Some savant
talents may include music or mathematical or science
knowledge that is factually based.

Areas of concern: These learners tend to have a

“supported” social radar system where others in their
environment help to direct their attention to places, people,
and events. They are not naturally attentive to those around
them, particularly in a complex environment where many
people are doing many different things all at once. Therefore,
educational environments where several students are
grouped together to learn in the group can be very confusing
and difficult. This learning style does their best learning in an
uncluttered 1:1 environment with active sensory regulation
tools to help their brain and body learn to focus together.
There is a tendency to struggle with self-awareness and
regulation in a group as their sensory and neurological
systems can become overwhelmed.
Assessment: It is difficult to use most formalized tests that
require any aspect of back-and-forth social interaction
(which is the test paradigm for most social
language/language-based testing). The best assessments
are those that observe the individual participating in a series
of functional tasks and determining what types of
information help them to learn, e.g. verbal, visual, physical
cues, etc.

Teaching and supports: This group of learners is NOT a fit

for most components of the Social Thinking Methodology.

Intensive and early intervention to assist with sensory

regulation, joint attention, relationship development,
development of functioning communication skills,
organizational skills, and adaptive living skills are a must.
This is a group that benefits from highly integrated teaching
models such as the SCERTS® model or TEACCH model.

Prognosis: Individuals continue to learn throughout their

lives and make gains compared to their own rate of learning.
There is usually a high level of support needed throughout
their lives and a tendency to be legally conserved by a
responsible adult as they enter adulthood.

Resistant/Self-Protective Social Communicator (RSC)

Note: While we are quite sure that this is a distinct social

communication learning style, we are unclear as to the
origin. It is highly likely that temperament is a contributing
factor. Certainly, the environment plays a role, but there are
many variables that fall under the umbrella of “environment.”
Many parents of RSCs report having a great deal of difficulty
setting effective behavioral boundaries and proactive
supports with their children from the very earliest of years.
Our clinical experience has shown that these social learners
have a base of social knowledge somewhere between the
ESC and the NCS-A/EF.

One important point: This is a unique learning style where

the individual tends to default to a self-protective mode or
what others might define as “resistant.” This can look very
similar to the developmental pathway of a teenager, and we
expect/assume that most teens pass through a resistant
phase as part of their development. This is not the same
type of resistance/self-protectiveness found in these social
learners. Social communication characteristics of the RSC
are persistent and found across home, school, and the
community. We continue to be highly intrigued by these
learners and find that some components of the Social
Thinking Methodology can be helpful for this learning style.

General description: Often described as insistent and

argumentative. May say they are not interested in others but
tend to be a class clown or seek people with whom to
complain about unfair treatment by others. They are
reported to use alarming or outlandish actions or words to
get other to attend to them. They can be described as
“attention seekers” and often get the reputation of being
“classroom disrupters.”

Observable social, emotional, sensory, and academic

learning characteristics of the ESC often include (also
explained in further detail throughout this section):

It is not uncommon to find this social learning style with

a diagnosis of behavioral or emotional disorder. Also,
may have a diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder
(ODD) or bipolar.
They are frequent visitors to the office and
counselor.

Some become school phobic as they age into

upper middle school or high school.

Many have comingled anxieties or depression by

high school as they often face peer rejection and
have difficult relationships with their parents.

Tend to avoid working on establishing, maintaining,

or repairing relationships by stating, “I don’t care.”
 May lash out indiscriminatingly when emotionally
overwhelmed.

When in groups or classrooms, there is a tendency to

attempt to make the group focus on them and their
actions. These individuals later report being delighted
when receiving the full attention of the group (negative
or positive).

When encouraged to follow the group rules or work at

blending into the group, they argue and resist,
sometimes making statements that are offensive to
their peers (and adults).

Often report, “I don’t care how I make people think or

feel.”
Yet in a 1:1 therapy session, these social learners
show true challenges in social thinking and related
social skills. This leads us to hypothesize that
attempts to take over the group may be due to a
lack of understanding of group dynamics, rather
than a willful act. They do acknowledge there
should be group norms or boundaries for groups
once in a safe 1:1 working relationship is
established.

This learning style has a fair social radar system. They

tend to think in black-and-white terms (“that person
likes me” or “that person doesn’t like me”) without
understanding the subtleties of the mind or the shifting
impressions that change.

There seems to be a lack of understanding about social

memory. While they may do or say something that is
very offensive to a peer one day, they struggle to
connect that this will impact how that same peer might
respond to them today or tomorrow.

There is often a mismatch between how the individual

perceives themselves vs. how others perceive them.
They tend to report that their intentions are good, so if
others don’t see that then, “They are all jerks and
idiots.”

There are times when this learning style is characterized

by open defiance if others don’t agree with their line of
thinking.

Many have undiagnosed sensory integration challenges;

an OT should be consulted to rule these out as well as
any other related issues.

There is a tendency to have a solid to good sense of

humor but may not understand the impact of using
certain humor with certain groups at the right time.
Unfortunately, when others laugh out of nervousness or
discomfort, it confirms in the RSC’s mind that they are
really funny, perpetuating their use of humor whether
it’s the right time, place, or people.

Tend to be more literal in their interpretations of social

situations, reading comprehension, and can be very
rigid in their thinking, insisting that people follow the
rules they believe should be the rules.
However, when they don’t follow their own rules,
they shrug it off. For example, many we have
worked with have insisted on pure honesty from
others but are routinely called out by peers,
teachers, or parents as lying.

Many, but not all, have other learning differences or

diagnosed disabilities. Most score within the average to
superior range on full-scale IQ.

From an emotional processing point of view, RSCs

struggle to interpret their own and others’ emotions.

Younger individuals with this learning style are likely to

be a little behind in passing basic theory of mind tasks
(first order thinking, second order false belief testing,
etc.) but eventually are able to understand and pass
 these tasks.

In middle school and older, teachers and parents

describe them as “manipulative,” through lying and
deception. The irony is that they struggle to understand
when others lie to them.

They can be naïve without realizing it and are easily

taken advantage of by their peers. They may do things
their peers ask them to do to try to fit into a group
without realizing they are being used.

There are ongoing challenges with flexible thinking,

abstracting, problem solving, and organization.

Friendships are very difficult for these social learners to

establish and keep. They tend to insult even family
friends and relatives who eventually wear out. Even
online friendships are difficult for them to maintain.

Strengths: Strong measured verbal intelligence and often

average to above average scores on academic tests. Solid
fact-based learner who also may have talents in the arts,
computers, or sports (not usually team sports). Can be
clever, witty, and very entertaining.
Areas of concern: While some may have a diagnosis related
to language learning, most are good language users and
especially skilled at arguing. However, they may not perceive
themselves as argumentative and describe their actions as
just trying to convince the other person as to what is correct.

From a mental health perspective, they can become

depressed, which can manifest itself in lashing out at others
in a blaming and condescending manner. This group tends
to wear out not only their teachers but their parents and
siblings. Most don’t appear to have a lot of social anxiety
because they are not aware of how their words and actions
might impact others. They can face serious mental health
issues due to rejection.

Assessment: Most of us love to work with students who

make us feel good about our work and our efforts as parents
and professionals. This is usually not the case with the RSC
learning style. Assessments can be difficult in that the
student might be feeling anxiety or sensory overwhelm and
may simply shut down or lash out rather than participate in
any of the tasks. Sometimes professionals are embarrassed
or offended and then may conclude these students just have
behavioral or emotional disorders. There is a tendency to
offend or hurt the feelings of people who are attempting to
help, whether intentionally or not.

Teaching and supports: This group benefits most from

intensive individual therapy with a person they trust and who
understands their social communication learning style. Even
with a relationship, there are always challenges with testing
the boundaries of the relationship. Given their propensity to
seek honest discussions, this learning style tends to prefer
people who give them clear information about what they are
doing well and why it matters.

While inside-out teaching is important for all social

communication learning styles, it is critical for the RSC. This
means we start by teaching through the lens and
perspective of the person first. This allows them to anchor
concepts through their own social value system. By studying
who they like, don’t like, and why, they realize they are
forming their own social impressions and reacting to what
they think and feel based on what others do and say. It will
take some time (at times years) to help them to appreciate
that if they require people to act and respond emotionally in
certain ways to them, it eventually makes some sense that
others might have those same social expectations.

Unfortunately, these social learners get a lot of attention for

not participating well in groups. Yet, professionals often and
erroneously insist on them “behaving” to blend into the
group. But they very likely don’t understand group dynamics
or the value of group norms. If we start by teaching that
others have social expectations for them, then they usually
push back or shut down. If we start by discussing their
expectations for groups and their insights into groups, there
is usually more buy-in, and learning can begin.

This group is confusing to professionals and parents

because there is an assumption that the child’s academic or
measured intelligence should extend to social information
and learning. But social learning is not as intuitive to this
group, and they do need clear and explicit social thinking,
metacognitive, and/or social cognitive strategies and tools.
ABA and reward-based systems typically are not effective
for this group as they are clever enough to figure out how to
get around the system or the people who have created the
system. Many have reported in their teen years that they love
making a game of trying to find the holes in the behavior
plans.

Prognosis: This particular social learning style, if not given

deep and extensive teaching supports as children and
adolescents, can become very dysfunctional adults filled
with anger and blame. There is a tendency for some to end
up on the doorstep of the psychiatric community who may
not know what to do because medication alone is not the
answer. Many adult RSCs are unemployed and can be
rejected from their families. Some seek drugs to cope.
However, when supports and teaching are used in childhood
and they eventually acknowledge they can benefit from
strategies, then their prognosis is similar to all of the other
social communication learning styles.

Final Thoughts

Social communication is incredibly complex. It is

multifaceted and at the core of so much of what we humans
do daily and throughout our lives. It involves, among other
things, emotional processing and responding to others as
well as integrating and interpreting academic information.
So, a person’s social communication learning style has an
impact on home, school, and community.

One complicating variable is how mental health setbacks

impact both learning and outcomes. Anxieties of all types
are very real, and social anxiety can be a roadblock for many.
Ultimately, we need to look closely at the social learning
styles of our clients, students, and children to build
individualized supports that help them make progress
toward their own social goals. We need to be mindful of co-
occurring social learning, academic learning/executive
functioning, and mental health challenges. In short, our
students are complex, and examining the effectiveness of
supporting multiple social, academic, and mental health
needs at once is equally complicated. The unfortunate reality
is that therapists and parents are faced with finding tools
and strategies that encapsulate the “whole” individual, and it
is at this juncture that we hope this learning style summary
will help.

We have examined the Social Thinking-Social

Communication/Characteristics Styles (ST-SCS), in its many
iterations, in our own clinical setting for several years. Our
pilot data show strong levels of reliability in coding learning
styles among and between clinicians. The ST-SCS has also
been an important and crucial part of how we find the right
social learning group. We never put students together based
on diagnosis (or no diagnosis) but rather consider their
learning styles, social thinking needs, and goals and then
match students based on that information.

Resources/References mentioned

American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and

statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text revision).
Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.

American Speech Language and Hearing Association

(2005). Evidence-based practice in communication
disorders (position paper). Available at:
[Link]

Crooke, P.J., Olswang, L., & Winner, M.G. (2016). Thinking

socially: Teaching social knowledge to foster social
behavioral change. Topics in Language Disorders, 36(3),
284-298.
Crooke, P. J., & Winner, M. G. (2022). Social thinking
metacognitive strategies to support self-determined social
goals in autistic youth. Seminars in Speech and
Language,43(4), 277-298.

Prizant, B., Wetherby, A., Rubin, E., Laurent, A., & Rydell, P.
(2006). The SCERTS™ Model: A Comprehensive
Educational Approach for Children with Autism Spectrum
Disorders: Volume II Program Planning and Intervention.
Brookes Publishing Company.

Reaven, J., Blakeley-Smith, A., Nichols, S., Dasari, M.,

Flanigan, E., & Hepburn, S. (2009). Cognitive behavioral
group teaching for anxiety symptoms in children with high
functioning autism spectrum disorders: A pilot study. Focus
on Autism and Other Developmental Disorders, 24(1), 27-37.

The SCERTS® Model. (2022). Retrieved August 2022 from

[Link]

TEACCH® Autism Program. (2022, May 3). Retrieved August

2022 from [Link]

Winner, M., & Crooke, P. (2017). The expanded Social

Thinking–Social Competency Model (ST-SCM). Social
Thinking. [Link]