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Ranging
Ranging : The process of establishing intermediate points on a
straight line between two end points is known as ranging.

Purpose of ranging :
• The purpose of ranging is to mark a number of
intermediate points on a survey line joining two stations in
the field so that the length between them may be
measured correctly.
• If the line is short or its end station is clearly visible, the
chain may be laid in true alignment. But if the line is long or
its end station is not visible due to undulation ground, it is
required to mark a number of points with ranging rods.

• Direct Ranging
• Indirect Ranging

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Direct ranging
When intermediate ranging rods are fixed along the chain line, by
direct observation from either end station, the process is known as
“Direct Ranging”. Direct ranging is possible when the end stations are
inter visible. The following procedure is adopted for direct ranging :

• Erect ranging rods or poles vertically behind each end of the line.
• Stand about 2m behind the ranging rod at the beginning of the line.
• Direct the assistant to hold a ranging rod vertically at arm’s length at the
point where the intermediate station is to be established.
• Direct the assistant to move the rod to the right or left , until the
ranging rods appear to be exactly in a straight line.
• Stoop down and check the position of the rod by sighting over their
lower ends in order to avoid error to non-vertically of the ranging rods.
• After ascertaining that the ranging rods are in a straight line, signal the
assistant to fix the ranging rod.

Indirect ranging
When the end stations are not inter visible due to there being
high ground between them, intermediate ranging rods are
fixed on the line in an indirect way. This method is known, as
indirect ranging or reciprocal ranging.

• The following procedure is adopted for indirect ranging.

Suppose A and B are two end stations which are not
intervisible due to high ground existing between them.

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Suppose it is required to fix intermediate points between A and B. Two chain

men take up positions at R1 and S1 with ranging rods in their hands. The
chainman at R1 stands with his face towards B so that he can see the ranging
rods at S1 and B. Again the chainman at S1 stands with his face towards A so
that he can see the ranging rods at R1 and A. Then the chainmen proceed to
range the line by directing each other alternately. The chainman at R1 direct
the chainman at S1 to come to position S2 so that R1 , S2 and B are in the
same straight line. Again the chainman at S2 directs the chainman at R1 to
move the position at R2 so that S2 , R2 and A are in the same straight line. By
directing each other alternately in this manner, they change their positions
every time until they finally come to the positions R and S,which are in the
straight line AB. This means the points A, R, S and B are in the same straight
line.

Chaining free but vision obstructed:

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Chaining obstructed but vision free:

ANGULAR MEASUREMENT:
• Compass: the instrument which is used for finding out the magnetic
bearing or simply bearing of a line is known as a compass and compass
consist of the following part
– Circle with graduation
– Line of sight
– Magnetic needle supported loosely
• The compass works on the principle that a freely suspended magnetic
needle takes the direction of the magnetic lines of force at a place. This
provides us a reference direction with respect to which all angles can be
measured.
• There are two main types of compasses
1. The prismatic compass
2. The surveyor’s compass.
The surveyor’s compass is rarely used in comparison purposes. The principle
of the operation of both the compass is the same but they are made
differently used in the field

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The prismatic compass.

It is the most suitable type of surveying compass which
consists of a circular box about 100 mm in diameter. It
can be used as a hand instrument or on a tripod. It can be
accurately centered over ground station marks. The main
parts of a prismatic compass is as follows
1) Magnetic Needle:
2) Graduated ring:
3) Eye vane prism:
4) Object vane:
5) Compass Box:

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The Surveyor Compass

The surveyor’s compass is an old type of instrument finding
rare use today. A brief description of the instrument is given
below. The surveyor’s compass has the following components.

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• Meridians: The fixed direction on the surface of

the earth with reference to which bearings of
survey lines are expressed is called as Meridians .
• Bearing: The horizontal angle between the
reference meridian and the survey line measured
in a clockwise direction is call bearing.
• There are tree different types of meridians which
are commonly used in survey work
1. Arbitrary meridian
2. Magnetic meridian
3. True meridian

Designation of Bearings: The bearing of survey lines are designated in

the following systems
– 1. Whole Circle bearing system (W.C.B)
– 2. Quadrental bearing system (Q.B)
[Link] circle bearing system (WCB):
In this system of bearing of a line measured from the true
north or magnetic north in clockwise direction. The value of
bearing may vary from 0 to [Link] is also known as Azimuthal
System.

[Link] Bearing system (RB):

• In this system of bearing of a line measured eastward or westward
from the north or south which ever is nearer. In this system both
North and South direction are used as reference meridians.
• The bearings are measured either clockwise or anticlockwise
depending upon the position of the survey line. It is also called
Reduced Bearing.

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Conversion of bearings:
• If the WCBs are given, convert them to quadrental or reduces
bearings. Similarly, QBs can also be converted to WCBs.

(a) If the WCB is less than 90°, the RB is numerically equal to the WCB. The
quadrant designation is N-E.
(b) (b) If the WCB is between 90° and 180°, the RB is equal to 180° - WCB.
The quadrant designation is S-E.

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(c) If the WCB is between 180° and 270°, the RB is equal to WCB _ 180°.
The quadrant designation is S-W.

(d) If the WCB is between 270° and 360°, the equal to 360° _ WCB. The
quadrant designation is N-W.

Quadrental bearing to whole circle bearing:

To convert given QBs to WCB, the following simple rules are to

be followed.
(a) If the quadrant designation is N-E, the WCB is numerically
equal to the RB.
(b) If the quadrant designation is S-E, the WCB is equal to
180°-QB.
(c) If the quadrant designation is S-W, the WCB is equal to
180+QB.
(d) If the quadrant designation is N-W, the WCB is equal to
360°-QB.

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Fore and Back Bearings:

• Fore Bearing : The bearing of a line in the direction of progress of
the survey is called Fore or forward Bearing(FB).

• Back Bearings: The bearing of a line in the opposite direction of

progress of the survey is called Back Bearing(BB).

• The relation between the FB& BB is

Back Bearing= Fore Bearing ± 180°
Use + sign if FB is less than 180° & Use - sign if FB is greater than 180°
If the fore bearing is given, in the Quadrantal System ,the back bearing is
equal to the fore bearing but the designating letters will be exactly
opposite. N will be changed to S and vice versa and E will be changed to
W and vice versa.

Fore bearing and back bearing

Fore bearing : Reading of Line AB from point A

Back Bearing : Reading of line AB from point B

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Compass Survey
• The process of triangulation is not possible when
the area to be surveyed is large with irregular
boundary and many obstacles, in such cases the
traversing is adopted. In the process of traversing
the direction of survey lines is fixed by taking
the angular measurement with suitable
instruments . A traverse consist of a series of
connected lines whose lengths and directions are
known
• Traverse may be closed traverse or open traverse

Principle of traversing:
• A series of connected straight line each
joining two points on the ground is called a
traverse. End points are known as traverse
stations and straight lines between two
consecutive station s are called traverse legs.
Traverse may be either a closed traverse or an
open traverse.

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Closed Traverse:
• A traverse which either originate from a station and
closes on same station or runs between two station
whose co ordinates are known in terms of a common
system of co ordinates is known as closed traverse. In
closed traverse accuracy of linear as well as angular
measurements may be known.

Open Traverse:
A traverse which neither returns to its starting station nor
ends on another known station is known as open
traverse. In open traverse accuracy of linear as well as
angular measurement may not be checked.

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Difference between Chain survey And

Compass Survey
Chain survey is preferred to if the area to be
surveyed is small in extent and higher accuracy
is aimed at where as if the area is comparatively
large with undulation and less accuracy is
required, compass survey is adopted.

Local Attraction:
North end of a freely suspended magnetic needle always points to the
magnetic north ,if not influenced by any other external forces except the
earth’s magnetic field.
• The magnetic needle gets deflected from its normal position, if placed
near magnetic rocks ,iron ores cables etc. such a disturbing force is known
as local attraction.
Detection of local attraction:
• The presence of local attraction at any station may be detected by
observing the fore and back bearings of the line.
• If the difference between fore and back bearing is 180⁰,both end stations
are free from local attraction. If not, the discrepancy may be due to:
• (1 )An error in observation of either fore or back bearings or both.
• (2) Presence of local attraction at either station.
• (3) Presence of local attraction at both the stations.
The correction to other stations may be made according to the following
methods.
i) By calculating the included angles at the affected stations
ii) By calculating the local attraction of each station and then applying the
required corrections starting from the unaffected bearing.

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Local Attraction:
North end of a freely suspended magnetic needle always points to the
magnetic north ,if not influenced by any other external forces except the
earth’s magnetic field.
• The magnetic needle gets deflected from its normal position, if placed
near magnetic rocks ,iron ores cables etc. such a disturbing force is known
as local attraction.
Detection of local attraction:
• The presence of local attraction at any station may be detected by
observing the fore and back bearings of the line.
• If the difference between fore and back bearing is 180⁰,both end stations
are free from local attraction. If not, the discrepancy may be due to:
(1 )An error in observation of either fore or back bearings or both.
(2) Presence of local attraction at either station.
(3) Presence of local attraction at both the stations.
The correction to other stations may be made according to the following
methods.
i) By calculating the included angles at the affected stations
ii) By calculating the local attraction of each station and then applying the
required corrections starting from the unaffected bearing.

Local Attraction:
North end of a freely suspended magnetic needle always points to the
magnetic north ,if not influenced by any other external forces except the
earth’s magnetic field.
• The magnetic needle gets deflected from its normal position, if placed
near magnetic rocks ,iron ores cables etc. such a disturbing force is known
as local attraction.
Detection of local attraction:
• The presence of local attraction at any station may be detected by
observing the fore and back bearings of the line.
• If the difference between fore and back bearing is 180⁰,both end stations
are free from local attraction. If not, the discrepancy may be due to:
(1 )An error in observation of either fore or back bearings or both.
(2) Presence of local attraction at either station.
(3) Presence of local attraction at both the stations.
The correction to other stations may be made according to the following
methods.
i) By calculating the included angles at the affected stations
ii) By calculating the local attraction of each station and then applying the
required corrections starting from the unaffected bearing.

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Methods of Plotting of Traverse:

Before plotting of traverse survey it should be
checked whether the observed bearing are correct.
If not the required correction to each bearing may
be made so that the traverse will perfect in the
geometrical figure based on field data.

The traverse may be plotted by one of the method

carried out by using compass
• By Parallel Meridians
• By Included Angles;

[Link] Parallel Meridians;

• After deciding the layout of the traverse a line representing
the magnetic meridian through the location of the station is
drawn on the paper .The bearing of the line AB is plotted with
the ordinary protractor and its length duly reduced to scale, is
marked off to get the location of station A is drawn . The
bearing of BC is plotted and length BC is plotted to scale .The
process is continued till last station is plotted.
In a close traverse last line
should be end on the starting
station A. In case of a closed
circuit or at any other known
station in case of linear closed
traverse. If dose not the
distance between two locations
of the same station is termed
as closing error.

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[Link] Included Angles;

• After deciding the location of the station A on the paper draw a line to
represent the magnetic meridian passing through A . Plot the magnetic
bearing of the chain line AB and plot AB duly reduced to scale. Now plot
the included angle ABC by a protractor and plot the location of station C
• The process is continued till all the station are plotted. It may be noted
that for a closed traverse if linear measurement between stations are
correct and plotting is error less the closing station will coincide with the
station A .If not the distance between two location of the starting station
is known as closing error.

Adjustment of Closing Error:

• When a closed traverse is plotted from the field measurements, the end
station of a traverse generally does not coincide exactly with its starting
station.
• This discrepancy is due to the errors in the field observations i.e. magnetic
bearings and linear distances. Such an error of the traverse is known as
closing error or error of closure.
When the angular and linear measurements are of equal precision,
graphical adjustment of the traverse may be made. This method is based
on the Bowditch’s rule. Corrections are applied to lengths as well as to
bearings of the lines in proportion to their lengths. Graphical method is
also sometimes known as proportionate method of adjustment.

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• Method. The adjustment of a compass traverse

graphically, may be made as follow:
• Let ABCDEA’ be a closed traverse as plotted from the
observed magnetic bearings and linear measurements
of the traverse legs.
• A is the starting station and A’ is the location of the
station A as plotted. Hence, A’A is the closing error.

Adjustment.
• Following procedure may be adopt.
• 1Draw a straight line AA’ equal to the perimeter of the
traverse to any suitable scale.
• Set off the distances AB,BC,CD,DE, and EA’ equal to the
lengths of the sides of the traverse.
• Draw A’A” parallel and equal to the closing error A’A.
• Draw parallel lines through points B,C,D, and E to meet AA”
at B’,C’D’ and E’.
• Draw parallel lines through the plotted stations B,C,D,E and
plot the errors equal to BB’,CC’,DD’ in the direction of A’A’.
• Join the points AB’C’D’E’ A to get the adjusted traverse.

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Error in compass surveying:

• Errors in Chaining:
• Instrumental errors:
• Personal errors:
• Other errors due to external forces

Errors in Chaining:-

• 1. Incorrect length of chain

• 2. Incorrect ranging
• 3. Loose Chain
• 4. Temperature change
• 5. Variation in pull
• 6. Errors in slope measurement
• 7. Incorrect marking
• 8. Personal mistake

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Instrumental errors:
• It is caused by the defective parts of the
instrument. These are
(a)The needle may not be straight, giving wrong
readings. (b)The pivot point may have become blunt and
the needle may not move freely.
(c)The line of sight may not pass through the centre of
the graduated ring.
(d)The ring may not move in a horizontal plane due to
the dip of the needle as a result of the wrong adjustment
of the balancing weight.
(e)The cross hair in the objective vane may not be
straight or may have become loose.

Personal errors:
(a)Reading the graduations in the wrong direction or
reading the quadrants wrongly.
(b)Improper centering of the compass over the
station.
(c)Not leveling the compass properly.
(d)Not bisecting the signal at a station properly.

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Other errors:
• (d) Variation in declination during the day,
when the survey is carried out over a long
duration during the day
• (e) Local attraction due to the proximity of
external magnetic influences at one or more
stations
• (f) Other variations due to magnetic storms,
cloud cover, etc, which affect the magnetic
needle.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN COMPASS SURVEY

The instrumental and observational errors during a compass

survey may be minimized by taking the following precautions:
• Set up and level the compass carefully.
• Stop the vibrations of the needle by gently pressing the brake-pin
so that it may come to rest soon.
• Always look along the needle and not across it, to avoid parallax.
• When the instrument is not in use ,its magnetic needle should be
kept off the pivot. If it is not done, the pivot is subjected to
unnecessary wear which may cause sluggishness of the magnetic
needle.
• Before taking a reading ,the compass box should be gently
tapped to ensure that the magnetic needle is freely swinging and
has not come to rest due to friction of the pivot.

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PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN COMPASS SURVEY

• Stations should be selected such that these are away from the sources
of local attraction.
• Surveyor should never carry iron articles, such as a bunch of keys which
may cause local attraction.
• Fore and back bearings of each line should be taken to guard against the
local attraction .If the compass is not be set at the end of a line, the
bearings may be taken from any intermediate point along that line. • Two
sets of readings should be taken at each station for important details by
displacing the magnetic needle after taking one reading.
• Avoid taking a reading in wrong direction viz. 25⁰ to 20⁰ instead 20⁰ to
25⁰ and so.
• If the glass cover has been dusted with a handkerchief, the glass gets
charged with electrostatic current and the needle adheres to the glass
cover .This may be obviated by applying a moist finger to the glass.
• Object vane and eye vane must be straightened before making
observations.

Plain Table Survey

• A plane table is a device used in surveying and
related disciplines to provide a solid and level
surface on which to make field drawings,
charts and maps. The early use of the name
plain table reflected its simplicity and
plainness rather than its flatness.

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Plain Table Survey

Objectives:-

• It is suitable for location of details as well as contouring for large

scale maps directly in the field.
• As surveying and plotting are done simultaneously in the field,
chances of getting omission of any detail get less.
• The plotting details can immediately get compared with the
actual objects present in the field. Thus errors as well as accuracy
of the plot can be ascertained as the work progresses in the field.
• Contours and specific features can be represented and checked
conveniently as the whole area is in view at the time of plotting.
• Only relevant details are located because the map is drawn as the
survey progresses. Irrelevant details get omitted in the field itself.
The plane table survey is generally more rapid and less costly than
most other types of survey.
• As the instruments used are simple, not much skill for operation
of instruments is required. This method of survey requires no field
book.

Plain Table Survey

Disadvantage:-

• The plane table survey is not possible in unfavorable climates

such as rain, fog etc.
• This method of survey is not very accurate and thus unsuitable
for large scale or precise work.
• As no field book is maintained, plotting at different scale require
full exercise.
• The method requires large amount of time to be spent in the
field.
• Quality of the final map depends largely on the drafting capability
of the surveyor.
• This method is effective in relatively open country where stations
can be sighted easily

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Plain Table Survey

Principle :-
The principle of plane table survey is Parallelism ,It
means that the ray drawn from station to objects on
the paper are parallel to the lines from the station to
the objects on the ground.

Accessories of Plane table

Plain alidade: Telescopic alidade

Plane table Alidade

The trough compass

The Circular box compass

The compass

The U – Fork or
plumbing Fork with
The Spirit level plum bob

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Methods Of Plane Table:

• There are four methods of plane table. They
are
1. Radiation
2. Intersection
3. Traversing
4. Resection

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Plain Table Survey

Radiation:-
• This method is suitable for locating the objects
from a single station. In this method rays are
drawn from the station to the objects and the
distances from the station to the object are
measured and plotted to any suitable scale
along the respective rays.

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Plain Table Survey

Intersection:-
• This method is suitable for
locating inaccessible points
by the intersection of the ray
drawn from two station
instrument station.

Plain Table Survey

Traversing:-
This method is suitable
for connecting the
traverse station

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Plain Table Survey

Resection method:-
This method is suitable for
establishing new stations
at a place in order to
locate missing details.

Resection method based

on
(1)the two-point problem,
and

(2) the three-point problem.

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Errors and Precautions:-

A. Instrumental Errors
1. The surface of table may not be perfectly level.
2. The fiducial edge the alidade might not be straight.
3. The vanes may not be vertical.
4. The horsehair may be loose and inclined.
5. The table may be loosely joined with the tripod stand.
6. The needle of the through compass may not be
perfectly balanced. Also it may not be able to move
freely due to sluggishness of the pivot point.

B. Personal Errors
1. The leveling of the table may not be perfectly.
2. The table may not be centred properly.
3. The orientation of the table may not be proper.
4. The table might not be perfectly clamped.
5. The objects may not be bisected perfectly.
6. The alidade may not be correctly centred on the
station point.
7. The rays might not be drawn accurately.
8. The alidade may not be centred on the same side of
the station point throughout the work.

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• Plotting Error
1. A good quality pencil with a very fine pointed
end may not have been used.
2. An incorrect scale may be used by mistake.
3. Errors may result from failure to observe the
correct measurement from the scale.
4. Unnecessary hurry at the time of plotting may
lead to plotting errors.

Precautions to be taken
The following precautions should be taken while using the plane table;

1. Before starting the work the equipment for survey work should be
verified. Defective accessories should be replaced by perfect equipment.
2. The centering should be perfect.
3. The levelling should be proper.
4. The orientation should be accurate.
5. The alidade should be centred on the same side of the station-pin until
the work is completed.
6. While shifting the plane table from one station to another, the tripod
stand should be kept vertical to avoid damage to the fixing arrangement.
7. Only the selected scale should be on the table.
8. Measurements should be taken carefully from the scale while plotting.
9. The stations on the ground are marked A, B, C, D etc. while the station
points on the map are marked a, b, c, d etc.

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Procedure of Field work

1. Reconnaissance
The area to be surveyed is thoroughly examined to find the
best possible way for traversing. The traverse stations should
cover the whole area and should indivisible. The provisions
for check lines should be kept in mind.

2. Marking the stations

The selected stations are marked on the ground by wooden
pegs. Reference sketches should be prepared for the stations
so that they can be readily located in case the station pegs
are removed.

Advantages of Plane table survey

• It is cheaper that the Theodolite or any other type of survey
• It is most suitable fro preparing small scale maps
• It is simple and can be entrusted to semi skilled persons after a
short training
• It is useful when compass survey cannot be carried out due to
heavy local attraction.
• It is very useful for accurately representing the contours and the
irregular objects because the tract is in view
• No great skill is required and hence the person can be trained easily
in short time
• The mistakes in the writing field books are eliminated
• The objects drawn on the paper are available for inspection and
verification on the field
• There is no chance or risk of omitting necessary measurements
• The subsequent office work is confined only to the finishing up of
the drawing and hence in ordinary circumstances the plane table
survey proves to be one of the most rapid methods of surveying

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Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey

• Great inconvenience is caused if scale is changed or if certain
quantities are to be worked out from the plans because there is
absence of field notes
• If the area to be surveyed is large, it becomes necessary to
frequently change the paper to be mounted on the board
• It is not suitable when the scale is large because of the fact that a
numbers of paper must be used and joined in continuity of each
other
• It is not suitable in monsoon or wet season or cloudy weather
• It is not very accurate as compare to the other type of surveys
• It requires many accessories on the field.
• The instrument is fairly heavy and hence, it is inconvenient to
handle and transport

Computation of Area

• The area of a plot is computed either from

its plan or from the field notes of the survey
works as in case of cross staff survey.

• The plan on the paper represents the plot on

ground to a certain scale and hence, the area
of the plot can be worked out by calculation
the area of the plan of the plot

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Methods for the computation of areas

1. Analytical method

Methods for the computation of areas

1. Analytical method
2. Graphic method

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Methods for the computation of areas

1. Analytical method
2. Graphic method
3. Mechanical / instrumental method

Calculation of area from Graphical method

• Calculation of area from Graphical method:-

The area may be calculated in two following
ways:-
i. From field Notes
ii. From Plotted plan

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Calculation of area from Graphical method

Computation of the area from field notes

• In this method the computation of the area is
done in two steps:-
a. In survey works the whole area is divided into
number of some geometrical Fig. such as triangles,
rectangles, square, trapeziums and then the area is
calculated.
b. Then the area of this geometrical fig. added up to
get the required area.

Calculation of area from Graphical method

Calculation of the area

from Plotted plan:-
• The area may be
calculated in two
following ways:-
i. Considering the entire
area
ii. Considering the
Boundary area

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Calculation of area from Graphical method

• Considering the Entire

area:-The entire area is
divided into regions of
convenient shape and
they are calculated by
– By dividing the area into
triangles
– By dividing the area into
squares
– By drawing parallel lines
and converting them into
rectangles:

Calculation of area from Graphical method

• Considering the Entire

area:-The entire area is
divided into regions of
convenient shape and
they are calculated by
– By dividing the area into
triangles
– By dividing the area into
squares
– By drawing parallel lines
and converting them into
rectangles:

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Calculation of area from Graphical method

• Considering the Entire area:-

The entire area is divided into
regions of convenient shape
and they are calculated by
– By dividing the area into
triangles
– By dividing the area into
squares
– By drawing parallel lines and
converting them into
rectangles

Calculation of area from Graphical method

Considering the Boundary area

• In this method the large square

or rectangle is formed with in the
area in the plan.
• The ordinates are drawn at a
regular interval from side of the
square to the curved boundary.
• The middle area is calculated in
the usual manner. The boundary
area is calculated by
1. Mid Ordinate rule
2. Average Ordinate rule
3. Trapezoidal rule
4. Simpson’s rule

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1. Mid Ordinate rule

2. Average Ordinate rule

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3. Trapezoidal rule

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4. Simpson’s rule
– In this rule the boundaries between the ends of the
ordinates are assumed to form an arc of parabola.
Hence Simpson’s rule is also known as parabolic rule .
This rule is also known as Prismodial rule.

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• Calculation of area from Graphical method:-

– i. From field Notes
– ii. From Plotted plan
• Considering the entire area
– By dividing the area into triangles
– By dividing the area into squares
– By drawing parallel lines and converting them into rectangles
• Considering the Boundary area
 Mid Ordinate rule
 ordinate rule
 Trapezoidal rule
 Simpson’s rule

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THEODOLITE

• A theodolite is an extra ordinary accurate instrument

used in surveying for measuring horizontal and vertical
angles it has also very wide application in various
surveying operations such as establishing grades, setting
out curves, extending survey line etc.
• A theodolite is an instrument for measuring both
horizontal and vertical angles, as used in triangulation
networks. It is a key tool in surveying and engineering
work.
• A theodolite consists of a telescope mounted movably
within two perpendicular axes, the horizontal or trunnion
axis, and the vertical axis. When the telescope is pointed
at a desired object, the angle of each of these axes can be
measured with great precision, typically on the scale of
arc seconds.

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• Theodolites are precision

instruments and are either
electronic (capable of displaying
angle readings automatically) or
optical, which need to be read
manually.
• Many different theodolites are
available for measuring angles
and they are often classified
according to the smallest
reading that can be taken with a
particular instrument – this can
vary from 1' to 0.1".

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Capacity and uses

• Various miscellaneous operations which can be carried
out with Theodolite are
• Measurement of horizontal angles
• Measurement of vertical nagles
• To lay off a horizontal angle
• To lay off an angle by repetition to locate the point of
intersection of two straight lines
• To measure deflection angles
• To measure direct angles
• To measure magnetic bearing of a line
• To prolong a straight line
• To run a straight line between two points

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Error in Theodolite work

• Error due to external forces
• Instrumental error
• Personal error

Error in Theodolite work

• Error due to external forces
• Instrumental error
• Personal error

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Error in Theodolite work

• Error due to external forces
• Instrumental error
• Personal error

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