MODULE-I

D.C NETWORKS
1.1 Kirchoff’s Laws:-

1.1.1. Kirchoff’s current law or point law (KCL)

Statement:- In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents

meeting at a point is zero.
Σ I = 0 ……………………at a junction or node

Assumption:- Incoming current = positive

Outgoing current = negative

1.1.2. Kirchoff’s voltage law or mesh law (KVL)

Statement:- The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in

each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the
algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero.
Σ IR +Σemf = 0 …………………………..round the mesh
Assumption:- i) Rise in voltage (If we go from negative terminal of the
battery to positive terminal) = positive
ii) Fall in voltage (If we go from positive terminal of the battery to negative
terminal) = negative
iii) If we go through the resistor in the same direction as current then there is
a fall in potential. Hence this voltage is taken as negative.
iv)If we go through the resistor against the direction of current then there is a
rise in potential. Hence this voltage drop is taken as positive.
 Example:- Write the loop equation for the given circuit below
(Supplementary exam 2004)

Solution: Apply KVL to the loop,

− ir1 − E 1 − ir2 + E 2 − ir3 − E 3 = 0
E 1 − E 2 + E 3 = − ir1 − ir2 − ir3
E 1 − E 2 + E 3 = − i ( r1 + r2 + r3 )

1.2. MAXWELL’S LOOP CURRENT METHOD (MESH ANALYSIS)

Statement:- This method determines branch currents and voltages across the
elements of a network. The following process is followed in this method:-

• Here, instead of taking branch currents (as in Kirchoff’s law) loop currents
are taken which are assumed to flow in the clockwise direction.
• Branch currents can be found in terms of loop currents
• Sign conventions for the IR drops and battery emfs are the same as for
Kirchoff’s law.
• This method is easier if all the sources are given as voltage sources. If there
is a current source present in a network then convert it into equivalent
voltage source.
 Explanation:-

Consider a network as shown in Fig. below. It contains two meshes. Let I1 and
I2 are the mesh currents of two meshes directed in clockwise.

Apply KVL to mesh-1,

V1 -I1 R 1 - ( I1 -I 2 ) R 3 = 0

Apply KVL to mesh-2,

-I 2 R 2 -V2 - ( I 2 -I1 ) R 3 =0

When we consider mesh-1, the current I1 is greater than I2. So, current through
R3 is I1-I2. Similarly, when we consider mesh-2, the current I2 is greater than I1.
So, current through R3 is I2 – I1.

Example: Find I1, I2 and I3 in the network shown in Fig below using loop
current method

Solution:- For mesh ABCDA,

 -I 1 × 1 0 - ( I 1 -I 2 ) × 2 0 -1 0 = 0
3 I 1 -2 I 2 = -1 (1 )

For mesh BEFCB,

4 0 -I 2 × 2 0 + 1 0 - ( I 2 -I 3 ) × 1 0 - ( I 2 -I 1 ) × 2 0 = 0
2 I 1 -5 I 2 + I 3 = -5 (2 )

For mesh EGHFE,

-1 0 I 3 + 5 0 − ( I 3 − I 2 ) × 1 0 − 1 0 = 0
I 2 -2 I 3 = -4 (3 )

Equation (2) x 2 + Equation (3)

4 I1 -9 I 2 = -1 4 (4 )
Solving eqn (1) & eqn (4)

I1 = 1 A, I2 = 2 A, I3 = 3 A

1.3. NODAL ANALYSIS

Statement:- This method determines branch currents in the circuit and also
voltages at individual nodes.

The following steps are adopted in this method:-

Identify all the nodes in the network.

One of these nodes is taken as reference node in at zero potential

The node voltages are measured w.r.t the reference node

KCL to find current expression for each node

This method is easier if all the current sources are present. If any voltage
source is present, convert it to current source
 The number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n-1) where ‘n’
is the number of independent nodes.

Explanation:-

At node ‘a’ I1+I2 = I3

E1 −Va E −V V
By ohms law, I1 = , I2 = 2 a , I3 = a
R1 R2 R3
Therefore, 1 1 1 E E
Va + + − 1− 2 =0
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2
1 1 1 E E
or, Va + + − 1 − 2 =0
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2

1 1 1 E E
or, Va + + − 1 − 2 =0
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2
Hence,

Node voltage multiplied by sum of all the conductance connected to this

node. This term is positive

The node voltage at the other end of each branch (connected to this node
multiplied by conductance of this branch). This term is negative.
Example:- Use nodal analysis to find currents in the different branches of the
circuit shown below.

(Supplementary Exam July- 2004)

Solution:-

Let V1 and V2 are the voltages of two nodes as shown in Fig below

Applying KCL to node-1, we get

12 − V1 0 − V1 V 2 − V1
+ + =0
2 1 3
36 − 3V1 − 6V1 + 2V 2 − 2V1 = 0
− 11V1 + 2V 2 = 36...............(1)
Again applying KCL to node-2, we get:-
V1 − V 2 0 − V2 6 − V2
+ + = 0
3 5 4
2 0V1 − 4 7 V 2 + 9 0 = 0
2 0 V 1 − 4 7 V 2 = − 9 0 ...............( 2 )

Solving Eq (1) and (2) we get V1 = 3.924 Volt and V2 = 3.584 volt

12-V1 12-3.924
Current through 2 Ω resistance = 2 = 2
=4.038 A

0-V1
Current through 1 Ω resistance = 1 =-3.924 A

V1 -V2
Current through 3 Ω resistance = =0.1133 A
3

0-V2
Current through 5 Ω resistance = 5 =-0.7168 A

6-V2
Current through 4 Ω resistance = =0.604 A
4

As currents through 1Ω and 5Ω are negative, so actually their directions are

opposite to the assumptions.

1.4. STAR-DELTA CONVERSION

Need:- Complicated networks can be simplified by successively replacing delta

mesh to star equivalent system and vice-versa.

In delta network, three resistors are connected in delta fashion ( ) and in star
network three resistors are connected in wye (Y) fashion.
 Fig. 1.4.1.

Delta connection b) Star connection

1.4.1. Delta to Star Conversion:- From Fig. 1.4.1 (a), : Between A & B,
there are two parallel path.
Resistance between terminal A & B = RAB ( RBC + RCA )
RAB + RBC + RCA
From Fig. 1.4.1 (b), STAR: Between A & B two series resistances are
there RA + RB. So, terminal resistances have to be the same.

R AB ( R BC + RCA ) .................(1)
RA + RB =
R AB + R BC + RCA

R BC ( RCA + R AB )
RB + RC = .................( 2 )
R AB + R BC + RCA

RCA ( R AB + R BC )
RC + R A = .................( 3 )
R AB + R BC + RCA
Eq {(1)-(2)}+(3) & Solving,-

R AB × RCA
RA = .................(4)
R AB + R BC + RCA
R AB × R BC
RB = .................(5)
R AB + R BC + RCA
 RCA × R BC
RC = .................( 6 )
R AB + R BC + RCA

Easy way to remember:-

Pr oduct of two adjacent arms of delta

Any arm of star connection =
sum of arms of delta

1.4.2. Star to Delta conversion

Eq {(1) X (2)}+(2) X (3)+ (3) X (1) & Simplifying,-

R A R B + R B RC + RC R A R R
R AB = = RA + RB + A B
RC RC
R B R C
R B C = R B + R C +
R A

R C R A
R C A = R C + R A +
R B

Easy way to remember:- Resistance between two terminals of delta = sum of star
resistance connected to those terminals + product of the same to resistance
divided by the third resistance.
Example(delta to star):- Convert the following Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent
Star Network.

NETWORK THEOREMS

• SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
• THEVENIN’S THEOREM
• NORTON’S THEOREM
• MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

1. Superposition theorem
Statement:- In a network of linear resistances containing more than one
generator (or source of emf), the current which flows at any point is the sum
s
of all the currents which would flow at that point if each generator were
considered separately and all the other generators replaced for the time being
by resistances equal to their internal resistance
resistance.
Example:- By means of superposition theorem, calculate the currents in the
network shown.

Step 1. Considering 10 V battery

2 × 18
R eq = + 1 = 2 .8 Ω
2 + 18
10
I1b = = 3 .5 7 A
2 .8
18
I 2b = 3 .5 7 × = 3 .2 1 A
20
I3b = I1b − I 2b = 0 .3 6 A
 Step 2. Considering 20 V battery

1×18
R eq = + 2 = 2 .9 5 Ω
1 + 18
20
I 2c = = 6 .7 8 A
2 .9 5
18
I1c = 6 .7 8 × = 6 .4 2 A
19
I3b = I 2c − I1c = 0 .3 6 A

Step 3. Results

I1 = I1b − I1c = 3.57 − 6.42 = −2.85A

I 2 = I 2c − I 2b = 6.78 − 3.21 = 3.57A
I3 = I3b + I3c = 0.36 + 0.36 = 0.72A

2. SOURCE CONVERSION:-
Statement: A voltage source (V) with a series resistance (R) can be
converted to a current source (I=V/R) with a parallel resistance (R) and vice-
versa.
 Proof:-

V
IL = (1)
RX + RL
RX
IL = I (2)
RX + RL

From Eq. (1) & (2)

V = IR X (3)

• STATEMENT: The two circuits are said to be electrically equivalent if they

supply equal load currents with the same resistance connected across their
terminals.

• voltage source having a voltage V and source resistance Rx can be replaced

by I(= V/Rx) and a source resistance Rx in parallel with current source.

• Current source I and source resistance Rx can be replaced by a voltage

source V (=IRx) and a source resistance Rx in series with V.

3. THEVENIN’S THEOREM:-
Statement:- Any pair of terminals AB of a linear active network may be
replaced by an equivalent voltage source in series with an equivalent
 resistance Rth. The value of Vth (called the Thevenin’s voltage) is equal to
potential difference between the terminals AB when they are open circuited,
and Rth is the equivalent resistance looking into the network at AB with the
independent active sources set to zero i.e with all the independent voltage
sources short-circuited and all the independent current sources open-
circuited.
Example:- Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B
12 Ω 4Ω A
•
+

30 V +
_ 6Ω 2Ω VX
_
•
B

Solution:- step1. First remove everything to the right of A-B.

12 Ω 4Ω A
•

30 V +
_ 6Ω

•
B

( 3 0 )( 6 )
V AB = = 10V
6 + 12

Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4 Ω resistor (A-B) is open. Thus
there can be no voltage across the resistor.

Step 2. To find Rth

We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find the resistance seen
looking in these terminals.
 12 Ω 4Ω A
•

6Ω

•
B

RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8 Ω

Step 3. To find Vx

After having found the Thevenin circuit, we connect this to the load in order to
find VX.

RTH A
•
8Ω +
VTH + 10 V VX
_ 2Ω
_
B
•

( 10 )( 2 )
VX = = 2V
2+8

4. NORTON’S THEOREM:
Statement: Any two terminal linear active network (containing independent
voltage and current sources), may be replaced by a constant current source
IN in parallel with a resistance RN, where IN is the current flowing through a
short circuit placed across the terminals and RN is the equivalent resistance
of the network as seen from the two terminals with all sources replaced by
their internal resistance.
Example: Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B for
the network shown below. Connect the Norton equivalent circuit to the load
and find the current in the 50 Ω resistor.

10 A

20 Ω 40 Ω A
•

+
_ 50 V 60 Ω 50 Ω

Solution:
•
B
10 A

20 Ω 40 Ω

+
_ 50 V 60 Ω
ISS

Fig. Circuit to find INORTON

I SS =10.7 A
It can also be shown that by deactivating the sources,We find the resistance
looking into terminals A-B is RN = 55 Ω
RN and RTH will always be the same value for a given circuit. The Norton
equivalent circuit tied to the load is shown below.

10.7 A 55 Ω 50 Ω