Chapter 1

Resolution of non-linear equations

f (x) = 0.

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will discuss the solution of a nonlinear single-variable equation. It is about
finding the value of x that satisfies the equation f (x) = 0. For a function f , x is called the
zero or the root of the equation f (x) = 0.

1.1 Separation of Roots:

Separating the roots of f (x) = 0 involves determining the intervals [a, b] in which each root is
unique. For this, we can use the Intermediate Value Theorem.

Intermediate Value Theorem:

Let f : R → R be a given function:

• If f is continuous in [a, b] and f (a) · f (b) < 0, then

∃ α ∈ [a, b] such that f (α) = 0.

• Moreover, if f is monotonic in [a, b], then α is unique in [a, b].

Example:
Separate the roots of the equation x3 − 3x + 1 = 0 in the interval [−3, 3].
Chapter 1 Resolution of non-linear equations f (x) = 0. 2

1.1.1 Algebraic Method:

• f (x) = x3 − 3x + 1 is a polynomial function, so it is continuous in [−3, 3].

• f (−3) = −17, f (3) = 19, therefore f (−3) · f (3) < 0. According to the Intermediate
Value Theorem, there exists at least one root α of f (x) = 0 in [−3, 3].

• To study the uniqueness of the root α, let us examine the monotonicity of f (x).

f (x) = x3 − 3x + 1

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 3(x − 1)(x + 1)

- Sign Table:

The behavior of f ′ (x) and f (x) can be analyzed as follows:

Thus, there are 3 roots:

• α1 unique in [−3, −1] because it is monotonic and f (−3) · f (−1) < 0

• α2 unique in [−1, 1] because it is monotonic and f (−1) · f (1) < 0

• α3 unique in [1, 3] because it is monotonic and f (1) · f (3) < 0

1.1.2 Graphical method:

In this case, the roots of f (x) = 0 represent the points of intersection of the graph of f (x) with
the axis OX.
In the case where f is complicated, it is necessary to reformulate the equation f (x) = 0
through an equivalent equation g(x) = h(x) with g and h being two simpler functions. The
points of intersection of the graphs of g and h are then searched for.
For our example: x3 − 3x + 1 = 0 ⇒ x3 = 3x − 1.
then we set: h(x) = x3 and g(x) = 3x − 1.

University of MEDEA, Algeria Mr. ESSAID Billel

Chapter 1 Resolution of non-linear equations f (x) = 0. 3

Figure 1.1: graphs of g(x) in blue and h(x) in red

There will be three intersections between the graphs of g and h, so there are three roots:

• α1 unique in [−2, −1] because f (−2) · f (−1) < 0

• α2 unique in [0, 1] because f (0) · f (1) < 0

• α3 unique in [1, 2] because f (1) · f (2) < 0

1.2 Bisection Method (Dichotomy or Bipartition)

The Bisection Method is a numerical technique for finding the roots of a continuous function
f (x). It is based on the Intermediate Value Theorem, which states that if f (a) and f (b) have
opposite signs (f (a) · f (b) < 0), then there exists at least one root c in the interval [a, b] such
that f (c) = 0.

1.2.1 Conditions of Convergence:

1. f is continuous on [a, b]

2. f (a) · f (b) < 0

3. f (x) is strictly monotonic on [a, b]

1.2.2 Steps of the Method

1. Choose the interval [a, b]:

• Ensure that f (a) · f (b) < 0, which guarantees that a root lies in the interval.

2. Compute the midpoint:

a+b
c= .
2
3. Evaluate f (c):

University of MEDEA, Algeria Mr. ESSAID Billel

Chapter 1 Resolution of non-linear equations f (x) = 0. 4

• If f (a) · f (c) < 0, the root lies in [a, c]. Set b = c.

• Otherwise, the root lies in [c, b]. Set a = c.

4. Repeat the process:

|b−a|
• Continue halving the interval [a, b] until the desired accuracy is achieved, i.e., 2
<
ϵ, where ϵ is a predefined tolerance.

5. Stop:

• The midpoint c is considered the approximate root.

Example
Find the root of x4 + 2x3 − x − 1 = 0 in the interval [0, 1] with a precision of 0.05.
f (0) = −1, f (1) = 1. Since f (0) · f (1) < 0, a root exists in [0, 1].
Conditions of Convergence:
1) f (0) · f (1) < 0
2) f is continuous on [0, 1]
3) f is strictly increasing on [0, 1]

|b−a|
n a b c f (c) 2

1 0 1 0.5 -1.187 0.5

2 0.5 1 0.75 -0.590 0.25
3 0.75 1 0.875 0.051 0.125
4 0.75 0.875 0.812 -0.304 0.062
5 0.812 0.875 0.843 -0.137 0.031 < 0.05

The root is therefore : α =0.843 ± 0.05

1.2.3 Number of iterations to achieve a precision ε:

|b − a|
At iteration n = 1 ⇒
2
|b − a|
At iteration n = 2 ⇒
22
|b − a|
At iteration n = 3 ⇒
23

Therefore:

|b − a|
At the final iteration n = k ⇒ <ε
2k
Thus:

ln(b − a) − ln(ε)
k≥
ln(2)

University of MEDEA, Algeria Mr. ESSAID Billel

Chapter 1 Resolution of non-linear equations f (x) = 0. 5

Example:
What is the number of iterations needed to achieve a precision of 10−2 to solve the equation
x3 − 2x + 7 = 0 in the interval [1, 2] ?

ln(2 − 1) − ln(0.01)
k≥ ⇒ k ≥ 6.64 ⇒ k = 7 iterations
ln(2)

1.3 NEWTON Method :

Perhaps the most widely used of all root-locating formulas is the Newton equation (Fig. 1.2).
If the initial guess at the root is xi , a tangent can be extended from the point [xi , f (xi )]. The
point where this tangent crosses the x-axis usually represents an improved root estimate.

Figure 1.2: Newton method

The Newton method can be derived on the basis of this geometrical interpretation. As in
Fig. 1.2, the first derivative at x is equivalent to the slope:

f (xi ) − 0
f ′ (xi ) =
xi − xi+1
which can be rearranged to yield

f (xi )
xi+1 = xi −
f ′ (xi )
which is called the Newton formula.

1.3.1 Conditions of Convergence:

To find the solution of f (x) = 0 in [a, b] using the Newton method, the following conditions
must be verified:

1. f (a)f (b) < 0

2. ∀x ∈ [a, b], f ′ (x) ̸= 0

University of MEDEA, Algeria Mr. ESSAID Billel

Chapter 1 Resolution of non-linear equations f (x) = 0. 6

3. ∀x ∈ [a, b], f ′′ (x) ̸= 0

In this case, there exists x0 ∈ [a, b] such that f (x0 ).f ′′ (x0 ) > 0.
Then, the Newton sequence is defined as:
(
x0 ,
xn+1 = xn − ff′(x n)
(xn )

It converges to the solution of f (x) = 0 in [a, b].

1.3.2 Stopping criterion:

I stop the calculations when

|xn − xn+1 | < ϵ (desired precision)

Example:
Find the root of x4 + 2x3 − x − 1 = 0 in the interval [0, 1] with a precision of 0.05.
f (0) = −1, f (1) = 1. Since f (0) · f (1) < 0, a root exists in [0, 1].
Conditions of Convergence:
1) f (0) · f (1) < 0
2) ∀x ∈ [0, 1], f ′ (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 − 1 ̸= 0
3) ∀x ∈ [0, 1], f ′′ (x) = 12x2 + 12x ̸= 0 if x ̸= 0, (We can’t choose x0 = 0)
choice of x0 :

• if x0 = 1 : f (x0 ).f ′′ (x0 ) = (1).(24) > 0, so the choice is accepted.

then, the Newton sequence is defined as:

(
x0 = 1,
f (xn ) x4n +2x3n −xn −1
xn+1 = xn − f ′ (xn )
= xn − 4x3n +6x2n −1

So:
f (1) 1
x1 = 1 − ′
= 1 − ≈ 1 − 0.1111 ≈ 0.8889, (|x1 − x0 | = 0.1111 > ϵ )
f (1) 9
f (x1 )
x2 = x1 − ≈ 0.8675, , (|x2 − x1 | = 0.0214 < ϵ , Stop)
f ′ (x1 )
The root is therefore : α =0.8675 ± 0.05

University of MEDEA, Algeria Mr. ESSAID Billel