A study indicates that Problem-Based Learning (PBL) significantly enhances
knowledge retention and academic achievement, particularly in subjects like
physics, where students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Regardless of the teaching method used in continuing education, optimizing
excitement, maximizing self-efficacy, and minimizing anxiety are crucial for
fostering high levels of student understanding and competence. This aligns
with the principles of constructivism, which support the PBL approach
(Nicholus, et. al, 2023).
Furthermore, Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a powerful approach to
developing 21st-century skills such as creativity, communication, critical
thinking, and problem-solving. Specifically, PBL focuses on learning rather
than the problem itself, using real-world challenges to stimulate students'
creative and critical thinking abilities while fostering collaboration with peers.
This process encourages self-awareness and helps students apply knowledge
in practical, flexible ways (Craig, et. al, n.d.).
According to Akçay (2009), PBL emphasizes "minds-on, hands-on" learning
by engaging students in investigating and solving complex, real-world
problems. Moreover, it enhances problem-solving, self-directed learning, and
teamwork while promoting higher-level thinking and data analysis. PBL
integrates school learning with real life, encouraging students to identify root
problems, pursue understanding, and become self-directed learners.
In addition, preparing learners for lifelong challenges requires innovative
teaching approaches like PBL, which builds knowledge from real-world
experiences. This method improves learners' knowledge, attitudes, and
behaviors while fostering collaboration, creativity, critical thinking,
communication, and problem-solving (Bagay et al., 2023). Studies further
show that PBL students perform as well as their peers in traditional
classrooms on exams but excel as practitioners in their fields (Hmelo-Silver,
2004).
Similarly, Birgili (2015) emphasizes that modern education demands
individuals who can approach problems with both creative and critical
thinking. PBL environments develop these skills by encouraging students to
generate multiple solutions (creativity) and analyze ideas critically (critical
thinking). Together, these skills drive innovation and sustain educational
progress.
Additionally, another study highlights that PBL can enhance both students'
language skills and essential 21st-century competencies, improving their
micro- and macro-language abilities. The approach promotes active
engagement, encouraging students to develop independent problem-solving
strategies while collaborating with peers. Future studies are anticipated to
explore PBL's effectiveness across various educational levels and global
contexts, comparing its impact on skill enhancement (Suwastini, et. al,
2021).
Moreover, Yaman and Yalçın (2005) investigated the impact of Problem-
Based Learning (PBL) on the creative thinking levels of teacher candidates, a
crucial 21st-century skill. Their findings revealed that pre-service teachers in
the experimental group exhibited greater improvements in creative thinking
compared to those in the control group. This suggests that the PBL approach
is more effective in enhancing creative thinking than traditional teaching
methods.
With the findings of the study, it was proven that the problem-based learning
approach used in the study has been effective in enhancing the problem-
solving skills of the students. Moreover, problem-based learning is more
effective than non-problem-based learning in enhancing the level of
problem-solving skills of students (Valdez & Bungiham, 2019).
The Problem-Based Learning (PBL) process enhances students' critical
thinking, problem-solving, and creative capabilities. It is applicable to both
vocational subjects, such as family and consumer science, and traditional
academic disciplines. Grounded in cognitive science, PBL emphasizes
presenting problems before solutions, engaging learners with compelling
questions or puzzles that encourage exploration and self-discovery of course
concepts (Ward & Lee, 2002).
ALL DROPPED RRL STATEMENTS MUST BE BELOW THIS:
(WILL ARRANGE LATER, IF U CAN ARRANGE, GO, BETTER! :3)
ALLIYA :)
In exploring the effectiveness of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in fostering critical thinking and
innovation skills, several studies provide valuable insights. Bates (2014) explains how PBL
supports the development of innovation skills by engaging learners in complex, real-world
problems that demand creative solutions. This approach emphasizes the importance of learners
not only solving problems but also developing the adaptability and resourcefulness required for
innovation. Similarly, Masruro, Sudibyo, and Purnomo (2021) highlight that PBL significantly
enhances students' critical thinking skills, particularly by encouraging them to apply theoretical
knowledge to practical situations. These findings underscore the critical role of problem-solving
in improving students' analytical capabilities.
Moreover, Zainy (2023) discusses how PBL contributes to science process skills by fostering a
deeper understanding of scientific concepts through active engagement. The hands-on nature
of PBL allows students to explore scientific problems from various perspectives, which supports
the development of higher-order thinking skills. Lapek (2018) further supports this by showing
how PBL environments cultivate 21st-century skills, preparing students to navigate complex and
ever-evolving fields. This is particularly important in an era where innovation and critical thinking
are key drivers of academic and professional success.
In a broader context, Tursynkulova et al. (2023) examine the effect of PBL on cognitive skills in
the context of geometric problems. Their study in Kazakhstan reveals that PBL not only
improves students' cognitive skills but also encourages problem-solving approaches that are
essential for understanding abstract concepts. This reflects the broader benefits of PBL in
fostering critical thinking across various disciplines.
Further expanding on this, Yu and Mohamed Zin (2023) provide a systematic review of PBL
adaptations designed to enhance critical thinking. Their research emphasizes the flexibility of
PBL models, highlighting their ability to be adapted to different educational settings and
disciplines, thus ensuring the continuous development of critical thinking skills. Kek and Huijser
(2011) also focus on the power of PBL in developing critical thinking skills, particularly in
preparing students for the challenges of tomorrow’s digital futures.
In the context of science education, Wenno, Jamaludin, and Batlolona (2021) explore the effects
of PBL on creative and critical thinking skills in static fluid topics. Their findings suggest that the
PBL model not only aids in grasping complex scientific concepts but also promotes creativity, as
students are encouraged to think critically and innovatively. Similarly, Hoidn and Kärkkäinen
(2014) emphasize the effectiveness of PBL in promoting skills for innovation in higher
education, demonstrating its applicability in fostering creativity and critical thinking across
educational levels.
Finally, Solihah and Sulistyan (2019) examine the use of PBL in elementary school settings and
its impact on students’ critical thinking skills. Their research illustrates that PBL provides young
learners with opportunities to actively engage with problems, thereby improving their critical
thinking and decision-making abilities. This underscores the potential of PBL as an effective
teaching strategy in elementary science education, supporting the development of both critical
thinking and innovative skills.
Overall, these studies collectively highlight the significant role of PBL in enhancing students’
critical thinking and innovation skills, making it an essential pedagogical approach for preparing
students for future challenges. By engaging students in meaningful, real-world problem-solving
tasks, PBL not only improves academic performance but also fosters essential skills for lifelong
learning and success.
NAFISA
Teachers from Ghana emphasized that PBL promotes student independence, self-directed
learning, and collaborative activities, which enhance conceptual understanding. However, they
also reported challenges such as insufficient resources, limited time, and lack of teacher
competence, which hinder effective adoption. Despite the positive beliefs about PBL's benefits,
the study suggests that addressing these barriers through continuous professional
development, additional time for science lessons, and better resources is essential to fully
implement PBL in classrooms (Aidoo, 2025).
Moreover, Akcay and Benek (2025) examined the trends and impacts of Problem-Based
Learning (PBL) in science education in Türkiye, focusing on 133 studies conducted between
2000 and 2023. Their findings revealed that PBL positively affected students' academic
achievement, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. Specifically, 64.61% of the studies
showed a positive impact on achievement, while attitude and scientific process skills were also
positively influenced. Nevertheless, the study noted a decline in PBL research after 2021 and
emphasized the need for faculty development programs to address challenges in
implementation.
In addition, Heuerman (2025) explored the effects of Project-Based Learning (PBL) on student
motivation and collaboration in science education. The findings revealed that PBL significantly
enhances student motivation by allowing students to make individual choices in their learning
and showing them the real-world relevance of the material. The hands-on nature of PBL fosters
higher engagement compared to traditional lectures. Furthermore, PBL encourages
collaboration, an essential life skill, by promoting group work, which is crucial for future careers.
This suggests that PBL not only improves academic engagement but also prepares students for
teamwork in professional settings.
Similarly, with the findings of the study, it was proven that inquiry-based learning, when
combined with cooperative learning, significantly enhances student engagement and academic
performance. Moreover, inquiry-based cooperative learning is more effective than traditional
teaching methods in promoting higher-order thinking, critical discussions, and meaningful
learning outcomes (Gillies, 2025).
Additionally, a study indicates that the Problem-Based Learning (PBL) approach significantly
enhances students’ Science Process Skills (SPS) and learning achievement, particularly in
topics like "Safety in Our Environment." The findings revealed that PBL enables students to
develop SPS more effectively than traditional teaching methods. Moreover, students’
achievement scores were higher in the PBL group compared to those using traditional methods,
with no gender differences in achievement. This study emphasizes the importance of shifting
from traditional methods to learner-centered approaches, like PBL, to better align with the
evolving demands of the modern world (Kasuga, Maro, & Pangani, 2025).
Furthermore, Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is an effective approach for enhancing students'
academic success across various levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. Specifically, PBL has been
shown to improve students’ performance in sub-level cognitive skills such as knowledge and
practice, as well as higher-level skills like analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. This approach
outperforms traditional teacher-centered methods in fostering both lower and higher-order
cognitive abilities, contributing to overall academic success (Kızılkaya & Seven, 2025).
In the same vein, according to Magaji, Adjani, and Coombes (2023), Problem-Based Learning
(PBL) has proven to be an effective pedagogical approach for teaching and learning. However,
it has not been widely adopted in preservice science teacher training. The study highlights the
need for further research and practical guidance for preservice science teachers on how to
implement PBL in their classrooms. It emphasizes the importance of using established PBL
frameworks, which could guide teachers in planning and carrying out PBL lessons effectively.
Therefore, the integration of PBL into science curricula aligns with inquiry-based learning and
supports the development of essential knowledge and skills in science students. The authors
suggest that teacher educators and content specialists collaborate to effectively integrate PBL
into teacher training, ultimately enhancing students' learning outcomes.
Additionally, according to Papasarantou, Alimisi, and Alimisis (2023), virtual galleries offer an
effective framework for promoting Problem-Based Learning (PBL) in both physical and online
environments. They help students understand complex problems by breaking them into
manageable tasks and fostering collaboration. Virtual galleries enhance self-directed learning,
problem-solving, and the exchange of ideas. By incorporating spatial dimensions, the process
becomes more interactive, engaging students and encouraging the application of existing
knowledge to develop new skills in a meaningful way.
Moreover, a study by Sari, Sumarmi, Utomo, and Astina (2021) indicates that Problem-Based
Learning (PBL) positively influences both students' problem-solving skills and their ability to
write scientific articles. The results show that students in the experimental group, who
experienced PBL, demonstrated higher problem-solving skills and better scientific writing
abilities compared to the control group. This suggests that PBL enhances critical thinking and
academic writing, which are essential for university-level learning. The study advocates for
learning models like PGBR to further enhance scientific writing skills.
Finally, Uluçınar's (2021) meta-analysis study demonstrates that Problem-Based Learning
(PBL) significantly enhances academic achievement in science education, regardless of the
specific science discipline, educational level, or nationality of the students. PBL, when applied
with various methods like technology integration and constructivist approaches, has been
shown to engage students and activate critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Thus, the
study highlights the effectiveness of PBL in fostering academic success across multiple
scientific subjects, indicating its versatility and effectiveness in promoting deep learning and
conceptual understanding.
JORDANA
According to Anjum (2024), problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes the learner’s ability to
solve problems through research, inquiry, and critical thinking. Unlike traditional teaching
methods that focus on rote memorization, PBL fosters active learning, teamwork, and the
practical application of knowledge. For instance, students might investigate local environmental
issues, such as water pollution or deforestation, by researching causes, identifying
stakeholders, and proposing actionable solutions.
Like the graduate student beginning a dissertation study, the student in PBL classroom begins
with a problem. This is one way in which the traditional classroom differs from the PBL
classroom. In the traditional classroom, instruction usually comes before problem presentation
(Gallagher, Stepien, Sher, & Workman, 1995)
In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills,
problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working
in groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).
Any subject area can be adapted to PBL with a little creativity. While the core problems will vary
among disciplines, there are some characteristics of good PBL problems that transcend fields
(Duch, Groh, and Allen, 2001)
PBL is a turning point in modern education, demonstrating to educators that formal education
can be more than just memorising information (Servant-Miklos, 2019). A team of creative
thinkers at McMaster University took advantage of the chance to update the medical
programme and created a special programme that is now a cornerstone of education around the
world. The McMaster Philosophy grew through dynamic frameworks into what is known as PBL,
building on concepts like system-based courses (Servant- Miklos, 2019). PBL prioritises
learning above solving problems (Walsh, 2005). Instead, while interacting with their peers,
issues encourage students to use their creative and critical thinking skills. Students are then
urged to acquire self-awareness and skills that enable knowledge to be used in flexible and real-
world contexts (Neufeld & Barrows, 1974). PBL is defined as “the learning that arises from the
process of working toward the understanding or resolution of a problem” by Barrows and
Tamblyn (1980).
In the 21st century, education must evolve to meet changing expectations (Hendi Ristantoet al.,
2018). Students are expected to possess the 4C characteristics: critical thinking, creativity,
communication, and collaboration (González-Salamancaet al., 2020; Ismawatiet al., 2023).
These attributes are seen as essential tools for addressing societal issues and challenges
effectively. However, a significant issue lies in the teaching process within classrooms, where
teachers often fail to nurture students’ critical thinking skills (Alblooshi, 2021; Octavia, 2020).
The augmentation of HOTS can be achieved through the employment of suitable pedagogical
models. One such model, problem-based learning (PBL), serves as among the five teaching
approaches that enable the integration of instructed content with real-world contexts, fostering
student engagement (Sinabang, 2020). PBL has garnered wide-ranging endorsement and
support from experts due to its proven efficacy in addressing the educational demands of the
21st century (Bani-Hamad & Abdullah, 2019). Corebimaet al. (2020) highlight that the
application of the PBL model involves real-life issues, thereby enabling students to acquire
problem-solving skills pertinent to their daily lives and enhancing critical thinking abilities by
incorporating crucial knowledge and concepts from the subject (Zakiaet al., 2019).
The PBL method not only helps students to understand in-depth, but it also encourages
independent learning in students because they have to formulate their own learning goals after
understanding PBL scenarios, solve their problems via literature and the internet, compare
scenarios with theories from various sources, and actively participate in group discussions [7].
PBL has three main learning objectives, namely (1) to apply deep content learning, (2) to apply
problem analysis skills and develop solutions to solve problems, and (3) to apply self-directed
learning as an approach to adapt learning styles [8]. Therefore, this teaching model has been
highly praised in medical education courses in the past two decades [9]. In conventional lecture
methods, students are passively exposed to the material and are less likely to learn or apply
concepts actively. Meanwhile, in PBL, students will learn actively using case-based peer-to-peer
teaching, stimulating students to learn based on lecture materials and independent learning to
solve cases under the guidance of a facilitator. The PBL approach aims to promote the
integration of learned knowledge, rather than simply implanting knowledge and skills compared
with the conventional teaching model [8], and also has been designed to emphasize active
participation, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills compared to conventional medical
education practices (Manuaba, Yi-No, & Wu, 2022)
The results showed that PBL significantly contributed to the improvement of students'
collaborative skills. With the implementation of PBL, students actively participate in solving
problems, discussing, and working together effectively, which positively impacts their learning
outcomes and scientific communication skills. The research also revealed that the success of
PBL implementation is strongly influenced by the teacher's role in managing group dynamics
and facilitating the learning process. The implication of the study is that PBL can be adopted as
an effective learning model for improving students' collaboration skills. Proper implementation
and strong teacher support can ensure the success of PBL in enhancing collaborative skills
across various learning contexts, particularly in science (Oktavia, Siburian, & Hakim, 2024).
According to research by Roza, et al (2022), applying the PBL paradigm in high school had a
very high effect size for biology courses, a high effect size for chemistry lessons, and a medium
effect size for physics lessons. Research findings indicate that using the PBL model improves
one's capacity for critical thought and problem-solving. Therefore, science learning in high
school is more effectively applied with the PBL model. This study solely looked at the impact of
the PBL model on science instruction in high schools; it did not look at the impact of PBL on
science lectures in tertiary instructions.
The findings show that PBL enhances communication and critical thinking skills. It is
recommended that a teacher professional development (TPD) training program be presented for
beginner Physical Sciences teachers which targets the formulation of PBL problems, the
promotion of 21st-century skills (communication and critical thinking), and the implementation of
PBL in other topics in Chemistry (Sebatana & Dudu, 2021).
Fasce et al. (2001) compared problem-based learning with traditional teaching methods i In the
physics course. The sample for the study was first-year medical students and was separated
into two groups (experiment and control group). Both groups were subjected to the same
knowledge and qualitative evaluations. Results showed that at the end of the course, both
groups performed similarly in cognitive performance. However, students of problem- based
learning group were evaluated better than their counterparts in teaching methodology and
process. Physics education, using problem-based learning, obtain the same cognitive results
but a higher degree of satisfaction was observed in the PBL group than the control group.
NAZHWINA
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a powerful approach to developing 21st-century skills such as
creativity, communication, critical thinking, and problem-solving. Rather than focusing solely on
the problem itself, PBL emphasizes the learning process by using real-world challenges to
stimulate students' creative and critical thinking abilities while fostering collaboration with peers.
This approach encourages self-awareness and enables students to apply knowledge in practical
and flexible ways (Akınoğlu & Özkardeş Tandoğan, 2007).
According to Amanda et al. (2023), PBL enhances critical thinking and problem-solving skills by
integrating complexity science principles, allowing students to analyze and solve complex
problems effectively. It also fosters higher-order thinking skills, self-directed learning, and
engagement in the learning process.
Preparing learners for lifelong challenges requires innovative teaching approaches like PBL,
which builds knowledge from real-world experiences. This method improves learners'
knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors while fostering collaboration, creativity, critical thinking,
communication, and problem-solving (Arviani et al., 2023). Studies have shown that students
engaged in PBL demonstrate improved cognitive skills and greater academic achievement
compared to those taught through traditional instructional methods.
Similarly, Drăghicescu et al. (2014) emphasize that the application of PBL in science lessons
provides effective learning experiences, allowing students to develop scientific literacy and
enhance their ability to solve complex problems. By engaging in real-world applications,
students acquire a deeper understanding of concepts and refine their analytical skills.
In addition, collaborative PBL models have been shown to enhance student engagement and
academic performance. Working in groups allows students to improve their communication,
develop reasoning skills, and approach problem-solving in innovative ways. Future studies are
expected to further explore PBL's effectiveness in different educational settings to validate its
benefits (Hendarwati et al., 2021).
Merritt et al. (2017) investigated the impact of PBL in K–8 mathematics and science education,
revealing that students in PBL environments not only improve their problem-solving abilities but
also develop a deeper conceptual understanding of subject matter. These findings suggest that
PBL fosters both content mastery and essential thinking skills, making it an effective
instructional approach.
Additionally, Monsang et al. (2023) confirmed that the problem-based learning approach
effectively enhances students' science problem-solving skills. Compared to traditional learning
methods, PBL is more effective in improving students’ ability to analyze and address scientific
challenges.
The PBL process enhances students' critical thinking, problem-solving, and creative capabilities,
making it applicable to both vocational subjects and traditional academic disciplines. Grounded
in cognitive science, PBL emphasizes presenting problems before solutions, engaging learners
with compelling questions or puzzles that encourage exploration and self-discovery of course
concepts (Niswa et al., 2023).
Furthermore, the role of structured thinking tools in PBL has been explored in studies by
Nayank R et al. (2018) and Siew & Mapeala (2016). These studies highlight that while PBL is an
effective method for promoting critical thinking, its impact can be further enhanced through
structured tools like learner worksheets and Thinking Maps. These tools provide clear
frameworks for students to engage in the process of critical thinking, making it a more structured
and intentional part of their learning experience.
Summary of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Project-Based Learning (PjBL)
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Project-Based Learning (PjBL) are student-centered
instructional approaches that enhance critical thinking, problem-solving, and self-directed
learning (Schmidt, 1983; PBLWorks, n.d.). PBL engages students in inquiry-driven problem-
solving, encouraging research, real-world application, and lifelong learning (Loyens, Kirschner,
& Paas, 2019). In contrast, PjBL immerses students in long-term, interdisciplinary projects,
allowing them to develop knowledge by creating meaningful solutions (Jingfu & Zhixian, 2002).
Both methods aim to improve student motivation, autonomy, and engagement, making learning
more relevant (Condliffe et al., 2016).
PBL emphasizes small-group collaboration, teacher facilitation, and structured inquiry, often
following models like the Seven-Step Approach (Dolmans et al., 2006; Schmidt & Moust, 2000).
Assessments in PBL focus on real-world applications that foster critical thinking (Tai, 2007).
PjBL, on the other hand, includes real-world connection, student autonomy, inquiry-based
research, teamwork, and public presentation (Thomas, 2000; Kokotsaki et al., 2016). Both
approaches encourage students to take ownership of their learning and integrate technology
and performance-based assessments (Great Schools Partnership, 2016).
Both PBL and PjBL are highly effective in developing 21st-century skills, including critical
thinking, creativity, communication, and collaboration (Masruro, et al., 2021; Tapas School,
2022). They enhance flexibility, leadership, and scientific literacy, preparing students for
academic and career success (Kasuga, et al., 2025).
Both methods shift education from memorization to inquiry-driven exploration, making
learning more engaging and applicable to real-world challenges (Schmidt et al., 2011; Rehman
et al., 2024). While teacher training, resource availability, and assessment strategies remain
challenges (Han et al., 2015; Aidoo, 2025), research highlights their positive impact on student
learning and skill development (Condliffe, 2017; Gómez-Pablos et al., 2017). These instructional
strategies prepare students for success in an evolving world by fostering deeper learning and
adaptability.
