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MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY OF FLOWERING

PLANT

@ Plant Morphology deals with the study of external structure of plants and their
parts.
@ Study of Morphology is important in Taxonomy.

@ Flowering plants are called “Angiosperms” or “Magnoliophytes”.

@ They are sporophytes consisting of an axis with an underground “Root system” and
an aerial “Shoot System”.

@ Parts of a flowering plant

Body of typical angiospermic plant is

differentiated into:

¨ Root

¨ Stem

¨ Leaf

¨ Flower

¨ Fruit

¨ Seed

ROOT

@ The main root or primary root or tap root develops from radicle of the embryo.
@ General character of root:
• The root is the descending organ of the plant and are +vely geotropic.
Exception:
FCoralloid roots of cycas: …………… …… …… …… By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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FPneumatophores or respiratory roots of Mangrove plants:…………………………

• Without nodes and internodes, with no leaves or buds.
• Bear unicellular root hairs (exogenously) and lateral roots or secondary root or
root branch (endogenously arising from pericycle). [IOM1996, BPKIHS]
@ From apex to base root has 4 region or zones:

1. Root cap zone:

§ Positionà
§ Types of cells à
§ Functionsà
@ Root cap forming histogen.
• Monocots à
• Dicotsà
@ In hydrophytes, instead of a root cap, root pocket is present which cannot be
regenerated once damaged.
2. Zone of cell division or meristematic zone:
§ Positionà
§ Types of cells à
§ Functionsà
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3. Zone of cell elongation:

§ Positionà
§ Types of cells à
§ Functionsà
4. Zone of cell maturation or zone of cell differentiation:
§ Positionà
§ Types of cells à
§ Functionsà
ROOT SYSTEMS
@ The main root along with its branches constitutes the root system.

Root systems

Tap root Adventitious root system

system
® Develops from radicle of an
® Develops from any part other than
embryo.
radicle of embryo

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@ In dicots, radicle elongates, tapers, swells, becomes prominent as primary root.

@ In monocots, primary root is short lived and is replaced by fibrous roots
(adventitious in origin).
@ Fibrous root system is better adapted than tap root system for absorption of
water and minerals.
@ Roots arising from callus in tissue culture are adventitious in origin.
@ Adventitious roots and tap roots differ in their origin.

Modifications of tap root

a. Fleshy tap roots (for storage of food):

b. Nodulated tap roots/Tuberculate roots (Root nodules):

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@ Found in plants of sub-family Papilionoideae of family

Leguminosae.
@ Bacterium ……………. lives symbiotically in the root of
leguminous plants. [IOM 2005]
@ Rhizobium
c. Pneumatophores or respiratory rootsfixes nitrogen and
or breathing makes the plant rich in
roots:
…………
@ Common in mangrove plants i.e.
plants growing …………
@ Shows negative geotropism.
@ Minute aerating pores of
pneumatophores are called
…………………
@ Pneumathodes anatomically resemble lenticels.
@ e.g., Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Heritiera, etc.
d. Mycorrhizal roots:
@ It is symbiotic association between fungi and roots of higher plants like Pinus,
Betula etc.
@ Root hair and root cap remain absent.
@ Fungal hyphae provides phosphorus nutrient to host when necessary.

MODIFICATION OF ADVENTITIOUS ROOT:

A. Fleshy types:
1. Tuberous roots or single root tubers: Arise singly and are without definite shape
e.g. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)
2. Fasciculated roots: Similar to tuberous root but occur in clusters. e.g. Asparagus
(Kurilo), Dahlia (Lahure phool)
Note: Roots of Dahlia store food in the form of Inulin (a water soluble
polysachharide) By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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B. Modifications of adventitious roots for mechanical support:

1. Pillar roots or prop roots:

@ These adventitious roots arise from

horizontal aerial branches.
@ Example:…………………………………………………….

2. Stilt roots or brace roots:

e.g.,......................................................................................
................

3. Climbing roots: [IOM 2002]

e.g.,……………………………………………………………………….

4. Buttress roots/ Plank roots:

e.g., Bombax ceiba (Simal), Ficus

religiosa (Peepal)

C. Modifications of adventitious roots for other vital functions:

1. Photosynthetic roots or assimilatory roots:
e.g.,…………………….………………………………………………..

2. Parasitic roots or haustorial roots or sucking roots: By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

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@ Parasitic roots of Cuscuta are called ®………………………….. [IOM 1997]

@ Cuscuta is a dicot plant without differentiation of cotyledons in its embryo i.e. zero
cotyledon.

e.g., Cuscutta
Cuscuta (Akash beli lahara) is a …………… ……………….

[IOM 2009, BPKIHS 2009]

3. Epiphytic roots or hygroscopic roots:

@ Common in epiphytic orchids.

@ Epiphytic orchids show three types of roots:

a. Fixing root/Clinging root: for fixation.

b. Absorbing roots: for absorption of minerals.
c. Hanging roots/Epiphytic roots/Hygroscopic roots/Aerial roots: for absorption of
moisture.
@ Hanging root is surrounded by a multilayered, dead, spongy and hygroscopic
tissue called Velamen
@ Epiphytic roots have no root hairs and root cap

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4. Reproductive roots:
@ Due to the presence of adventitious buds (radical buds), certain roots have capacity
to reproduce.
e.g. Dahlia, Sweet Potato, Trichosanthes dioica (parwal)
@ Reproductive tap roots occur in …………………

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STEM

@ Develops from ®
@ Characteristic features of stem ®

AERIAL STEM (EPITERRANEAN):

a. Reduced aerial stem: e.g. radish, turnip, etc.
b. Erect aerial stem:
@ These stem are sufficiently strong to stay erect and upright without any external support.
Types:
i. Culm:
@ Jointed stem with distinct nodes and internodes. [IOM 2008] Example:
……………………………………………..
ii. Caudex:
@ Stem is unbranched, thick, solid and cylindrical with a crown of leaves at the apex
only.
@ Trunk is marked by the scar of fallen leaf base. Example:
………………………………………….
iii. Excurrent: e.g. Pinus, Casuarina, Eucalyptus and most of the conifers. By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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iv. Decurrent or Deliquescent: e.g. Ficus benghalensis, Ficus religiosa, Mangifera

indica, etc.
v. Pseudostem: Pseudostem is found in acaulescent plants. e.g. Banana, Onion,
Zingiber.
c. Weak aerial stem:
@ They are thin, soft, delicate and cannot stand erect by themselves.
Weak aerial stem

Twiners Climbers
e.g. Beans, Ipomea
Scramblers ® Stragglers

(hooks using plants)

Root climbers

Tendril climbers

Figure: A. Twinner (Dioscorea) and B. Climber (Vitis)

………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
………………………………………………… ………………………………………………
……………… ………………………

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Types of Climbers:
@ Posseses organs for clinging to the support.
@ The stem is weak but not sensitive to contact.
@ Stem tip does not perform circumnutation.
1. Root climbers:
Adventitious roots help in climbing.
e.g. Vanilla, Ivy (Hedra nepalnensis), Pothos (Money plant), Paan (Piper betel),
etc.
2. Tendril climbers:
Leaf tendrils Stem tendrils
• Whole leaf tendril: Wild pea • Axillary bud tendril: Passiflora (passion
(Lathyrus aphaca) flower)
• Leaflet tendrils: Garden pea • Extra-axillary bud tendril: Cucurbita
(Pisum sativum), Sweet pea
(Lathyrus odoratus)
• Leaf tip/ leaf apex tendril: Glory • Terminal bud/ Branch tip modified =
lily (Glorisa) Vitis vinifera (Grapes)
• Petiolar tendril: Pitcher plant
(Nepenthes), Nasturtium,
Clematis
• Stipular tendril: Smilax

3. Scramblers or Ramblers:
@ Use pointed (sharp) structures like thorns, hooks, spines, etc. for climbing.
§ Bougainvillea (Glory-of-the-garden) ®thorn climber.
§ Atrabotrys ® hook climber in which inflorescence axis (peduncle) is
modified into hook.
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§ Bignonia ungis-cati (Cat’s nail) ® hook climber

3. Lianas: ®

[IOM 2006]
@ Lianas are commonly found in ®
@ Example: Gnetum, Bauhinia vahlli (Bhorla)

Underground (Sub-terranean) Modifications of Stems

@ Basically for the purpose of perennation, food store and vegetative propagation.
@ Common features of underground stem:
§
§
§

1. Rhizome:
@ Horizontally growing underground

stem with distinct nodes and internodes

is …………………...

@ Rhizome is elongated, usually branched

and diageotropic.

@ Non-green, brown scaly leaves called

cataphylls protect vegetative buds in a

rhizome.

@ e.g. Musa paradisiaca (Banana),

Zingiber officinale (Ginger), Curcuma
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2. Corm:

@ Corm is a condensed form of rhizome growing in the vertical direction.

[BPKIHS]

@ It is usually spherical or globular in shape and unbranched.

@ Cataphylls are also present in a corm.

@ Corm is characterized by circular nodes.

@ e.g. Colocasia (pidalu), Colchicum autumnale, Crocus sativus,

Amorphophallus (elephant foot or zaminkanda), Gladiolus (Birthday flower)

3. Bulb:
@ Contains a extremely reduced or condensed node represented by disc with fleshy
leaves.

@ Bulb stores food in fleshy scaly leaves/swollen leaf bases.

@ Example®
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4. Tuber:
@ Potato is multiplied vegetatively with the help

of ……………………………….. [MOE]

@ Potatoes are borne on …………………………

@ Eyes of the potatoes are axillary buds on the

node.

@ Only underground stem without adventitious

roots.

Sub-aerial Modifications of Stem (Prostate weak stem modifications)

@ Basically, for the purpose of ®
1. Runners: @ It is a long, thin, green stem with

long internodes growing

horizontally on the soil surface.

@ Adventitious roots develop at

intervals.

@ Examples: …………………………………..

@ An underground running stem is

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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2. Sucker: @ It is a non-green underground stem

which grows obliquely upwards.

e.g. Banana, Chrysanthemum

(“Godabari”), Mentha (Mint/ “Patina”)

@ New banana plants develop from sucker.

[BPKIHS]

3. Stolons:
@ It is lateral branch from lower leaf,

which runs and strikes ground

producing new plant.

e.g. Strawberry (Fragaria indica),

Jasmine

4. Offsets:
@ Similar to runner but differ in being

thicker and shorter. i.e one

internode long, thick, short runner.

@ Common in hydrophytes like -

……………………..

……………………………………………………

@ Vegetative
AERIAL (EPITERRANEAN) MODIFICATIONS OF STEMSreproduction in
1. Thorns: Eichhornia and Pistia takes place by
@ Modification of ® offset. [MOE 2067]
By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
@ Note: The terrestrial plant that
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@ With vascular bundles and a bark , may be branched and may even bear leaves,
flowers and fruits.
@ Function®
@ In Bougainvillea, thorn is also used as a climbing organ.
@ Prickles of rose are exogenous in origin [BPKIHS 2012]

2. Phylloclade
@ Phylloclade is a long, flattened or cylindrical,

succulent, green and photosynthetic, stem of

unlimited growth.

@ It has many nodes and internodes.

@ Many xerophytic plants develop phylloclade

to reduce transpiration to a considerable

extent.

@ E.g., ………………………………………………… ……… ……

…… … …………….and …………….

3. Cladodes: @ Cladode is a short, flattened or cylindrical,

succulent, green and photosynthetic,
branch of limited growth.

@ It has one or few nodes.

@ Only one internode long phylloclade is

called …………………. [MOE]

@ This is also a xerophytic adaptation to

reduce transpiration.

@ E.g., ……………………and……………………..

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4. Bulbils:

@ It may is modification of a vegetative bud or a

floral bud.

@ e.g. ……………..…………………

@ Vegetative reproduction in agave takes place by

bulbil. [BPKIHS]

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Notes:

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LEAF (PHYLLOPODIUM

@ Develops from a node of stem or its branches in an acropetal order.

@ It generally bears a bud in its axil called axillary bud.
@ The first leaf originates from the shoot meristem as leaf primordia.
@ Three primary functions of are photosynthesis, transpiration and gaseous exchange.
PARTS OF A TYPICAL FOLIAGE LEAF

a. Leaf base (Hypopodium)/Vagina:

@ Sheathing leaf base ® .............................................................................
@ Pulvinus leaf base ® swollen leaf base ®. e.g. Leguminosae
@ Pulvinus acts as motor organ ®stores K+ ion and responsible for sleep and shock
movements in …………………………….
b. Stipules:
@ Lateral appendages of the leaf borne at its base.
@ Considered as vestigial leaflets and are common in dicots.
Types:
1. Free lateral stipule: Most common type e.g., China rose.

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e.g.,........................ e.g.,........................
e.g., ................... e.g.,................................
........... ...............................
.............................. ........................................
e.g.,........................ ...........................
..........
...............................
c. Petiole (Mesopodium):
...........................

@ Stalk of a leaf is called petiole.

@ A petiole may be modified in certain plants for specific functions:
§ Winged petiole in Citrus.

§ Floating petiole or spongy petiole or bulbous (swollen) petiole: in Eichhornia.

[IOM 2008]

§ Tendrillar petiole in Pitcher plant (Nepenthes), Nasturtium and Clematis

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§ Phyllode ® a flattened, green and photosynthetic petiole in Parkinsonia,

Australian acacia.
d. Lamina or leaf blade (Epipodium)
@ Leaf lamina has two surfaces:
@ Adaxial surface or upper surface or ventral surface: This surface is nearer to the
apex of the stem.
@ Abaxial or lower or dorsal surface: This surface is away from the stem tip.
@ Dicot leaf ® Dorsiventral and horizontal.
@ Monocot leaf ® Isobilateral and vertical

KINDS OF LEAF BASED ON FUNCTION

1. Foliage leaves: normal green, photosynthetic leaves.

2. Reproductive leaves:

e.g., Begonia, Bryophyllum

@ Such leaves contain adventitious foliar buds or

epiphyllous buds,

Fig. Reproductive leaf of Bryophyllum

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3. Cotyledonary leaves: These are the embryonic leaves of seed, e.g. Cucumber, Bean,
Castor
@ Cotyledonary leaves appear during epigeal germination of seeds.

4. Sporophylls: Spore bearing leaves or leaves with sporangia. e.g. Dryopteris

5. Cataphylls: Non-green brown scaly leaves which protect vegetative buds as in
rhizomes, corms, etc.
6. Scale leaves: Extremely reduced leaves as found in the cladode of Asparagus.
VENATION

@ The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the leaf lamina is known as venation.
@ Two principal types of venation are:
1. Reticulate venation:
@ Common in dicot leaves.
@ Dicot leaves showing parallel venation are: ……………… … ……
…………………………………………………………………………
@ It has 2 sub-types:
§ Pinnate or unicostate reticulate venation, e.g., Peepal, Mango, Brassica,
Helianthus.
§ Palmate or multicostate reticulate venation:
i. Convergent: e.g. Cinnamomum (tejpat), Zizyphus (bayar)
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ii. Divergent: e.g., Members of the family Malvaceae (China rose, Cotton), also
found in castor (Ricinus), Vitis (grape), Cucurbitaceae, etc.

2. Parallel venation: Common in monocots.

@ Monocot leaves showing reticulate venation are: ……………………………
@ It has 2 subtypes:
§ Pinnate or unicostate parallel venation: e.g. Banana, Canna.
§ Palmate or multicostate parallel venation:
i. Convergent: e.g. Bamboo, Rice, and Grasses.
ii. Divergent: e.g. Fan palm (Borassus flabellifer)

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND LEAVES

A. Simple leaf: Leaf lamina is not divided into leaflets and marginal incisions do
not touch the mid rib or petiole.
e. g. Peepal, Mango, members of family Brassicaceae, etc.

B. Compound leaves: Marginal incisions touch the mid rib or petiole and leaf lamina
is broken into a number of segments called leaflets.
@ A compound leaf may be:

1. Pinnately compound: Leaflets are pinna shaped. By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

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@ Leaflets remain attached to the central rib or mid rib called Rachis.

2. Palmately compound:
@ Leaflets are attached to a common point, i.e., tip of the petiole.
@ Rachis is absent.

PHYLLOTAXY
@ Arrangement of leaves on the stem or its branches is called phyllotaxy. [MOE
2069]
@ Purpose of phyllotaxy: To provide maximum exposure to the sunlight with
minimum overlapping.
@ Prefoliation ®
@ Vernation®
@ Pyxis ®
Types of phyllotaxy

A. Alternate (Spiral): Single leaf develops from each node. e.g. China rose, mustard,
sunflower, etc.
B. Opposite: Two leaves arise at each node standing opposite to each other.
i. Opposite superposed: Two opposite leaves from adjacent nodes lie just above
or just below.e.g. Syzyzium (Jamun). By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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ii. Opposite decussate: The opposite leaves of adjacent node lies at right angle. e.g.
Calotropis (Aank) Ocimum sanctum (Holy basil or Tulsi).
C. Whorled or verticillate: Three (e.g. Nerium or Oleander) or more than three (e.g.
Alstonia) leaves develop at each node.

MODIFICATIONS OF LEAVES

1. Leaf tendrils:
a. Whole leaf tendrils: e.g. Wild pea (L. aphaca)
b. Leaflet tendrils: e.g. Sweet pea (L. odoratus), Garden pea (Pisum sativum)
@ Upper leaflets are modified into tendrils. [IOM 1996]
c. Petiolar tendrils: e.g. ………………………
d. Rachis and petiolule (stalk of the leaflet) tendrils:
..........................................................
e. Stipular tendrils: e.g. ……………………

2. Leaf spines:
@ Whole leaf modified into spines. e.g. Opuntia.
@ Margins of lamina modified into spines, e.g. Argemone maxicana.
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@ Stipules are modified into spines, e.g. Zizyphus, Acacia.

3. Leaflet hooks: Three terminal leaflets of compound leaf are modified hooks in
Doxantha ungiscati (Bignonia unguis-cati) commonly called cat's nail,

4. Phyllodes: Phyllode is a green, flattened leaf like structure which is the modification
of petiole.
@ e.g. Acacia auriculiformis (Australian acacia) and Parkinsonia

5. Leaf bladders:
@ They occur in the rootless aquatic insectivorous plant Utricularia (Bladderwort).
@ Each bladder has a valve and sensitive hairs at its mouth.

6. Leaf pitchers: The leaf lamina is modified to form a large pitcher in pitcher plant
(Nepenthes) for the purpose of capturing insects.
@ The pitcher is provided with a lid which itself is an outgrowth of the leaf-apex. The
petiole is modified into a tendrillar structure to hold the pitcher in a vertical
manner.
@ A pitcher like modification of leaf lamina for water storage is found in Dischidia.
[BPKIHS 2005, 2009]
7. Leaf tentacles: e.g., Drosera (Sundew plant)

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8. Scale leaves: These are small, dry, brownish and membranous as in Asparagus to
reduce transpiration or thick and fleshy as inner leaves of onion to store the food
material.

9. Bract leaves or hypsophylls: In Euphorbia pulcherrima (Lalu pate), the leaves borne near
the cyathia are brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination.

Notes:

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INFLORESCENCE

@ The mode of arrangement and distribution of flowers on a specialized branch of

shoot (Inflorescence axis or Peduncle) is called inflorescence.
@ Stalk of inflorescence is peduncle.
@ Purpose of inflorescence: to ensure pollination.
TYPES OF INFLORESCENCE
1. Solitary
@ Single flower born on peduncle. It is of two types.
A. Solitary axillary: e.g. ..........................................................
B. Solitary terminal: e.g. ………………………………… ……………………………………………
2. Racemose inflorescence (Indefinite type or Indeterminate type)
@ Main axis never terminates into a flower and it grows indefinitely.
@ Flowers are in acropetal succession i.e. older flower towards base and younger
towards apex.
@ Order of opening flowers is centripetal.
TYPES OF RACEMOSE INFLORESCENCE:

A. Main axis elongated.

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1. Typical raceme: Pedicellate flowers borne acropetally on a long, elongated and

unbranched axis, e.g., Radish.
@ A branched raceme or compound raceme is called ....................... e.g., Cassia
fistula, Delonix regia, Agave, male flowers in maize etc.

Figure: a. raceme b. Spike c. Spikelet

2. Spike: Similar to raceme but flowers are sessile. ……………….
………………………………………………………………..
@ Spikelet is a very small spike with few small, sessile flowers called florets.
@ Each spikelet are covered by glumes.
@ Glumes are modified bracts. [IOM 1996]
@ Spike of spikelets is the compound inflorescence of grasses like Wheat.
[KUMET 2007]
3. Catkin or amentum: A unisexual spike with long pendulous peduncle is called
catkin or amentum. e.g. , ................................... ...............
...................................................................
Note: After fertilization, this catkin inflorescence of mulberry form a composite
or multiple fruit called sorosis. [MOE 2066]
4. Spadix:

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Sessile flowers borne on a thick and fleshy

axis surrounded by one or more large bracts
called ...........................................................
eg..............................................................................
..........................................

(B) Main axis shortened:

1. Umbel:
@ Flowers arise from same point but terminate at different
levels.
@ Pedicels have ....................... lengths.
@ A whorl of bract called ....................... is present.

@ eg.Centella,
@ Note: Compound umbel or umbel of umbels à………………….
2. Corymb
@ originate from different levels but terminate at the same level.
@ Pedicels are of .......................

@ e.g., ...................................................................

@ Note: Edible inflorescence of Brassica oleracia var. botrytis (cauliflower)

is......................................... [BPKIHS 2010]

3. Head or capitulum:
@ Most advanced or highly evolved inflorescence.
@ Characteristic inflorescence of family ...................... By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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@ The peduncle is flattened to form a receptacle that bears centripetally arranged

small, sessile flowers called florets.
@ Two types of florets:

Disc florets Ray florets

@ Surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts called involucre.

CYMOSE INFLORESCENCE (DEFENITE TYPE OR DETERMINATE TYPE)

@ Main axis terminates into a flower and has limited growth.

@ Flower are arranged in ............................................... (older at the apex and younger
towards the base). [BPKIHS 2009]
Types:

A. Monochasial cyme or uniparous cyme:

@ Main axis terminates into a flower by producing a single lateral branch.
@ Monochasial cyme can be of two types: By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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a. Helicoid cyme or one-sided cyme: Successive lateral branches are produced on

same side forming a short helix. e.g. Begonia, Drosera, Heliotropium, etc
b. Scorpoid cyme: Successive lateral branches are produced on both sides forming a
zig-zag development of inflorescence axis, e.g. Ranunculus

B. Dichasial cyme or biparous cyme:

@ Main axis terminates into a flower by producing two lateral branches. eg. Dianthus
(Pink), Jasmine, Bougainvillea.
C. Polychasial cyme or multiparous cyme: Main axis terminates into a flower by
producing many lateral branches. e.g. Calotropis
SPECIAL TYPES OF INFLORESCENCE
1. Hypanthodium: [IOM 2009]
@ Characteristic inflorescence
of.............................
@ Peduncle is flattened to form a

.........................

@ Enclosing three types of unisexual,

sessile flowers.

@ Female flower à towards the base,

@ Male flowers à towards osteole and

@ In between are borne gall flowers

(sterile female flowers).

@ It looks like a fruit and after

fertilization develops into

........................

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2. Cyathium:
@ Characteristic inflorescence of family...................... e.g.,.......... .. . .. ... ....... .......
................ [MOE 2068]
@ It looks like a single flower.
@ A cup-shaped involucre is formed by the fusion of bracts (usually 5).
@ Single achlymadous female flower in the centre is surrounded by many

achlamydous male flowers. [BPKIHS 2003]

@ Ratio of female to male flower is .............................

3. Verticellaster: [IOM 2005]

@ Characteristic inflorescence of family ....................................................
e.g.,....................................
@ It is a condensed dichasial cyme type of inflorescence.

Note:
@ Involucre is whorl of bracts surrounding an inflorescence. e.g., capitulum, cyathium
and umbel.
@ Edible inflorescence:
@ Compound corymb in cauliflower (B. oleracea var. botrytis)
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@ Catkin in mulberry (Morus alba).

@ Hypanthodium in fig (Ficus carica).
@ Spadix in female maize (Zea mays).

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FLOWER

@ Anthoology à study of flower.

@ Anthesis à Opening of floral bud after maturation.
• Cleistogamous flower: Flower donot open after maturation,
e.g.,..................................................
• Chasmogamous flower: Flower open after maturation. Both cleistogamous and
chasmogamous flower occurs in Chomelina benghalensis.
@ Smallest flower à Wolffia microscopica.
@ Largest flower à..................................(total root parasite)
@ Flower is a reproductive shoot of definite growth.
@ Floral parts like sepal, petal, stamen and carpels are modified leaves.

A typical flower has 4 whorls

Non-essential or vegetative Essential or reproductive whorls

whorls Androecium and gynoecium
Calyx and corolla

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@ Stalk in flower = pedicel and so flower with stalk is called pedicellate flower.
CHARACTERS:
@ Complete flower: All the four whorls are present, e.g., Cruciferae, Solanaceae,
Malvaceae, Leguminosae, Disc florets of Sunflower etc.
@ Incomplete flower: Any one of the four whorls is missing, e.g., Liliaceae, Graminae,
Ray florets of Sunflower etc.
@ Bisexual or Monoclinous or Perfect flower: Both androecium and gynoeciumare
present in the same flower. e.g., Cruciferae, Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Leguminosae,
Disc florets of Sunflower etc.
@ Unisexual or Diclinous or Imperfect flower: Flower has either androecium or
gynoecium.
• Pistillate or female flower: only gynoecium.
• Staminate or male flower: only androecium.
• Ray florets of Sunflower are unisexual (female flowers or pistillate).
• Monoecious plant: Both male and female reproductive parts are borne by the
same plant (but not by the same flower). e.g., Maize (Zea mays), Ricinus,
Cucurbitaceae
• Dioecious plant: Male and female reproductive parts are borne by different
plants. Eg.Cycas, papaya, mulberry, lapsi (Choreospondius).
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@ Bracteate: Flower covered by involucre or bract. e.g,.Compositae, Euphorbiaceae,

Gramineae etc.
@ Ebracteate: Flower not covered by involucre or bract. e.g., Brassicaceae, Solanaceae
etc.
@ Symmetry in flower:
• Actinomorphic (Regular = Symmetrical)à radially symmetrical, e.g.
Cruciferae, Mimoseaceae, Malvaceae, Liliaceae, Compositae (disc floret).
• Zygomorphic (Mono symmetrical) à bilaterally symmetrical, eg.
Graminae, Papilionaceae, Caesalpinaceae and Composite (ray florets)
• In family Solanaceae, flower is more actinomorphic and less zygomorphic
(slightly zygomorphic) due to obliquely placed ovary.

RELATIVE POSITION OF OVARY ON THALAMUS WITH RESPECT TO OTHER

FLORAL WHORLS:

@ Hypogyny: Ovary superior (rest of the floral members inferior). e.g.Brassicaceae

, Solanaceae, Malvaceae, Poaceae etc.
@ Epigyny: Ovary is inferior (rest of the floral members superior). e.g. Compositae,
Cucurbitace.
@ Perigyny: In this condition ovary is half superior and half inferior. e. g. rose, pear,
peach etc.
@ Achlamydous: Absence of accessory floral whorls i.e. Calyx and Corolla remain
absent.e.g. Euphorbiaceae, Piperaceae (Piper betel).

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@ Monochlamydous: Single whorl of perianth covers the essential whorls. e.g.,

Liliaceae.
@ Dichlamydous: Both calyx and corolla covers the essential whorls as in Cruciferae,
Solanaceae, Leguminosae etc.
@ Dichogamy: Maturation of pollen grains and ovules at different time.
@ Protandry: Maturation of pollen grains earlier than ovules. E.g., Salvia, Cotton,
Helianthus.
@ Protogyny: Maturation of ovules (carpels) earlier than pollen grains. E.g., Ficus, Magnolia.
PARTS OF TYPICAL FLOWER
CALYX:
@ Outermost whorl of a flower
@ Unit structure à sepal.
@ Sepals may be free à Polysepalousor fused à Gamosepalous.
@ Function of sepal is to protect the flower during bud stage.
@ Persistent sepals: Sepal do not drop down even after fertilization, e.g,. member of
family Solanaceae
@ In family Compositae, sepals are modified into Pappus (hairy sepals) for dispersal
of fruits by Parachute mechanism.
COROLLA:
@ Second whorl of a flower, brightly coloured.
@ Unit structure - petals.
@ Petals may be either free (Polypetalous) or fused (Gamopetalous).
Types of corolla:
1. Cruciform: Four free petals arranged in the form of a cross. e.g. Cruciferae.
@ Each petal is called Clawed petal or Ungiculate petal.
2. Campanulate or bell shaped: as in Cucurbita
3. Infundibuliform or funnel shaped: as in Datura stramonium, Petunia etc.
4. Tubular: e.g., Disc florets of Sunflower. By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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5. Rotate or wheel shaped: as in Solanum melongena (Brinjal or egg plant).

6. Papilionaceous or butterfly-shaped: Three are five petals. The large, posterior petal
is called Vexillum or Standard.
@ Vexillum covers two lateral, free petals called Wings or Alae.
@ Wings or Alae further cover two innermost (anterior) fused petals which are together
known as Keel or Carina. Keel or Carina is a boat shaped cavity.
7. Bilabiate or two lipped: Limb of the corolla has two lips- the upper and the lower,
with the mouth gaping wide open. e.g. Members of family Labiateae
8. Personate (Masked): In this case the two lips are placed so near to each other as to
close the mouth of the corolla, as in Antirrhinum (Snap dragon)
[IOM 2007]
9. Ligulate or strap shaped: e.g., Ray florets of Sunflower.

PERIANTH:
@ Indistinct calyx and corolla is called perianth.
@ Unit structure - tepal.
@ Tepals free - .................................
@ Tepal fused - ..........................................
@ In family Graminae, tepals are reduced into ..................... and their number is usually
two. [MOE 2066]
@ Structures equivalent to perianth is lodicules. [MOE 2067]
AESTIVATION
@ Mode of arrangement of floral members (sepals or petals) w.r.t to each other in the
same floral whorl during bud stage is called aestivation. [IOM 2007]
1. Valvate aestivation : ................................................................................ [IOM 2006] e.g.,
Brassicaceae, Mimosaceae etc.
2. Twisted or contorted aestivation: e.g., China ros. By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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3. Imbricate aestivation : ..................................... ................. ........ ....... ...... ...

.............................................................., e.g., Caesalpiniaceae
4. Quincuncial aestivation : ................................................. ............ ........ .......
.............................e.g., Calyx of Cucurbita maxima
5. Vexillary aestivation: as in Papilonaceous corolla. [MOE 2055]

MALE REPRODUCTIVE PART (ANDROECIUM):

@ Unit structure - stamen (equivalent to microsporophyll).
@ Each stamen has three main parts; anther (fertile part), connective and filament.
@ Generally, anther is dithecous (bi-lobed) and tetrasporangiate (having 4 pollen
chambers or microsporangia)
@ Anther is monothecous in family....................................
@ Anther is monosporangiate in...................................... .
Conditions related to the length of stamens:
a. Didynamous: four stamens; outer two long and inner two short. eg., Labiateae
(Ocimum).
b. Tetradynamous:..........................................................................................................................
........................................................
c. Heterostemony: Stamens are of variable lengths. e.g. Cassia fistula
(Caesalpinaceae).
Note: In family Caesalpiniaceae, some stamens are sterile and are
called.............................................................. By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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Cohesion of stamen:
@ Union of stamens among themselves.

A. Adelphous condition: Filament fused and anther free

a. Monoadelphous condition: Filamenys forming single bundle (staminal tube),
e.g,, Members of family .......................
b. Diadelphous condition: Filaments are united in two two bundles, e.g.,
Papilionaceae.
c. Polyadelphous condition: e.g., Citrus, Ricinus, Bombax.
B. Syngenesious condition:
........................................................................................................................

C. Synandrous condition: ..........................................................

Adhesion of stamen:
@ Union of stamens with other floral parts.

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A. Epipetalous condition: Stamen are fused with petals. e.g., Compositae, Solanaceae,
Malvaceae.
B. Epiphyllous condition: ........................................ ........................ ................
..............................................
C. Gynandrous condition: Stamens attached with gynoeciume. e.g., Calotropis.

Attachment of filament to the anther:

a. Basifixed: Filament attached at base of stamen. e.g., Solanaceae, Brassicaceae.
b. Dorsifixed: Filament attached to back of stamen. e.g., Legumes (pea, bean).
c. Adnate: Filament attached along the whole length of anther. E.g., Magnoliaceae
family
d. Versatile: e.g,. Graminae.

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FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE PART (GYNOECIUM OR PISTIL)

@ Unit structure is carpel.
@ Each carpel has three parts; stigma, style and ovary.
@ Part of pistil which receives pollen is ................ [IOM]
@ Carpel free à.............................................
@ Carpel fused à.........................................
@ Styles originate at lateral side of ovary in........................
@ Gynobasic style occurs in family.........................................
No of carpels in a pistil:
@ Monocarpellary condition or simple pistil: as in Leguminosae
@ Bicarpellary condition: Brassicaeae, Solanaceae
@ Tricarpellary condition: Liliaceae
@ Pentacarpellary or multicarpellary condition: Malvaceae
No of lucules or chambers in a ovary:
@ Unilocular: e.g. Graminae, Compositae, Legume.
@ Bilocular: e.g. Cruciferae, Solanaceae.
@ Trilocular: e.g. Liliaceae.
@ Tetralocular: e.g. Ocimum.
@ Pentalocular: e.g. Malvaceae (China rose).
@ Multilocular: e.g. Lady's finger.
Placentation:
@ Placentation: Arrangement of ovules in ovary
@ Ovules are attached to the wall of ovary by .................
@ Ovule is attached to the placenta by funicle.
@ Types of placentation:
1. Marginal placentation: [IOM 1999, Ind. Emb. 2003]

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@ Always develops in a monocarpellary, unilocular ovary. e.g.,

........................................................................................

2. Parietal placentation:
@ Ovary is unilocular and bears two or more longitudinal placentae. e.g.,
.....................................................................................
...........................................................................

@ In family Cruciferae, ovary is originally unilocular but later on becomes bilocular

due to the development of a false septum called replum.

3. Basal placentation:
@ The ovary is unilocular and a single ovule is borne at the base of the ovary.
@ A placenta formed directly from thalamus. [MOE]
e.g. , Asteraceae, Graminae.

4. Axile placentation:
@ In a multicarpellary, syncarpous gynoecium the fusing margins grow inwards to
meet in the centre of the ovary to form an axis thus making the ovary
multichambered (multilocular). The ovules are borne on central axis.
e.g,,............................. ................................................ ..........
................................................................................

5. Superficial:
@ The gynoecium is multicarpellary syncarpous. e.g. Nymphaea, Lotus (Nelumbo
nucifera).
6. Free central: e.g. Dianthus, Salvia.
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Notes:

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FRUIT

@ Fruit is ripened and fertilized ovary.

@ Pomology is the science and practice of fruit culture.
@ Largest fruits and seeds are recorded in ............. .........................................
@ Smallest fruits and seeds are recorded in Orchidaceae (also called dust seeds).

Fruit

Eucarp Pseudocarp Parthenocarp

Entirely from Ovary + other Fruits having
ovary. floral parts. sterile seeds / no
Fertile seeds Fertile seeds seeds.
present present eg. Banana,
grapes.

@ Usually, a typical fruit consists of two parts: fruit wall (pericarp) and seeds
@ Pericarp is made up of three layers epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp
@ True fruit: develops from ovary
@ False fruits: develops from any part other than ovary.

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Types of fruits:

SIMPLE FRUIT:
@ Develops from monocarpellary or polycarpellary syncarpous ovary.
A. Dry fruits:
@ Pericarp is not distinguished into three layers.
@ Dry fruits are of following three types:
I. Dry Dehiscent or Capsular fruits:
a. Legume or pod:

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@ Develops from monocarpellary, superior, unilocular ovary, having marginal

placentation.
@ Dehiscence occurs from two sutures.
@ Characteristics feature of family……………
b. Follicle:
@ Similar to legume but dehiscence occurs through only one suture (usually ventral
suture). e.g., Calotropis.
c. Siliqua:
@ Multi-seeded fruit developing from a bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary.
@ Dehiscence occurs by both the haves from base to the apex.
@ Example: ……………………………………
d. Silicula: A short, broad and flattened siliqua is called silicula. e.g., Iberis amara
(Candytuft), Capsella-bursa-pastoris (Shepherd’s purse).
d. Capsule:
@ These are multi-seeded and dehisce by various methods.
1. Porocidal dehiscence: …………………...
2. Loculocidal dehiscence: ………………
ii.Dry Indehiscent or Achenial fruits: These are single seeded, indehiscent dry and
simple fruits.
a. Achene:
@ Develops from monocarpellary pistil having superior, unilocular ovary. e.g.,
Mirabilis jalapa
b. Caryopsis:
@ Caryopsis is the characteristic fruit of family ……… …… ………… ……
c. Cypsela:

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@ Characteristic fruit of family ……………….

@ Develops from a bicarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular and inferior ovary.
d. Samara or winged fruits:
@ One or two seeded, developing from bi or tricarpellary ovary.
@ ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
e. Nut:
@ One seeded fruits with pericarp hard and woody or leathery

iii. Schizocarpic or Spliting fruits:

@ Intermediate between dry dehiscent and dry indehiscent fruits.
@ At maturity, these fruits break up into one seeded parts called mericarps.
a. Lomentum: It is a constricted pod e.g. Acacia, Mimosa, Cassia etc.
Note: Fruit of ground nut is ………................... [MOE 2066]
b. Cremocarp: e.g., Coriandrum sativum (Coriander = Dhaniya),
Daucas carota (Carrot).
d. Double Samara: e.g., Acer (Maple).
e. Regma: e.g. Ricinus (castor), Euphorbia, Jatropha.

B. Succulent and Fleshy fruits:

• Pericarp is divided into three distinct regions: epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp.

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i. Drupe or stone fruits: Mostly single seeded fruits with hard and stony endocarp.

Examples Edible parts

Mangifera indica (mango)

Cocos nucifera (coconut )

Juglans regia (wall nut = okhar) Cotyledons are edible

ii. Bacca or Berry: developing commonly from syncarpous pistil (rarely from single
carpel) with axile placentation.

Examples Edible part

Lycopersicum esculentum (tomato)

[MOE 2066]

Solanum melongena (brinjal = egg

plant = bhanta)

Musa paradisiaca (banana)

Vitis vinifera (grapes) Pericarp and placenta edible.

Parthenocarpic fruit.
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iii. Pepo:
@ Characteristic fruit of family Cucurbitaceae.
@ It develops from a tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary with parietal placentation.
iv. Pome:
@ Develops from a syncarpous, inferior ovary which is surrounded by fleshy
thalamus..
@ e.g. …………………………………. Edible part is …………………….

v. Hesperidium:
@ Develops from a multicarpellary, multilocular, syncarpous, superior, ovary with
axile placentation.
@ E.g.,
@ Edible part is- ……………………… .. ……… ……… … … …… ………………

vi. Balausta:
@ e.g., Punica granatum (Pomegranate = Anar). Edible part: …………………..

vii. Amphisarca:
@ Develops from a multicarpellary, syncarpous, multilocular and superior ovary.
@ e.g., Aegle marmelos (Wood apple = Bel)

AGGREGATE FRUITS (ETAERIO):

@ Develops from a multicarpellary apocarpous pistils (free carpels) of a flower.
a. Etaerio of follicles: Michelia, Calotropis, Vinca (periwinkle)
b. Etaerio of achenes: Rose, Fragaria spp. (Strawberry); edible part: Thalamus
c. Etaerio of drupes: Rubus idaeus (Raspberry). Edible part: Thalamus By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel
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d. Etaerio of berries Anona squamosa (Custard apple = Sharifa). Edible part:

Mesocarp
COMPOSITE OR MULTIPLE FRUITS:
Fruit develops from complete inflorescence.

a. Sorosis:
@ This is a multiple fruit developing from spike, catkin or spadix inflorescence e.g.
@ Ananas sativus (Pineapple = Bhuin katahar); Edible parts: Rachis, bracts and
perianth.
@ Morus alba (Mulberry = Kimbu = Kain kaphal); Edible part is perianth.
@ A multiple fruit is exemplified by Mulberry [MOE 2066]
@ Artocarpus integrifolia (Jack fruit = Rukh katahar); Bracts, perianth and seeds become
succulent and are used for eatning.
b. Syconus or Syconium:
@ Develops from ............................................................. e.g,.
...................................................................

Notes:

By Dr. Kabir Pokhrel

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