MEASUREMENT OF MASS & TIME

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The digits in a measured quantity which are reliable and confidence
UNITS & MEASUREMENTS
in our measurement + the digit which is uncertain.
MASS
•Unified atomic mass unit(amu) is used to measure ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
mass of atoms & molecules RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Dimensional Analysis
•1amu =(1/12)th mass of 1. All non-zero digits are significant. For example, 42.3 has three Difference between true value
one C12 atom significant figures; 243.4 has four significant figures; and 24.123 has & measured value of a quantity
five significant figures. Dimensions of a physical quantity are power to which units of base quantity
•1amu = 1.66×10-27 kg
•Electron mass- 10-30 kg 2. A zero becomes significant figure if it appears between two are raised. Eg: [M]a [L]b [T]c [A]d [K]e
non-zero digits. For example, 5.03 has three significant figures; Systematic Errors Random Errors
•Earth mass : 1025 kg 5.604 has four significant figures; and 4.004 has four significant Errors which tend to occur Irregular and at random

APPLICATIONS
only in one direction, in magnitude & direction
figures. either positive or negative
•Observable Universe 1055 kg
3. Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number are
TIME never significant. For example,0.543 has three significant figures;
Instrumental Personal
0.045 has two significant figures; and 0.006 has one significant checking the correctness of conversion of one system Deducing relation
Experimental
•SI unit is second (based on caesium clock with an figure. Due to inbuilt defect Limitations in Due to individual

uncertainity less than 1 part in 10-13 various formulae of unit into another among physical of measuring instrument experimental bias,Lack of proper
technique
ie,3μs loss every year) 4. Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number are Eg: If Z=A+B,[Z]=[A]=[B] n1u1=n2u2 quantity
setting of apparatus

significant. For example, 4.330 has four significant figures; 433.00 Eg: n1[M1A L1B T1C] = n2[M2A L2B T2C] • Least count error is the smallest value that can be measured by
•Timespan of unstable particle: 10 -24
s has five significant figures; and 343.000 has six significant figures. instrument (occurs with random & systematic errors)
•Age of universe: 10 s 17 M A L B T C
5. In exponential notation, the numerical portion gives the number of n1= n2 [ 2 ] [ 2 ] [ 2 ] • Absolute Error :- Δa = |ai-amean|, amean=
a1+a2+a3+ ....+an
significant figures. For example,1.32 x 10-² has three significant M1 L1 T1 n
figures and 1.32 x 104 has three significant figures. • Relative Error:-
Δamean
; Δamean= Δa1+Δa2+Δa3+ ....+Δan
amean n
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
RULES FOR ROUNDING OF A MEASUREMENT Δamean
•Large distance is measured by p DIMENSIONAL FORMULA INSTRUMENTS • Percentage Error:-
amean
x 100

parallax method 1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is
left unchanged. For example,x = 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8 and Least Count:
BASIS b
•Parallax angle= DISTANCE
=x x x
x = 3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.
1) Pressure=stress=Young‛s modulus=ML T -1 -2 Smallest quantity an instrument can
2. If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit
measure COMBINATION OF ERRORS
•1 =1.745 x 10 rad
O -2
is raised by one. For example, x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9 and 2) Work=Energy=Torque=M L2 T-2
•1‛=2.91×10­4 rad. x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8.
3) Power P=M L2 T-3
b mm scale vernier scale screw gauge
•1"=4.85×10­6 rad. 3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, 4) Gravitational constant G=M-1 L3 T-2 ↓ ↓ ↓ Absolute
1mm
Relative Percentage error
•For very small sizes, optical microscope, then the preceding digit is raised by one. For example, x = 16.351 is 0.1mm 0.01mm
Operations Formula Z
error Δ Z error ΔZ/Z 100 x Δ Z / Z
rounded off to 16.4 and x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8. 5) Force constant=Spring constant=M T-2
tunneling microscope, electron microscope ΔA+ΔB ΔA+ΔB
ΔA+ ΔB
were used. 4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the 6) Coefficient of viscosity=M L-1 T-1 Sum A+B
A+B A+B
x 100

•1 AU = 1.496×1011 m preceding digit, if it is even, is left unchanged. For example,

x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off and x = 12.650 becomes 12.6
7) Latent heat L=L2 T-2 VERNIER CALIPERS Difference A-B ΔA+ ΔB ΔA+ΔB ΔA+ΔB
x 100
A-B A-B
•1 ly = 9.46 × 1015 m on rounding off. 8 Least Count = 1 MSD - 1VSD
I Multiplication AxB AΔB+ BΔA
ΔA
+
ΔB
( A + B ( x 100
ΔA ΔB

•1parsec= 3.08 x 1016 m 5. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the μ0 If n VSD Coincides with (n-1)
A B
A
9 =M L2 T-3 A-2 BΔA+ AΔB ΔA ΔB
( AA+ BB(x 100
ε
Δ Δ
preceding digit, if it is odd, is raised by one. For example, MSD, Division +
•Size of proton: 10-15 m x = 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8, again x = 16.150 is rounded off 0 then (n-1) MSD= n VSD
B
B2 A B
ΔA ΔA x 100
•Radius Of Earth: 107m to 16.2. Power An n A n - 1 ΔA n n
10) Capacitance=M-1 L-2 T-4 A2 1VSD = n-1 MSD
n
A A

11) Permittivity ε0=M-1 L-3 T4 A2

1 A 1/n-1 ΔA
•Distance to Boundary Of RULES FOR ROUNDING OF A MEASUREMENT Root A 1/n 1 ΔA 1 ΔA x 100
n-1 n n A n A
Observable Universe : 1026 m 12) Angular momentum = planck‛s constant Least Count = 1MSD - n MSD = 1MSD
n
ADDITION & SUBTRACTION =M1 L2 T-1 Total Reading = Main Scale Reading + coinciding General rule:
In addition or subtraction, the final result should be reported Vernier Scale division x least count If Z = APBq

SI SYSTEM to the same number of decimal Places as that of the original ,Then the maximum fractional relative
Cr error in Z will be:
number with minimum number of decimal places
ΔZ =p ΔA +q ΔB
In a vernier calipers, one main scale division is x cm +r ΔC
3.1421
7 Base units and 2 supplementary units l m R & n division of vernier scale coincide with n-1 divisions Z A B C
0.241 Tα g
α k
α g of the main scale. the least count (in cm) of the
Base Units +0.09 (has two decimal places)
NO. Quantity Unit Symbol (Answer should be reported to two decimal
Time period L
= RC = LC
calipers is.
3.4731 n-1 nx x x
places after rounding off) R a) ( n ) x b) c) d) n
1 Length meter m (n-1) (n-1)
2 Mass kilogram kg In an expirement four quantities a,b,c
Answer = 3.47
3 Time second s and d are measured with percentage
4 Temperature kelvin K
MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION DIMENSIONLESS SCREW GAUGE error1%, 2%, 3% and 4% respectievely.
5 Electric current ampere A Quantity P is calculated as follows:
6 Luminous intensity candela cd When numbers are multiplied or divided, the number of QUANTITIES
7 Amount of mole mol significant figures in the answer equals the smallest number Main Scale Reading
substance
of significant figures in any of the original numbers 1) Strain Pitch = a2b2
No.of rotations P= then percentage error in P is
NO.
Quantity
Supplementary Units
Unit Symbol
51.028 2) Refractive index cd
x 1.31 (Three significant figures)
1 Plane angle radian rad 3) Relative density pitch
Solid angle steradian sr 66.84668 (Answer should have three significant figures Least Count =
Total no.of divisions on
(a) 14% (b) 10%
2
after rounding off) 4) Plane angle
circlular scale (c) 7% (d) 4%
Answer = 66.8 5) Solid angle Total Reading = Linear Scale Reading + circular scale
reading x least count

Q. Unit of permittivity of free space ε0 is In SI Units, the dimensions of ε 0

If L=2.331cm, B= 2.1cm,then L+B = ? μ0

The least count of the main scale of a screw gauge
(a) coloumb/newton-metre is 1mm the minimum no.of divisions on its circular
is:
(b) newton-metre2 /coloumb² (a) 4.431 cm (b) 4.43 cm a)A-1 T M L3 b)A T2 M-1L-1 scale required to measure 5μm diameter of wire is
(c) coloumb²/newton-metre2 (c) 4.4 cm (d) 4 cm c)A T-3 M L3/2 d)A2 T3 M-1 L-2 a) 200 b) 50 c) 400 d) 100
(d) coloumb2/(newton-metre)2
 Motion with constant acceleration: Equations of motion

MOTION
(i) v=u+at Important point about graphical
1 at2 analysis of motion
(ii) S =ut+-
2
Instantaneous velocity is the slope of [ [
v=
dx
dt ALONG A
A Person travels from A to B covers unequal distances in equal
[∆ x=∫vdt[
Distance = Length of actual path position time curve

STRAIGHT
interval of time with constant acceleration a
Displacement = Length of then v-t curve area gives displacement.
shortest path 3S1-S2
[a = dt [ LINE
S1 S2
initial velocity U= dv
Slope of velocity-time curve = instantaneous
Distance > |displacement| 2t t t acceleration
S2-S1
[ ∆ v =∫adt[
A B
Acceleration a = 0
t 2 a-t curve area gives change in velocity.

A particle moves from A to B in a circular path of

U (iii) v2=u2+2a.s
radius R covering an angle θ with uniform speed U

(
U The number of planks required to stop the bullet u v
θ (
Distance = Rθ Displacement = 2RSin u2
2 N= 2 2 A car accelerates from rest at a constant rate α for some time, after which it decelerates at

( ( u -v a constant rate β, to come to rest. If the total time elapsed is t, the maximum velocity
Ratio of Displacement to Distance = 2Sin θ
2 attained αβ
t
(
Time t =Rθ θ
The two ends of a train moving with constant acceleration pass a certain Vmax =
α+β Total Distance = 1
αβ
t2 v A
( max
point with velocities u and v. The velocity with which the middle point of 2 α+β
(
U (
θ the train passes the same point is
Average Velocity = 2USin B
2 u v O t1 t2 t
θ v= u2+v2
(
Average Acceleration = 2U2Sin θ
( Mid
2
2 u2 u 0
Rθ Calculation of stoping distance s= s MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
2a .........
Sign Convension
For uniform motion (iv) sn =u+ _
a (2n-1) a
2 (i) initial velocity
Displacement = velocity x time Ratio of distance travelled in equal interval of time in a uniformly +ve = upward motion
Average speed = |average velocity|=|instantaneous velocity| accelerated motion from rest -ve = downward motion
S1 S1 S2 S3

S1:S2:S3 = 1:3:5 (ii) Acceleration

t t t Always -ve
Time average speed A B
(iii) Displacement
vavg u+v +ve = final position is above initial position
Total distance covered
=
s1 + s2 + s3 + ....+s n v 1t1 +v 2t 2 + v 3 t3 + ...... for uniform accelerated motion =
v av =
Total time elapsed t1 + t2 + t3 + ....+ tn
=
t1 + t2 + t3 + ...... 2 -ve = final position is below initial position
Zero = final position & initial position are at same level
If t1 = t2 =t3 = .....= t n u=0
then Different Cases v-t graph s-t graph Object is dropped from top of a tower
v1 + v2 + v 3 +.....+V n v1+v2 (Arithmetic mean of speeds)
h
v av = = 2 (i) Ratio of displacement in equal interval of time S1:S2:S3....=1:3:5....
n v v=constant s
vt
1. Uniform motion s= (ii) Ratio of time of covering equal distance
Distance average speed t t t1:(t2-t1):(t3-t2):.......:(tn-tn-1)= 1: ( 2- 1):( 3- 2):...:( n- n-1
Total distance covered s1 + s2 + s3 +.....+ sn s + s + s3 + .....+ s n v s =½ at (iii) Ratio of distance covered at the end of time t:2t:3t:....=12:22:32....
2
s
v av = = = 1 2 2. Uniformly accelerated motion at
v= H
Total time elapsed t1 + t2 +t3 + ....+ tn s s s s with u =0 at t=0
1
+ 2 + 3 +.... .. + n t If a body is thrown vertically up with a velocity u in the uniform gravitational field (neglecting
If s1= s2= s 3= ...... sn s v1 v2 v 3 vn t
air resistance) then u
s u2
then n 2V1V2 v s=ut+½at2 (i) Maximum height attained H =
v av = = (Harmonic mean of speeds) 3. Uniformly accelerated with u+
at 2g
(ii) Time of ascent = time of descent u
1 1 1 1 V1+V2 u = 0 at t=0 v=
u
+ + + .....
v1 v2 v 3
.+
vn t g
2u
s (iii) Total time of flight = g
v s=s0+ut+½at2
4. Uniformly accelerated motion u+
a t
(iv) Velocity of fall at the point of projection = u (downwards)
dx with u=0 and s=s0 at t=0 v= t1
Instantaneous Velocity v = ∆ x =∫vdt u
H t2
dt t At any point on its path the body will have same speed for upward journey and
dv v s downward journey. If a body thrown upwards crosses a point in time t1 & t2 h
Instantaneous Acceleration a= ∆ v =∫adt v=
s=ut-½at2
dt 5. Uniformly retarded motion till u u-
at respectively then
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 velocity becomes zero 1
t0
t
t0 t height of point h=½ gt1t2 Maximum height H = g(t1 +t2) 2
V or x = f(t) V= f(x) t=f(x) 8
dv d2x dV then v s
t1+t2= 2u v 1
a= = a= V a=-(double diff. of t w.r.to x) V3 6. Uniformly retarded then g v
X u
dt dt2 dx accelerated in opposite direction t0 A body is thrown upward, downward & horizontally with same speed 3
t t v 2
Differentiation Differentiation t0 takes time t1, t2 & t3 respectively to reach the ground then
Displacement Velocity Acceleration t3 = t t & height from where the particle was throw is h= ½ gt1 t2
Integration Integration 1 2
 VECTORS
Addition Of Vectors
i 
ˆ ˆ ˆ Components of Vector
(1,
1,1
-
) r=i-j+k 


Magnitude Of Vectors 
Displacement Vector
R= A2+B2+2A Bcos
|r|= 12+12+12= 3  
 ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ R=Rcos θ ˆi+Rsin θjˆ
r=xi+yj+zk i-j+k      

nθ
ˆr=

ˆk (x1y1z1) R Rmax=A+B

Rsi

3
(x2y2z2)
|r|= x +y +z
2 2 2  ˆ
∆ r=(x2-x1)i+(y ˆ
-y1) j+(z ˆ
-z1)k )θ
ˆj
2 2

 Rcos θ tan = B sin θ

|∆r|= (x2-x1) +(y2-y1) +(z2-z1)
2 2 2 A+B cos θ
Vertically
upward (Zaxis) Vector product
ˆ
k 5m north
3m south Parallel Vectors   
p  ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆ
j 
a=a1ˆi+a2ˆj+a3ˆk C=A B= AB sin θ
r=xi+yj+zk North 2m east cos 2
+ cos 2β
+ cos 2γ
=1

+

ˆ ˆ
 -ˆ
i ˆ ˆˆ
 b=b1ˆi+b2j+b k k ˆ
i ˆj ˆ
|r|or r= x2+y2+z2

r = 5j-3j+2i b 3

=2

West sin sin + sin
 ˆ ˆ ˆ   β 2 2β 2γ  
xi+yj+zk ˆ a a=mb + ˆ
A B= Ax Ay Az =i[A ˆ ˆ
unit vector=ˆr= r =
i East ˆ γ B -ByAz]-j[A B -AzBx]+k[A B -AyBx]
= 2j+2i

+
) y z x z x y

)
a1 a2 a3
o |r| x2+y2+z2 j -ˆ
= = =m
b1 b2 b 3 Bx By Bz
South
-ˆ
k Vertically downward (Zaxis)
Dot product
 
x=A.B= AB cos θ

PROJECTILE MOTION
IN A PLANE

Projectile motion Equation of Velocity

Same range for θ and (90-θ)
R=4 H1.H2 KE at maximum height =Kcos θ 2
y
Horizontal component = Ucos θ
Vertical component = Usin θ θ and (90-θ) T2 Momentum Vnet= Vx2+Vy2
eg; H2
y (u cos θ)2 +(u sin θ-gt)2
U2
sin 2
θ (Usinθ ) 2 Uy2 45+ θ,45- θ
=
H= = =
T1
u sin θ -gt
MOTION

2g 2g 2g θ
u
0
θ) u cos θ
300 & 600 0- H1
2UxUy (9

R= U sin2
2
θ = 2Usin θ Ucosθ = ) )θ
0

g g g Pf=m(ucosθ ˆi+(usin θ-gt) ˆj)

T1 H1
=tan θ =tan2θ u

T2 H2 x
shortcut
4H=Rtan θ =5T2 T+ T2= 2R H+ H2= R
2
Net displacement
1 g 1
16 θ
x x=Ucos θ t
4 Rmax R
0
0 60
45
T12+T22= H1+H2= max
ˆ
Pi=m(ucos θ )i+(usin θ ) jˆ
0
30
g
0
15

Ucos θ
2 y=Usin θ t- 1 gt2
ˆ 2
Δ p=-mgt j
Maximum range From the relation,
=-mg+ u sinθ ˆj r= x2+y2
g
4H=Rtan θ =5T2
For θ = 45o =-mu sinθ ĵ
r y
R =tan-1(y/x)
4H=R tan45 H = max = U
2
Rmax = U2
g
Rmax= U 4 4g
2
g 4H=Rmax x

RELATIVE MOTION
Relative Motion Stopping distance
Relative Motion in one dimension overtaking & chasing
Tree
VA VB 3)VA/Tree=VA-VTree=60-0=60
1) Velocity of A with
respect to B VAB=VA-VB
VA=60km/hr VB=40km/hr

d+L1+L2 3) d+L1+L2=(u1-u2)t+ 1 (a1-a2)t2 urel=u1-u2 arel=a1-a2 u1 u2

VB/Tree=VB-VTree=-40
V1

1) t= L1 d
2 d

2) VA/B=VA-VB
V1+V2 V2 V1 V2
0=u2-2as a1 a2
VA VB L2 d
u2
L1 L2

d+L1+L2 0= u2rel-2arels S= rel

V1

=VA-(-VB)=VA+VB 2) t= L1
d
2arel
V1-V2 V2

L2
 RELATIVE MOTION
Man-river problem d
2) Down stream tcross= = d Shortest time Shortest Path
  VMRcos θ V T

1) VMR or VM/Still water= velocity due to

Xdrift=(VMRcos θ +VR)+ t VMR
effort of man VMR Vm
Vm

[V]/ velocity in still water. VM/R VM=VM/R+VR VMRcos θ

θ
=VMRcos θ t + VRt Escalator

+
2) VR= velocity of River VR VMRsin θ VR

VR d d tt
θ =90
t 3= = = 1 2
MOTION IN A PLANE - 02
 d VMRsin θ = VR VMRcos θ =Vm
t=
3) Vm= Resultant velocity of man VMRsin θ sin θ =1 VE+VM/E d + d t1+t2
Due to effort Additional Condition for no drifting
t1 t2
with respect to ground tmin= d
Swimming across the river of man VMR = sin θ =
VR
VMR
Xdrift=VR+ t
1) Upstream VR t1=Time taken by a man to move distance d
1) V =VMRsin θ T = tcross= d
VM on a stationary escalator
Vm = (VMR)2+(VR)2
VMRsin θ VMR Vm 2) Vllel =VMRcos θ +VR = Vm = VMR2-VR2 t2=Time taken by a man to move distance d
VM/R VM=VM/R-VR along a moving escalator
θ = Drift=0 t3=Time taken by a man to move distance d
VMRcosθ VR while walking along a moving escalator

VR VE=Velocity of escalator

VM/E=Velocity of man w.r.t escalator

MAN RAIN PROBLEM

Method
Shortest path
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Man-rain problem Terms Vm A
VR sinθ
VRsin θ -Vm Vm-VRsin θ v
Vm
VA VB VA VB VR = Velocity of rain w.r.t θ Vm VRsin θ
stationary man u
VR VR/m
Vm = Velocity of man VR
VRcosθ VR/m VR/m
A B VR cosθ VRcosθ VR
VB/A=VB-VA , VR/m= Velocity of Rain w.r.t man
VB w.r.t A VRcos θ x
Inorder to find the
VR/m= V 2+V 2
VRsin θ >Vm Vm>VRsin θ
relative velocity of B VA/B= VB-VA , VA w.r.t B Vm=VRsin θ R m
d
B
with respect to A VRsin θ -Vm VR/m=
Vm tan = (VRcos θ)2+ (Vm-VRsin θ)2
V shortest path,x=
d V

x
we have to reverse 20 m/s 20 m/s VRcos θ VR/m=VRsin θ tan = m
the direction of VR V2+U2
VRsin θ -Vm
)
vector A and add it =tan-1
)
with vector B 10 m/s VRcos θ Time taken to reach d U

x
10 m/s VR/m= (VRsin θ -Vm)2 +(VRcos θ)2 shortest path =
V2+U2

CIRCULAR MOTION
= + t
1o= 180
o
Tangential acceleration - = Constant Banking of Road
= o t +1/2 t2 0 0 0 Vmax = rg(tan + )
- ac = vr ,r
2 2 T1 m1 T2 m2 T3 m3
va lll
vll 1 - tan
2
= 2
+2 ( )
Angular velocity o
t
In direction of tangent
ac at
ac at= dv = r =d - at = 0
dt
Centripetal acceleration ac
dt l1 l2 l3
2 ac Tangential Force Vopt =
= =
Directed towards centre
at
Non-uniform Circular Motion rg tan
t T Ft= mat
v llll vl - Speed not Constant
V = x r Not a constant vector T1=m1l1 2
+m2(l1+l2) 2
+m3(l1+l2+l3) 2
- Velocity changes in direction
2 2 Resultant acceleration and magnitude Vmin = rg(tan - )
sec
= =
T v v - ac = Centripetal acceleration
60 1 + tan
ar= T2=m2(l1+l2) +m3(l1+l2+l3)
2 2

ac ac2 + at2
2 2 12 - at = tangential acceleration
= =
min
= 1 ac
min
60 x 60 hour
12 x 60 x 60 dv T3=m3(l1+l2+l3)
gR At Bottom
=d
2
hour
ac =
ac dt dt
a) Tmax =
mv2 + mg
r
Angular acceleration - = Changes angular
v v Velocity is tangent acceleration Flat circular track b) min velocity at bottom
d at = r to the circle
= -change the direction of velocity of the circle = 5gR
dt at = x r 3gR
ac= v2 = ac= r 2 Horizontal circular motion At Top
R
Equation of angular motion →
ac →
v
→→
Power= F V = 0 Circular Motion
Vmax = s
Rg a) Tmin =
mv2
r
- mg
T
1) Constant angular velocity :- = constant → → →→ m
Work= F S = 0 l
b) min velocity at top to
Fc s Uniform Circular Motion
2) Constant angular acceleration K=0 - Speed Constant mv2
complete the circle =
gR
T = = mr 2
= ml 2
r 5gR
- Direction of velocity changes
INERTIA NEWTON‛S THIRD LAW Inclined Forces
A body cannot change its state of rest or -To every action, there is always an equal PULLEY
Fsin
If, Fsinθ <Mg
uniform motion along a straight line. This (in magnitude ) and opposite (in direction) reaction. LIFT PROBLEMS
N a
F block remains in Ideal
property is called inertia.Inertia has no - Forces in nature always occurs in pairs. contact with ground M1 > M2 T Apparent weight of body in a lift
unit and no dimension. - A single isolated force is not possible.
T
M Fcos
If, Fsinθ =Mg F = M1- M2 a a Reading of weighing machine = reaction
INERTIA - Counter force experienced by a body- reaction a= g force exerted by weighing machine (N)
block just leaves M M1 + M2 T
- Action and reaction never act on the same body Mg contact with ground 2M1M2
M2
T Apparent weight ,(Wapparent) = Reaction
If, Fsinθ >Mg T = g M2g force (R)
Inertia Inertia Inertia of * Force exerted on body A by body B (action ) M1 + M2 M1
Case 1: Lift is at rest
the block leaves contact with ground and M1g
of Rest of Motion Direction * force exerted on body B by body A (reaction) R = mg , Wapparent = Wactual = mg
it begins to accelerate.
- Inertia of Rest
Reaction A
Inability to change state of rest by itself. FAction= -FReaction Case 2: Lift moving up or down with
MOTION OF CONNECTED BODIES N
- Inertia of Motion a
constant velocity
B F1 > F2 R = mg , W = Wactual = mg
Inability of a body to change its state of Normal Reaction Action T apparent
M2
uniform motion by itself. F1 - F2 = Ma Case 3: Accelerated upward at
- Occurs when two surfaces are in contact with F2 M F1 M1g
F = Ma
- Inertia of Direction each other
a a= a rate of ‘a‛
Inability of a body to change direction of Always perpendicular to the surface
a=
Fnet T M1 + M2 R = m(g+a) = Wapparent
and is self-adjusting. M2g
motion by itself. M
N M1 a M1M2 Wapparent > Wactual → Feels over weight
Newton‛s Second Law N=W N N=F T = g Accelerated upward at a rate of ‘g‛
Fnet= Rate of change of linear momentum. F N| N|=F|
M1 + M2
R -mg = mg , R = 2mg , W = 2 x W
M1g app act

Instantaneous Average W Case 4: Accelerated downward at

Tension a rate of ‘a‛
dp p pf-pi F|
F= Fav= = mg - R = ma , R = m(g-a) = Wapp , W < W
dt t t app act
INCLINED PLANE + PULLEY
Restoring force developed Accelerated downward at a rate of ‘g‛ [ Freefall]
MOMENTUM T T F
when a longitudnal force is mg - R = mg , R = mg - mg =0 , W = 0
app
P=mv applied on a body If a > g : body looses contact with the weighing
-It is a vector quantity having direction
machine and R becomes zero
same as that of velocity
-Unit is kg m/s. Ideal Rope Lift moves from ground floor to first floor
T v=0, a=0 N=mg (true weight)
*Massless C L
LIQUID JETS N=m(g-a) first floor
*Tension is same everywhere T
Area=A v decrease
*Can support only elongation a (retardation)
u wall
*Cannot support compressive force B

m *On compression it becomes slack. F v Increase N=m(g+a)

x *Tension always acts away from the object.
MOTION OF BLOCKS CONNECTED BY MASSLESS STRING
a
v=0 Ground floor
A L
Pf-Pi mx0-mu -mu Rod
Fjet= = = =-ρAu2 N=mg (true weight)
Δt Δt Δt Graph
T F T F
Fwall = ρAu2 (m=ρAΔx, Δx = u)
Δt B a=0

)
1
+a
When liquid jet bounce back Elongation Compressive

(g
1
a

N2

N2
g+

=m
=m

=m
(
can support both elongation and compression

=m

1
N
(g

(g
V V
+ve THICK ROPE

-a 2

-a 2
Pf-Pi

1
N
-2mu
Fjet= =

)
C
Tension will be different at different points.
2
Δt Δt u A
1 1 2

t t
Fjet = -2ρAu2 u x F
Acceleration,a1=tanθ1
-ve Q
Fwall = 2ρAu 2
L Retardation,a2=tanθ2
M
Mass per unit length=
When liquid jet strikes obliquely L
M
usin Mass of x length of rope =
L
x FRAME OF REFERENCE & PSEUDO FORCE
SINGLE BLOCK
Note : Frame of Reference
u Horizontal Force total mass given
Mass of given length= x
ucos total length length A frame in which and observer is situated
Acceleration is along x-axis only
mass and makes his observation
Along y-axis a=0 , = constant
length
usin N Inertial frame of Non-Inertial frame
N - Mg = Ma (Ma=0) a
M
(L-x) = m2
M
x= m1
u L L reference of reference
ucos N = Mg m2F x F
F T= At rest or moving with
M

LAWS OF MOTION
Fjet = -2ρAu2cosθ Fwall = 2ρAu2cosθ
Along x-axis M uniform velocity along Accelerated frame
F - 0 = Ma F L straight line. of reference.
a= i.e unaccelerated
Change in momentum=-2mu cos θ M Mg
Holds Newton‛s law Newton‛s law of motion
of motion not applicable.
 RELATIVE SLIPPING ROD SLIDING ON A WALL HORIZONTAL TRUCK BOX
ANGLE OF FRICTION iv) f > f
ext smax
Minimum force required to push the inclined plane Angle made by resultant of normal (N) R = N 1+µk2
F m such that “m” does not slip with respect to “M”
B
vsin & frictional force(fs) with normal M fs max aT
vcos
θ = Angle of kinetic friction
M a F = (m+M) gtan , a = gtan
R = N2 + fs2 R is resultant R
N
a0 = gµs
Case-1
u
Minimum acceleration Minimum mass such that A usin
u
fs atruck< a0=gµs
x tan θ =
“M” must be pushed such there is no relative slipping ucos N
y m
that there is no relative u =- x(-v) , u =vtan
Fext
M fs aT
x
slipping. When fs =fs max R = F k= N
m2 m k

M velocity of B towards A = vsin

mg fs = MaT
tan θ = µs
Box does not slip on the truck
m1 a velocity of A away from B = ucos µs is Coefficient of friction
a = g Mo = M+m
M m2
m1 cot - 1 Case-2
F M0 FRICTION i) Fext = 0 atruck> a0=gµs
Box Slips on the truck
M0g ANGLE OF REPOSE arel
Static friction R

- It is a self adjusting force. N = mg N fsmax arel = aT- gµ M fk aT>a0

EQUILLIBRIUM & LAMI‛S PARALLELOGRAM LAW - The opposing force that comes into play,
THEOREM when object tends to move over the surface depends only on µs and
F1 F2 F3 is independent of mass. m
= = of other object, but the actual motion has not
fs = 0 Fext = 0
sin sin sin yet started.
F1 F - As applied force increases static friction tanθ0 = µs o mgcos o VERTICAL TRUCK BOX
F3 F2 mgsin
also increases. o

- If the applied force is increased than the mg Variation of R mg fsmax

force of static friction also increases. s
. k
- The body doesn‛t move untill maximum ii) 0 < Fext < fsmax As angle of inclined plane increases, R remains
F1 value of static friction is attained
ma0 M N
constant and when sliding starts R starts
F2 - The value is called limiting friction or fsmax R N decreasing. mg
F2 F = F1 + F2 , F = F12 + F22 , tan = a0
F1
Variation of angle of friction.
F fsmax = µsN m F g then box
MAN-CAGE PROBLEM IMPULSE As angle of inclined plane increases, angle of
friction will also increases and as sliding
If a0 > does not slip
Large force acting for short period of Fs µs
time, As a result of impulse there will fs starts its value becomes constant and tanθ=µk
mg
be a sudden change in momentum
m+M
T = g dp Kinetic friction 0 < tanθ < µs Minimum & Maximum force (applied parallel to
T 2
Fip = inclined plane)
dt If the applied force is increased further and N < R < N 1+µs2

in
m
F
T m-M
N N = g
t
sets the body in motion, the friction opposing a=0 Fmin = mg ( sinθ - µscosθ)
2 Pf-Pi = Fip dt = area under F-t graph
m o t
the motion is called kinetic friction. iii) fext = fsmax
I = Impulse = Pf - Pi = Fip dt = area of Fmin is the minimum force required to
M make the block stationary if the
mg o
F-t graph angle of inclined plane is

in
fs max Rmax = N 1+µs

gs
greater than angle of repose
µ fs

m
s
N
F fk = µN

LAWS OF
=
k

Mg N Rmax
fs N
fsmax = µkN tan θ = µs

ax
m
F
f
u=0
Case-1 kinetic region
Fmax is the force required to

MOTION
Static region max m Fext
move the block along the inclined
plane if the angle of inclined plane
v=0 Impulse Average impulsive Fsmax= N
s is greater than angle of repose
h1
I = Pf - Pi force

in
gs
h2 = mV2 -(-mV1) impulse P fs

m
Favg= = t
to
I = m (V1+V2)
o
PULLING FORCE & PUSHING FORCE Fmax = mg ( sinθ + µscosθ)
v2 = 2gh2

µsmg
v1 = 2gh1 Fsin F
Fcosθ ≥ µs(mg-Fsinθ) Fpulling = mg(sinθ - µscosθ) < F < mg (sinθ + µ cosθ) s
cosθ + µssinθ
µsmg
u=0 v=0 Case-2 F≥
Fcos
cosθ + µssinθ
Average impulsive M
Impulse
force Fs
s k
h h
m(v+v) = J P 2mv Fcos
Favg= =
to t m
= m(2v) Fcosθ ≥ µs(mg+Fsinθ)
v v
J = 2mv µsmg
µsmg
F≥ Fpushing =
Fsin
cosθ - µssinθ cosθ - µssinθ
 WORK WORK DONE BY WORK DONE IN PULLING RELATION OF KINETIC
Work is said to be done CONSERVATIVE & NON THE CHAIN ENERGY WITH OTHER Quantities STABLE UNSTABLE NUETRAL
when a force applied on the CONSERVATIVE FORCE
body displaces the body Linear momentum:- P= 2m E If particle displaced from If particle displaced from If particle is slightly
through a certain distance in Conservative: work done doesnot Variation of graph of kinetic Energy equillibrium position force equillibrium position force displaced from equillibrium,
the direction of force depend on path followed acting will try to bring acting on it tries to displace then it doesn,t experience
L/n E E
Non-conservative: work depends back to the initial position further away from equillibrium a force or continues in
on the path followed position equillibrium
WORK DONE BY
CONSTANT FORCE Potential energy is Potential energy is Potential energy is
1
minimum maximum constant
Fsin 2
F L Total length V m constant, E p2 P
F= -dU =0
F= -dU =0 F= -dU =0
A B m constant, E v2
dx
Fcos 3 (1/n) th
Part of length hanging E E dx dx
M Mass of chain d 2U d 2U
=positive =negative d2U
dx2 dx2 =0
S WA B
(Path 1)= WA B
(Path 2)= Work done in pulling, the hanging dx2
W=Fcos x S WA B
(Path 3) portion on the table W= MgL P
=FScos =F.S 2n2 m
(for conservative force) P constant,& E
1
P constant,& E P
m
WA (Path 1)= WA (Path 2)=
NATURE OF WORK DONE B B

WA (Path 3)
1) Positive work (0o< <90o)
B POTENTIAL ENERGY
(for non conservative force)
- Defined only for conservative force
F Direction
Note :
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY E
- Energy possessd by a body by

WORK
of motion
S Work done for a complete cycle virtue of its position P.E=max
For an isolated system for a body in
P.E=max
by a conservative force is zero - Can either be positive, negative or K.E=min
K.E=min

presence of conservative forces,the

ENERGY&
2) Negative work (90o< <180o P.E=min
zero according to point of reference P.E
F Direction - Body always move from higher sum of kinetic and potential energies at K.E=max

of motion
any point remains constant throughout
POWER
S WORK DONE BY DIFFERENT potential to lower potential
FORCES Identifying forces with potential the motion K.E
B B B energy
2) Zero work K.E+P.E=constant
Work done becomes 0 for h4 1) Attractive force:-
three conditions h3 On increasing x, if U increases
l h
1.Force is perpendicular to h2 ENERGY dU
=positive
displacement
h1 Capacity of doing work dx POWER
2.if there is no displacement (BC portion of graph)
Scalar quantity Rate at which body can do work work
3.if there is no force acting A A A A
Dimension ML2T-2
2) Repulsive force:-
W tan θ = d W
Average power(Pav)= Δ t
on the body dt
W1=mgh = mgh On increasing x, if U decreases θ
h Relation between different units
dU Δ W
)
=Pinst
Instanteneous power(Pinst)= dd t
W2=mgxl sin =mgxl x =negative
l 1eV=1.6 10-19Joules dx
WORK DONE BY VARIABLE
+

=mgh 1kWh=3.6 106Joules (AB portion of graph)  

FORCE 
F.ds = F.v
+

W3=mgh1+0+mgh2+0+mgh3+0+mgh4
1calorie= 4.18Joules 3) Zero force:- =
dW=F.ds work done by static friction 0 On increasing x, if U doesnot change dt
1 Joule=107erg time
W= F.ds = Fds cos work done by kinetic friction -ve Relation between units:
Kinetic Energy
U(x) C Area under power time graph
in terms of rectagular Energy possessed by virtue of 1 watt=1joule/sec =107 erg/sec
components Wfk=fk.S=fK S cos 180 , = -fkS gives work done
motion Expression A 1 HP=746watt,1MW =106 watt
work done by spring force dU
F=Fx i+Fy j+FZ k
magnitude of spring force=-kx K.E= 1 mv2 =0 1 KW=103 watt
2 dx
ds=dx i+dy j+dz k Always positive D P= d W
B If work done by two bodies Power dt
W= Fxdx+ Fydy+ Fzdz Depends on frame of reference is same then power 1
Fs Work Energy Theorm x
time => dW=Pdt
Graphical representation of B,C points on the graph Unit of power multiplied by time
Fext
work done Change in kinetic Energy
s Types of Potential Energy always give work W= Pdt
dW=F.dx Fs Δ K.E= 1
2
mv2 -Elastic Potential Energy
xf
Fext 1 KWh=3.6 106 Joules
force

-Electric Potential Energy time

+
W= dW Change in kinetic energy of a body
xi xf
is equal to work done on the body -Gravitational Potential Energy Slope of work-time curve gives
xf
= F.dx   instanteneous power W=Area under P-t graph
xi Ws= Fs.ds =- kxdx K2-K1=- F.dr Types of equilibrium
xi
Displacement =- 1 K xf2-xi2 If net force acting on a particle
xi 2
dx xf is zero it is said to be in equillibrium
W= Area under curve
Position and velocity in Event in which impulsive force acts between two
COLLISION
terms of power:- or more bodies which result in change of their Inelastic collision
velocities. V1
V2-V1 Relative velocity of seperation
1) Velocity,V=[2Pt
1/2
[ Line of impact e =
m Oblique collision m1 U1-U2 Relative velocity of approach
Line passing through common normal to surfaces
2) Position,S= [ 8P
1/2
[ U1 (1+e) m2U2 (m1-em2)U1
t3/2 in contact during impact
Velocity after collision V1 = +
9m B m1 m1+m2 m1+m2
Line of motion b
m2 U2
Power delivered by an elevator of ball B
(1+e) m1U1 (m2-em1)U2
V2 = +
After collision Ratio of velocities m1+m2 m1+m2
a=0, T=(M+m) g Before collision
   V1 1-e
P=T.V m2 = 1 m1m2
V2 1+e Loss in kinetic energy K= (1-e2) (U1-U2)2
=TV V A 2 m1+m2
- Particle collision is glancing V2
Power, P=(M+m)gV Line of impact Rebounding of ball
- Direction of motion after collision are not
(M+m)g Line of motion of ball A along initial line of motion
Coefficient of restitution (e) - If they collide in same plane , collision is 2
Power of a water drawing pump dimensional otherwise 3 dimensional
First height of rebound
Velocity of separation along the line of impact
e = - Impact parameter 0<b<(r1+r2) r1,r2 are radii h1 = e2ho
Power,P= d W = d m gh+ 2 [
V2 [ Velocity of approach along the line of impact ho
of colliding bodies
dt dt h1
Relative velocity after collision along the line of impact h2
h=height of water level =
Perfectly elastic Head on collision h3
Relative velocity before collision along the line of impact h4
d m => mass flow rate of pump ro V1 V2 V3 V4 t
dt U1 U2 V1 V2
Conditions to 2t1 2t2 2t3 2t4
V velocity of the water outlet 1.For elastic collision: e=1
2. For inelastic collision: e<1 m1 m2 m1 m2
Power required to just lift 3. For perfectly elastic collision: e=0 Total distance travelled by the ball before it stops bouncing
water, V=0 Velocity after collision 1+e2
Classification H =ho
(
dm
P=gh
( m1-m2 2m2U2 1-e2
dt V1=U1
m1+m2
+
m1+m2
Based on direction of 1+e 2ho
Efficiency of pump Based on conservation of Total time taken by the by to stop bouncing T = g
kinetic energy colliding bodies 1-e
m2-m1 2m1U1
Output Power V2=U2 + Perfectly inelastic collision
μ= m1+m2 m1+m2
Input Power colliding bodies are moving in the same direction
Perfectly Inelastic Perfectly Oblique Head on/one
Special cases: m1U1+m2U2
elastic inelastic dimensional V V =
1) Projectile and target having same mass m1=m2 U1 U2 m1+m2
v1=u2,v2=u1, the velocities get interchanged m2
m1
m1m2
1
Loss in kinetic energy k= (U1-U2)2
2) If massive projectile collide with a light target 2 m1+m2
Perfectly elastic collision
ie m1>>>m2 v1=u1,v2=-u2+2u1
K.E before and after collision is same Colliding bodies are moving in the opposite direction
m1U1-m2U2 m1m2
Inelastic collision 3) If the light projectile collides with a very heavy Change in kinetic enargy K= 1
V = (U1+U2)2
target, m1<<m2 v1=-u1+2u2,v2=u2 m1+m2 2 m1+m2

WORK
K.E after collision is not equal to K.E before
collision then it is said to be inelastic collision Energy transfer from projectile to target
Head on collision / One dimensional collision 1) Fractional decrease in kinetic energy
Collision in two dimension

ENERGY&
(If target is at rest) If the initial velocities of two colliding bodies are not along the line
K 4m1m2 of impact, then the collision is said to be oblique collision or collision
U1 U2 =
K in two dimension.

POWER
m1 m2 (m1-m2)2+4m1m2

Greater the difference in masses, less will be

Before collision transfer of K.E and vice versa
V1 V2
m1 m2
If m2=nm1 K = 4n
After collision Impact porameter b=0 K (1+n)2
 POTENTIAL AT ANY GENERAL POINT
PHYSICS
THE MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
CUTTING OF BAR MAGNET P
P WALLAH
MAGNETISM
r
r
1.The magnetic field lines LENGTHWISE HORIZONTAL - + s N
/ TRANSVERE

AND MATTER
of a magnet form continous 1 Pcos M cos
N V= Vm= 0

closed loops l 4 0 r2 4 r2
2.The tangent to the field l
TORQUE
lines at a given point
represents the direction of l l 1) Fnet=0 1) Fmnet=0 APPARENT ANGLE OF DIP
/2 /2 Pole strength
the net magnetic field B at Pole strength reduce
=pxE=pEsin =MxB = MBsin Inclination of magnetic needle
S that point same to half 2) 2)
in plane other than magnetic
3.The larger no.of field length reduce length same WORK DONE IN ROTATING A DIPOLE meridian

PHYSICS
lines stronger B to half tan
4.Do not intersect ml ml 1. W=PE (cos 1-cos 2) 1. WB=MB (cos 1-cos 2) tan ‘ = cos ‘ Apparent angle of dip
Mnew = Mnew = true angle of dip
2 2 Maximum work done is from
Angle between MM
1 =0 to 2 =180
0 0

and the plane other

A) Magnetic monopoles does not exist POTENTIAL ENERGY than MM

FACTS
B) A solenoid and bar magnet produce
similar magnetic filelds U=-P.E UB=-M.B
MAGNETIC DIPOLE 1 =00 Stable position; =1800 Unstable position
MOMENT (M) RELATION BETWEEN TWO FALSE
THE ELECTROSTATIC ANALOG ANGLE OF DIP IN MUTUALLY
(Help from electrostatics to magnetism) PERPENDICULAR PLANE AND TRUE
M=ml

WALLAH
S N MAGNETISM AND GAUSS‛S LAW ANGLE OF DIP
m pole strength
l l distance b/w poles
SHORT ELECTRIC
DIPOLE
SHORT MAGNETIC
DIPOLE
“The net magnetic flux through any closed B.ds =0 cot2 1 + cot2 2 = cot2
‘q‛ surface is zero” s
Direction from southpole ‘m‛
- + l
“The simplest magnetic element is a magnetic dipole
to N pole d NOTE:
S N or a current loop.”Magnetic monopoles do not exist.
Unit of M Am2 p
Unit of m Am m FACTS
p =q d
M=m l 1. Declination is greater at
COULOMB‛S LAW poles and smaller near equator
THE EARTH‛S 2. Angle of dip is maximum at
F + + F + +
Fm Fm MAGNETISM poles and minimum at equator
q1 r q2 r
m1 m2
BAR MAGNET TO DIFFERENT q1 q 2
1 m1m2
SHAPES F= Fm=
0
l 4 r2 r2
l
0
4

l‛ AXIAL & EQUATORIAL LINE OF DIPOLE MAGNETIC ELEMENTS OF EARTH

S N S N
r COMPASS NEEDLE AND DIP NEEDLE
-- --
r
--
Mnew= Msin 2
( ) ---- - + --------- s N --------- Magnetic
declination −δ Inclination or Dip-
Horizontal
component- BH
1. A compass needle at the North pole
p l p B can point along any direction.
l sin ( ) d E
( ) l‛= 2
2. A dip needle at the north pole points

Decilination
2 ( )
2
1 2M down and at South pole points straight up.
Baxial =
Geographical
BH‛=BH cos δ
Eaxial = 1 2P 4 0 r
3 ---
north

r3
δ TIME PERIOD
---
4 0 δ
p of a magnetic dipole in uniform magnetic field
---
ic
------- ---------

et
gn BH
RESULTANT DIPOLE MOMENT p Beq
N ma orth
---
----------------

n
BV
Eeq I - Moment of Inertia
---

M2
r
B T=2 I
-

r
M - Dipole moment magnetic
---

N
- s N S MB
+ B - Magnetic field
---

S
---

M1 d d True angle of dip

Angle between
S N
geographic meridian Bv Geographical Frequency = 1 MB To find B,
M tan = meridian Magnetic 2
4 I
Eeq= 1 P Beq= 0
& magnetic meridian BH meridian 2 I
2 2
M1+ M2+ 2M1 M2 cos 4 r3 B=
Mnet = 4 0 r3 MT2
Baxial = -2Beq
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 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
2. Paramagnetic substances HYSTERESIS CURVE / B-H CURVE
1) Magnetic Permeability
a. Weakly attracted by a magnet Magneticsation depends on hystory of magnetisation
Absolute Permeability -7
Tesla metre Tm
of air or free space = 4 x 10 b. Eg : Al, Mn, Pt, Na, CuCl2, O2,Crown glass
0
Ampere A
c. Individual atom possesses permanent dipole moment A
Relative Permeability r
= medium d. Curie‛s law
of medium 0 Magnetisation of a paramagnetic material is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature
2) Intensity of magnetizing field (H)
BO
Bext M= C
H= vector quantity T
0
Curie‛s law
A
SI unit CGS unit Oersted
0
=C

PHYSICS
M T
3) Magnetisation (M)
e. Important Important terms
M Induced dipole moment Retentivity - OC - Residual magnetism
M= net also, 0< <
V volume Bind Coercivity - Demagnetising process
1< r <1+ ( Small positive number) 1. High coercivity - Hard substance - Steel
M= <
vector quantity 0 0 2. Low coercivity - Soft substance - Soft iron
A -1
SI unit [M] L A f. Graph Important result
M
B-H curve signifies the energy loss/heat loss
4) Magnetic Susceptibility ( m) m and is proportional to the area of the loop.
scalar quantity with
M Bind
m = H Also = B no unit Smaller for soft iron

WALLAH
no dimension Area of
ext T
hysteresis loop
5) Relation between relative permeability Higher for steel
and susceptibility
= (1+ m ) Also (1+ m ) Permanent magnets
= =
r 0 r 0
3. Ferromagnetic substances
should have
6) Relation between B, M and H a. Strongly attracted by a magnet 1. High retentivity
B= H b. Eg : Fe, Co, Ni, Cd, Fe3O4 2. High coercivity
3. High permeability
c. Individual atoms posses permanent magnetic moment
and magnetic moments of neighbouring atoms tend to Steel is used for making permanent magnets
align due to a force called exchange coupling
Steel soft iron
MAGNETIC MATERIALS d. Due to exchange coupling,atom form domains inside
in which magnetic moment are aligned in the same Smaller retentivity Higher retentivity than steel
1. Diamagnetic direction High coercivity Smaller coercivity than steel
a. Weakly repelled by a magnet
b. Eg: Cu, Ag, Au, NaCl, H2O etc. e. Important
>>>1
c. Superconductors - Perfect conductivity >>1

PHYSICS
r
perfect diamagnetism >> 0
ELECTROMAGNETS
=-1, =0
WALLAH
r
Materials should have
d. Perfect diamagnetism in superconductors high permeability
MEISSNER EFFECT f. At high temperature, a ferromagnet becomes Soft iron is used
low retentivity
e. Important -1< <0 paramagnetic
Used in electric bells, Loudspeakers, telephone
0< <1 Curie‛s temperature
r
diaphragms, heavy cranes to lift machinary
< C
0
= (T>TC)
T-TC

Magnetism
f. Individual atoms do not possess permanent
magnet dipole moment
g. No effect of temperature on magnetisation

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 Centre of Mass Centre of mass for various shapes Motion centre of mass Moment of Inertia Theorm of Perpendicular axis Iz
•Avg.position of all the parts of the velocity of centre of mass
system, weighted according to their mass
Uniformly distributed mass centre of mass → → → i) For discrete system of particles Iz=Ix + Iy
→ M1V1 + M2V2 + M3V3 +--
•For homogeneous object, Vcm=
M1+M2+M3+------ m PHYSICS
WALLAH
2
centre of mass lie at 1) Rod m
Acceleration of centre of mass
1
Note:- Ix
their geometric centres L/2 L/2 r2 m _ For n particles x and y axis lie in the plane of body
r1 3 __
__
→ → → __
L
 __ z = axis need to the plane axis need not of body
•Centre of mass, may or may
 M1a1 + M2a2 + M3a3 +-- r3 _
m
(0,0) ,O → __
_ __

not lies inside the object 2 acm= __

__
__ n
pass through center of man
M1+M2+M3+M4------ __
__ rn
•Centre of mass, may __
__
_
IY
__

change it‛s location x

2) Square Lamina
Isolated System
L M1r12 + M2r22 + M3r32+---Mnrn2
•No external forces acting
C.M
 L L
,  on the system
I =
M1+M2+M3+------Mn Moment Of Inertia For Various Objects
L L 2 2
Centre of Mass For •They can have mutual force
L
(0,0) of attraction r1 = distance from axis of
System of n Particles rotation Disc Ring Thin Rod
C.M
I=MR2
M1 M2
3) Semicircular Ring m
Σmr
<
r1
x
r2 < ii) For non-point mass
rcm= y
Σm M1r1=M2r2
(x1y1z1)
m2 acm=0,vcm=constant I = ∫dI = ∫r2dm l
(x2y2z2) R


O, 2R
m1
 = ∫dm r2 m
C.M m3 R
(x3y3z3) ml2 ml2
r1
r2 (xcmycmzcm)
for n particles (O,O) Moment of Inertia m I=
12
It=
3
r3 mn
4) Hemispherical shell It1= 3 MR2
rcm
(xnynzn) r1 dm It1= 5 MR2 2
rn I=Mr2 r
4 It= 2MR2 Hollow sphere
M
It= 3 MR2
MR
2 2
x I=
2 I= 2 MR2
3
It= 5 MR2
O, R  m= Mass of body

2 3
r= Perpendicular distance from Hollow cylinder
General Equation (O,O)
Solid cylinder
the axis of rotation
m1r1 + m2r2 + m3r3 + -----mnrn Moment of Inertia I=MR 2 R
rcm= 5) Solid circular cone I=
MR2
m1 + m2 + m3 + -----+ mn 2 M
Parallel Axis Theorm
Tensor Quantity I=Mr2 Rotational 3
analogous I t= MR
2
R
2
In terms of Cartesian co-ordinates of mass Conditions:-
h O, h 
 1) Axis where considered to be parallel
m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3 + -----mnxn 4 to each other
xcm=
m1 + m2 + m3 + -----+ mn (O,O)
Two Point Mass 2) One of the axis must pass through Solid sphere
centre of mass
ICOM= M1r21 + M2r22 It= 7 MR2
m1y1 + m2y2 + m3y3 + -----mnyn Iparallel ICOM
6) Solid hemispherical 5
ycm= a
m1 + m2 + m3 + -----+ mn r M I= 2 MR2
5
O, 3R 
 COM It= 2MR2
m1z1 + m2z2 + m3z3 + -----mnzn 8
com
zcm= (O,O)
M1 r1 r2 M2
m1 + m2 + m3 + -----+ mn
m2r m1r
r 1= r 2=
m1+ m1 m1+ m2

m1m2 Iparallel=ICOM+Ma2 I=Moment of Inertia along the center of mass It=Moment of Inertia along the tangent perpendicular to the plane
Cavity in object Icom= mred mred=
Centre Of Mass For m1+m2 Itl=Moment of Inertia along the tangent parallel to the plane
Non Point Mass If some mass is removed from a
body C.M will shift towards
the side with more mass
rnom
Factors Affecting
∫dm.r
C.M of
Moment of Inertia Moment of Inertia along the centre of Mass Perpendicular to the Plane Surface
y rcm= remaining body mcav
dm
∫dm
rcav 1) Ring 2) Disc 3) Square sheet 4) Rectangular sheet
λ= mass per unit length
σ= mass per unit area Mass of Mass MR2
ρ= C.M of Axis of Ml2
r mass per unit volume
orginal body C.M of the body rotation distribution MR2(COM,⊥r to plane) 2
6
Ml2 2
cavity (l + b2)
MR2 12
MR2 (COM, Parallel to plane) 4
Ml2
x 2 b

ROTATIONAL
Assuming rC.M is at the origin 12

1) Mass distributed over length ⇒ dm=λ dl Mb2

12
2) Mass distributed over area ⇒ dm=σ dA - Mcav x rcav
rrem=

MOTION 01
3) Mass distributed over volume ⇒ dm= ρdV Mrem
l Ml2
12
MR2 (COM, Parallel to plane) MR2
2 4
Ml2
12
 x1 x2 Opposite direction:- Mechanical energy conservation
1)When θ =900

Radius of Gyration Equilibrium 2T |L|=r p sin θ I1ω1-I2ω2 Angular velocity with which the rod hits
ω f= the ground without slipping and one of its


=rp I1+I2 end on the ground, released from rest
Definition: The distance from the axis of a point F T
=Lmax
mass whose mass is equal to the mass of whole For translational m1
m3 ω= 3g
T m3 g
l
body and whose moment of inertia is equal to equilibrium 2m1m2g l
T = Spin angular momentum I1 2
moment of inertia of the body about the axis r m1 + m2
I
m2 ω
Fnet = 0
2Tx1 = m3x2g Lspin=Iω ω1
mR 2
net may or maynot be Rolling Motion
2 zero Translatory+Rotatory=Rolling
r

F Angular acceleration I2 Velocity in rolling

Rω
V

k m ω2 wd

m ~
= Condition for rolling without
A Vres
R = I
slipping:- V=Rω Rω
V V
ω Velocity of any point on d
Vres
Disc mk2 Rotational Equillibrium - torque rolling object,VP Rω
Lspin=IABω
Velocity w.r.t

F = w= v d floor is 0

I moment of inertia
= 0 R Rω V
net
angular acceleration d is the distance from point content

r Energy in rolling motion

R Work,Energy & Power
k=
Fnet may or maynot be zero Initial angular acceleration when B 1) Slipping motion/Sliding motion (Translatory)
2 a rod is released 1)Work done by a torque,W
Conservation ofAngular momentum TK.E= 1 mv2 Translatory Motion
Also called principle of moments 2
= θ (if torque is uniform)
Initial angular acceleration when abody is 2) Spinning motion/rotational motion
k is the radius of gyration r released from an angle
If there is no external torque = dθ (if force is non uniform)
RK.E= 1 Iω2 = 1 mk2 V2 = 1 mv2 ( kR
2 2 (
Angular momentum is conserved 2 2 2
F 2) K.E= 1 Iω2 (when ω is constant) R 2

+
dL 2 3) Rolling motion
=
= L (when L is constant)
2
dt TK.E+RK.E= 1 mv2+ 1 mv2x k 2 = 1 mv2 1+ k 2 (

rc
2 2 (
2I
Torque dL

m
2 2 R 2
Static Equilibrium (mg sin ) rcm If =0=> =0 =1 Lω
R
com dt 2
=
I L=constant ktotal
( k2
mg sin 3) Work-Energy theorm
(
Creates torque Fsin Combination of both translational = 1+
R2
F
and rotational equilibrium For rod rcm = L
2
mg cos
Iω=constant ΣW= Δ K= 1 I(ω22-ω12)
ktrans
2
(moment arm of I =M L
2
Motion on an inclined plane
force) Fnet = 0 Forces are balanced 3
g I1ω1=I2ω2 Energy loss when 2 discs are joined:-

{
r 2gh V
1
= 0 = If moment of intertia increases ( kR
Velocity at bottom= 2 (
when force is Radial =0 net clockwise anticlockwise Translatory - rotation combination 1) same direction:- k2
1+ 2 2

angular velocity decreases and if R h

P
Fcos - I moment of intertia decreases Δ K.E=
I 1I 2
( ω 1 - ω 2) 2 k2 =
rsi
n won‛t create
Principle of moments applied
=
Total I
opposition
angular velocity increases
2[I1+I2]
R2 >V =>Time Period

any torque m1 R R m1
When a body is in rotational equilibrium sum Velocity:solid sphere>Disc>Hollow>Sphere>Ring
m Rg-m1Rg
of clock wise moments about any point is = 22 ω1
equal to sum of anticlockwise moments m1R +m2R2+I I1
Time to reach bottom:Ring>Hollow sphere
>Disc>solid sphere
about that point Moment of intertia when
Torque = r Fsin
m1 two discs joined: Value of velocity:-
d1 d2
same direction:- ω2 1) Ring/Hollow cylinder= gh
= Fsin x r F r (1) T
m2 I2
4 gh
= F x rsin F r (2) m2>m1 I1ω1+I2ω2 2) Disc/Solid cylinder=
3
ω f=
T

I1+I2 3) Hollow sphere= 6 gh

= r x F (Vector form) 5
F2 2) Opposite direction:-
F1 4) Solid sphere= 10
If force is radial ie = 0 or 180
o o gh
I 1I 2 7
Angular momentum & its conservation Δ K.E= (ω 1+ ω 2) 2

Torque = 0 2[I1+I2]
F1 x d1 = F2 x d2 Acceleration
gsin θ 1
Angular momentum of a point mass:- a= a
If force is tangential and
T r Load x load arm = Effort x effort arm ω1 I1
1+
k2 k2
to radius vector =90o I1 R2 R2
x3 Angular momentum about origin  ω1
Torque, = = rF Time of descend:-
max
x1 x2
  
L=r P
v
θ
(
t= 1 2h k2 (
+

  
I2 sin θ g 1+ R2
=m(r v) mv ω2
+

P=

 
P=mv

ROTATIONAL
 ω2 t 1+ k2
m2
r R2
m1
m2g m3
1) When θ =0o or 1800 I2 Ring>Hollow sphere>Disc>solid sphere
m1g L0=mvr sin 180=0

MOTION 02
m 3g mvr sin 0 =0

m1gx1 = m2gx2 + m3gx3 Angular momentum is minimum

O PHYSICS
WALLAH
 ROTATION OF 2 MASSES UNDER MUTUAL Variation of g due to rotation of earth
NEWTON‛S LAW OF VARIATION IN THE VALUE OF WORK DONE IN MOVING OBJECT
GRAVITATION GRAVITATIONAL FORCE OF ATTRACTION
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY FROM ONE ORBIT TO ANOTHER
m1 F F m2 Gm22 Latitude -
r V1 = Variation due to height ‘h‛ r
P
GM GM
(m1+m2) r
Fc Angle which the line V01 =
r1
V02 =
r2
Gm1m2 m g mgl joining the point to
v2 GM mg
F =
r2
g = the centre of earth r1 r2
r 2
V2 =
Gm12
h (R + h)2 makes with the r1
G - Universal gravitational constant (m1+m2) r g gR2 equatorial plane
Value of G r1 COM r2 r g =
6.67x10 Nm Kg (SI or MKS)
-11 2 -2
v1
r3 (R + h)2 gl = g - 2
R cos2
T2 = 4 2
6.67x10-8 dyne cm2g-2 (CGS) r G(m1+m2) Re
General Equation
Time period M Note = value of 2
R = 0.034

PHYSICS
Dimensional formula [G] Approximate equation
or T2 r3
For poles = 90 o gl = g CONCEPT - WORK DONE BY
M-1L3T-2 h<<<<<<R (h < 100 km) EXTERNAL AGENT = CHANGE IN
There is no effect of rotational motion of the
2h earth on the value of g at poles. MECHANICAL ENERGY
use, gl= g 1-
R For equator = 0o gl = g - 2
R
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT Note the point GMm 1 1
THREE MASSES(EQUAL) REVOLVING The effect of rotational motion of the earth on
W = E 2 - E1 =
r1
-
r2
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE If h<<<<R, then decrease in the value 2
UNDER MUTUAL GRAVITATIONAL FORCE the value of g at the equator is maximum.
1. Gravitational force of g with height
V M When a body of mass m is moved from equator to
* Always attractive in nature 2hg the poles, weight increases by an amount
GM GM Absolute decrease = g = g - gl =
R m (g - g ) = m
2
R WORK DONE IN MOVING OBJECT
* Independent of the nature of medium V1 = =
l R 3 g g-gl 2h
p e
between masses Fractional decrease = = = FROM SURFACE OF EARTH TO
l l g g R
* Independent of presence or absence R
HEIGHT h ABOVE SURFACE
g g-gl 2h x 100
of other bodies c Time period Percentage decrease = = x 100 =
V g g R ORBITAL VELOCITY

WALLAH
m
2. Are central forces, acts along the centre M
T2 l3 Orbit at a height ‘h‛ from the surface h
l
of gravity of two bodies. V
M
Variation due to depth ‘d‛ m,Vo
m

3. Conservative force g
h
GM gR2 R
r
Vo = =
4. Force between any two masses - d g = g [ 1-
l d
] Re (R+H) (R+H)
gl R
Gravitational force R
r
M

GM R
Force between earth and any other body - gR R
Vo = =
M Re R
Force of gravity FOUR EQUAL MASSES UNDER MUTUAL
-GMm -GMm
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE If orbit is closer to GM W = (U f - Ui
(
= -
Vo = = gR R R+h
earth‛s surface( neglect ‘h‛) R
g dg Or, R
= g-g =
l
l GM Absolute decrease = (called minimum orbit, velocity-first cosmic velocity) W = mgh
V = (2 2+1) g R
R+h
VECTOR FORM 2 2 l Note - for easy calculations
F21 force on 2 due to 1 g g-g l
d Work done to move object W =
mgR
y
l l 1 GM Fractional decrease = = = gR = 8 km/s or GM = 8 km/s = 8x 103 m/s to a height h = R 2
r12 vector from m1 to m2 V = g g R
R (2 2+1) R
r12
G m1m2 2 R d mgR
m2
-r12 l Percentage decrease = g x100
GM Work done to move object W =
m1
F21 = x100 = or = 64 x 106 3
r2 r122 l
T2
l3 Here R = g R R to a height h = R/2
r1 2
Very imp graph
G m1m2
x or - r12 The graphical representation of change in KE, PE OR TE FOR AN ORBITING
r123 WORK DONE IN MOVING OBJECT
Similarly the value of g‛ with height and depth SATELLITE
GRAVITY gl m,Vo FROM SURFACE TO CIRCULAR ORBIT
F12 force on 1 due to 2
GMm GMm h
Acceleration due to gravity GMe KE = U =-
G m1m2 G m1m2 2r r
r Vo

F21 = r12 or r12 On the surface of earth g = GMm Re

m
h

r122 r123 m Re2 TE =-

Clearly M - mass of earth 1 2r M

Re
gl
Newtons third law F21 = - F12 R - Radius of earth gl r r2 Relation KE, U & TE
U = 2 x T.E R R
M [Put GMe = g Re2 to solve
K.E = - T.E
Re
problems easily] r
r = R Graph W = Ef - Ei
-GMm GMm
Gravitational force is a two body interaction. energy W = +
gr gR2 W = Etotal - Ui 2(R+h) R
Force between two particles does not depend for r < R, gl = for r < R, gl =
on the presence or absence of other particles. R r2
KE
The principle of superposition is valid here. g IN TERMS OF DENSITY OF EARTH TE
distance
“Force on a particle due to a no. of particles U

GRAVITATION
is the resultant of forces due to individual g=4 G Re g Re
particles.” “If density is mentioned use the PHYSICS
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above equation”
WALLAH
 R
2b
1

R
R
R 2
R
x R

PHYSICS
1 2
GM
R
(nearst point)
(farthest point) 1 2
R R2
1 2 1

x2 2
1
+ 2
R
1 R

R3 - (3R2 2
2R3
3 3
R 2 R 2
R
1

WALLAH
2 2
R
R
R
1 R
2

due R2

R
Δ R
Δ 3
2 R

W
W
R
O R2
2b

T2 3
∞
G R2
3

T2 4 2
3
R

R R

1 1
2

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R2

2 0
PHYSICS
WALLAH Δ -

V V V
2
R j
2
3 2
 mass (m) Pressure 4)
- Density (ρ)= Bubble rising up 1) U-Tube manometer
volume (v) Normal force or thrust exerted by liquid at constant temperature
at rest per unit area Patm Patm

m
F
radius ‘r‛ becomes ‘R‛ when bubble rises
L1
h1d1 = h2d2 + h3d3
ρ v P= in liquid from bottom to the surface
h1d1 = h2d2
A d1 L2
h1
d2 h2
- unit= kg/m 3 ρgh = patm [n3-1] R= n r h3
Pressure depth relation h1 h2
- density of water=1000 kg / m3=1g/cc
- for same mass P= h ρ g
ρ1v1=ρ2v2 Conditions for equal forces on wall L3 d3
Hydrostatic paradox
and bottom in a cylinder
if ρ1>ρ2
Whatever the shape or width the pressure
v1<v2 2) U-Tube type

PHYSICS
at any particular depth is same
5)
h1d1 = h2 d2
h1 = h2 + h3
Mixing of liquid A B C D
f2
L
d1
=
h2
L1
d2 h1
h1 h1
d1 L2 h2 h1d1 = h2d2 + h3d3
PA=PB=PC=PD d2
Calculation of resultant/final density f1
d1 h2 Note:
h3
d2 If one of the liquid H2O,

dL hw
1) Volumes are equal L=R sp. gravity = (R.D) = =
If L1 L2 dw hL
hw
d1 + d2 R (R.D) = L3 d3
d= then, F1=F2 hL
2 - Gauge pressure = P-Patm
= hρg

2) Masses are equal - Patm= 1.01325 x 105 Pa 3) The third liquid is in level with other
6)
2d1d2

WALLAH
For 2- liquid⟹ d= Manometer
d1 + d2 h1d1 = h2d2
L1 h1d1 + h3d3 = h2d2
3d1d2d3
For 3- liquid⟹ d= Inclined barometer Patm
h1,d1 L1 d1 h1 L2 h2 d2
d1d2+d2d3+d1d3 L2 h2,d2
d3 h3

3) Masses and volumes are different

h (hl) Ll

if θ=angle with horizontal L3. L3

d=
Total mass m1+m2
= v +v Px h
Total volume 1 2
θ
h
m =ρ1v1 & m =ρ2v2 Sinθ =
1 2
Ll
U - tube accelerating Special case: U - tube rotating
m1 m2
v1 = & v2 = ρ
ρ1 h
2
Ll =
sinθ h = h1 - h2 w
h
ρm w2l2
if θ=angle with vertical h h a
h1 h =
Ll
Relative density (R.D)/Specific gravity θ
=
L g 2g
h h2
1) Relative density of a body Cosθ = l
L
ds wa Px=Po+ hρmg h
=
a
(R.D)s= = h tan =
dω wa-ww Ll =
L g
Cosθ L
2) Relative density of liquid hρmg = Px- Po l
dL

FLUID
(R.D)L=
dω w2x12
wa - w L h1 =
2g
=
wa - w w
h2 w2x22
h2 =
3) Relative density of a solid 2g
h1
to that of liquid w2 (x22 - x12)
h = h2 - h1 =

MECHANICS 01
(R.D)S wa x1 W x2 2g
=
(R.D)L wa-wL

PHYSICS
WALLAH
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 Pascals Law Archimedes principle Unit of Coefficient of viscosity

PHYSICS
WALLAH
If gravity effect is neglected, the pressure at upthrust=weight of the liquid displaced= Vρ g 1) The CGS Unit of η is dyne s cm-2 and is called poise.
every point of liquid in static equilibrium is same Apparent weight=Actual weight-upthrust
Wapp=Wair-U 2) The SI unit of η is Nsm-2 or decapoise or poiseuille
A
=Wair [1- _ 1 poiseuille = 10 poise
[
ρ
)
θ FB.Cos θ
net force acting upward=V+ ρL+ g
)
θ
Poiseuille‛s formula
πPr4
Q= _

PHYSICS
Fc Ac Ab
FB.Sin θ 8 ηl
FB

Law of floatation
W
W Stoke’s law
AA
B C
F=6 ηπrv
W
FA
U Fnet=Apparent weight-viscous force
U

Application Terminal velocity

WALLAH
U
(B) W=U (C) W=U
Hydraulic Lift (A) W>U
Vt= _2 r2 (ρ- ) g
As A>> a therefore ρb > ρL ρb= ρL ρb < ρL 9η
1) If ρ > ,the body will attain terminal velocity in the downward direction.
F >> f
F 2) If ρ < the terminal velocity will be negative and the body will move in the
A f W ⇒ Weight
a
MECHANICS 02 U ⇒ Upthrust
upward direction.
3) = ,the body remain suspended in the fluid.
ρ

F F Critical velocity
A
=
a Fractional submerged volume Reynold number
ρvD
Displaced
_ volume(Vd) _ Re = _
= ρ (submerged fraction) Ve
η
Total volume(V)
Significances of Reynold number.
If the cylinders are connected Exposed volume(Vl)
_ = 1- _ (Exposed fraction)
Total volume(V) ρ Vd If Re lies between 0 and 2000 the folow is stream lined or laminar.
F1 F2
= If Re>3000,the liquid in turbulent.
weight of solid in air wa
_ ρb
_
Relative density of a solid= _ = w -w = ρW
σ
R12 R22
Loss of weight in water a w If Re lies between 2000 & 3000 the flow of liquid is unstable.It may
change from laminar to turbulent and vice versa.
F1 F2 Loss of weight in liquid w
_ -wL _
ρL P

Relative density of a liquid= _ = w -w = ρW

a
=
R1 2
R2 2 Loss of weight in water a w

F1 F2
FLUID

=
D12 D22 Velocity gradient Equation of continuity B
v2
dv
Velocity gradient= _ V1A1 Δ t ρ1= V2A2 Δ t ρ2 A2

F1 F2 dx
v 2dt
since the liquid is incompressable ρ1= ρ2
d
_ dv
F A dv =>F=- ηA _
dx
x V1A1=V2A2

η= _F = >coefficent of viscosity = > η= _

F/A _F/A _
F/A
dv/dx= v/l =d Av=constant. A
v1
D1
D2
Adv/dx (x/l) A2
dt dv
Av= =Q= >Volume rate of flow v1dt
shearing stress dt
= >η= _
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strain rate
 Energy of fluid in a study flow VENTURIMETER SURFACE TENSION
Device to measure the flow of speed of incompressible fluid
Force F
Surface tension T = =
1
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE Length l
P
C
B
Q
kinetic Energy = mv2 v1 = 2hg
2 N S R

P₁V₁ - P₂V₂ = 1 m (v₂²-v₁²) +mg (h₂-h₁) (A12/A22) -1 Unit in SI system =

2 m
kinetic energy per unit mass = 1 v2
2 Unit in CGS system = dyne / cm
(P₁ - P₂) V = 1 m (v22 - v1²) + mg (h₂-h₁) A

kinetic energy per unit volume = 1 ρv2 2

2 1 m mg

PHYSICS
(P₁ - P₂) V = (v22 - v1²) + (h -h )
2 V V ₂ ₁
Potential Energy = mgh SURFACE ENERGY PRESSURE DIFFERENCE ACROSS A CURVED LIQUID SURFACE
1
Potential energy per unit mass = gh P + ρv + ρgh = constant
2 P1
2 D
Soap film
A A1
P1 P1
T A T A
Potential energy per unit volume = ρgh P v 2
p
T p T
ρg + 2g + h = constant

PHYSICS
F

WALLAH
F
l
F
P = pressure head
T
Pressure energy = PV ρg T
p
A
v2
Pressure energy per unit mass = ρP
C B B1

2g = velocity head x p=p1 p>p1

p<p1

Work done W = F x x Pressure on concave side> pressure on convex side

WALLAH
Pressure energy per unit volume = P h = Gravitational head
But F = 2TL 2T
Pconcave - Pconvex =
R
One surface
W = 2TL x x
Pinside - Poutside = 2T
[ Liquid drop or air bubble ]
R
Energy of the additional surface = W = 2TLx
Pinside - Poutside = 4T
APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE = T (2LX)=T∆A R
[ Soup bubble ] Two surfaces

Capillarity

FLUID 03
Torricelli‛s Law of Efflux Excess pressure inside a liquid drop
2T
Pi - Po =
R

MECHANICS
Meniscus
v= 2(P-Pa) + 2gh Excess pressure inside a soap bubble
ρ
4T
Pa Pi - Po =
If tank is open, P = Pa R < 90
o
Meniscus
P
h
Then h>0
v= 2gh
Pa
h<0
H
(H-h) Shape of liquid meniscus
Time of fall, t = 2(H-h) Water
g Mercury > 90
o

SV
Consider the equilibrium of at line of contact
Fa O
)

Ascent formula:
l
O
Fa = LV
sin
Range R = vx xt R SL
= + cos 2T
)
o
)
SV SL LV
= 2gh x 2(H-h)/g Glass
- h = h > 0 < 90
LV
cos =
SV SL Rρg
R = 2 h (H-h) vx = Horizontal component of velocity
Water
LV h < 0 ) > 90
o
)
= Angle of contact. 2Tcos
h =
R is max. when h= H rρg
2
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 BIMETALLIC STRIP Cu CALORIMETRY ICE-WATER SYSTEM
TEMPERATURE SCALE
Cu 1 calorie=4.2J
Problem solving methodology
Result C F-32 K-273 (celcius-fahrenheit- Fe
= = Heat Supplied (ΔQ)
5 9 5 kelvin conversion) Fe 1. m1 g ice [-θ,0C] mixed with m2g water [-θ2 0C]
any scale conversion formula > So when temperature increases
cu Fe 2. Convert -θ 0C ice 00C ice
Reading on any scale - lower fixed point Δl of Cu > Δl of Fe
1

= = constant change temperature of body change state of body Δ Q1=m1Sice θ 1

Upper fixed point - lower fixed point strip with higher value of will be on
convex side
1. ΔQ=ms Δ T 3. Convert 00C ice 00C water
S-specific heat capacity Melting Boiling
Δ Q2=m1Lf
EXPANSION OF CAVITY Δθ :mLf Δθ:mLv
THERMAL EXPANSION Joule
SIunit- Lv-Latent heat

S
J Kg-1K-1 Lf-Latent heat 4. Convert θ20C water 00C water
Area of hole increases body expands on Kg Kelvin of vapourisation
of fusion

C
A-LINEAR l
l
heating.Expansion of area of body is
l =l+ Δl

I
heat Δ Q3=m2Swater θ 2
independent of shape and size of hole 2. Swater= 1 cal = J = J
g0C 4.2 g0C 4200 kg0C
|

S
1. Δ.l= l Δ θ Δθ
J J

Y
cal
2. ll = l (1+ Δ θ) Lf=Lice=80 g =80 4.2 g =80 4200 kg Δ Q3=,>,or< Δ Q1+ Δ Q2
check

+
[or use Kelvin instead of 0C]

+
H
3. = Δ l unit / 0c or / k, dimension-K-1 SUPERFICIAL/AREA EXPANSION cal J J

P
Lv=Lsteam=540 g =540 4.2 g =540 4200 kg
lΔ θ Sice= 1 cal =2.1 J0 = 2100 J0

+
+
1.Δ A=Aβ Δ θ β -coefficant of area 2 g0C gC kg C
2.Al =A(1+βΔ θ) expansion Δ Q3> Δ Q1+ Δ Q2 Δ Q3< Δ Q1+ Δ Q2
Whatever be the change l1,
3.β = Δ A 1. Whole ice melts into water 1. Only m‛ g of ice melts
1
Δl unit / 0c or / k,dimension-[K-1]
in temperature, the A ΔT
difference in length l2, 2
4.β =2 2. Additional heat is used 2. Mass of ice melts can be
remains constant to increase the temperature found by
Δθ
HEAT CAPACITY of system from 0 0C m Lf=Q
l1 1=l2 l1‛, CUBICAL EXPANSION/VOLUME EXPANSION Heat supplied at constant rate

H
2 1
3. Final temperature can
Δl
Graph & equation Heat capacity=mass+ specific heat capacity 3. Final temperature is 00C

A
1. ΔV=V Δ θ be found out by

L
Unit= cal =>SI unit J
l2‛,

L
2
2. V =V(1+ Δθ) 0
C K Δ Q = MtotalSwaterT

A
3. = Δ V unit / 0c or /K where ΔQ additional heat
APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR EXPANSION VΔθ

W
k, dimension-[K-1] WATER EQUIVALENT
Pendulum clock : β : = 1:2:3
4. =3 CONVERSION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY TO HEAT ENERGY
Fact When temperature increases, time period The mass of water that will absorb
increases, clock runs slow msT1 mLf ms(T2-T1) mLv or lose as same quantity of heat as
Variation of density with temperature = t = = t 1. Potential energy to Heat energy
When temperature decreases, time period Δ t1 Δ 12 Δ t23 Δ 34 substance for the same changes in
decreases, clock runs fast Density 1 temperature Δ U=mgh= >Δ Q=m Lf
1) Loss of time in any given time interval t, Volume

Δt= 1 Δθ t V = V(1+ Δθ) if speecific heat is variable T2 mWsW=mbsb

w=water
b=body
When equaling multiply with 4200 for Δ Q (if Lf is in calorie
g )
2 ΔQ = ∫ msdT ie, mgh= m L + 4200
>
then = (1- Δθ) S=f(T) T1 T2 T1
f

2) Time lost by clock in a day 2. Kinetic energy to Heat energy

Δt= 1 Δθ t = 1 Δ θ 86400=43200 Δ θ K.E= 1 mv2 = > Δ Q=m Lf
2 2 ANOMALOUS EXPANSION OF WATER PRINCIPLE OF CALORIMETRY 2
if Lf is in calorie
1. Water has maximum density at 4 C (minimum volume)
O g
Cu glass Liquid Hot iron
Thermal Stress in a rigidly fixed rod 2. On heating, Fe phere then
0 OC 4OC water contracts Vessel
1 mv2
3. Graphs 4CO
above water expands m1 m2 m3 2
= >m Lf+ 4200
Δθ
Cu glass
l ll Vessel s1 s2 s3
Y-Young‛s Modulus HEAT TRANSFER
Thermal Stress=Y Δ θ
water T1 T2 T3 1. Conduction
Thermal Force=YA Δθ -coefficent of linear initial Heat flows from hot end to cold end, medium is necessary,
expansion
slow process
Δ θ -temperature change Heat lost by the hotter body = Heat gained by colder bodies ΔQ = Rate of flow of heat
A -Area of rod Q3=Q1+Q2 ΔQ Δθ Δt
=K A
Δt l A = Area of cross section
Final equilibrium temperature,
REAL AND APPARENT EXPANSION OF LIQUID Unit of ‘K‛= watt or watt
Δθ
ERROR IN SCALE READING DUE TO m1s1T1+m2s2T2+m3s3T3 ∑ msT metre0C metre K = Temperature gradient
EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION Teq= = ∑ l
1. ApparentExpansion of liquid Real expansion of liquid - m1s1+m2s2+m3s3 ms ‘K‛ depends on the nature of material K = coefficient of thermal
Expansion of solid in which liquid
Result (1) At θ‘>θ True value> Scale reading 2. Apparent change in volume conductivity
is contained
At θ‘<θ True value< Scale reading Facts :
1. Δ Vapparent=V0 apparent
Δθ Calorimeter -
True value= Scale reading (1+ Δ θ) 2. Δ Vapparent=V0 ) - ) Δθ -Real expansion of liquid A device in which

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

l s l
the measurement
3. Δ Vapparent=V0 ) l -3 s ) Δθ s -coefficent of linear expansion of heat can be
of solid done.
4. apparent= l -3 s
 OHM‛S LAW OF CONDUCTION CONVECTION
For ordinary body E= e σ T4 NEWTON‛S LAW OF COOLING
Requires a medium, actual movement of fluid,occus naturally or ΔQ = eA σ T4
Electrical Conduction e=emissivity EQUATION FOR PROBLEM SOLVING
Thermal Conduction forced. Δt

[( (- θ[
dq Natural convection takes place due to the effect of gravity -[ θ2- θ1 [ θ2 + θ1
1) current, I= dQ =K
dt 1) Heat current, H= Δt 2 0

dt In the presence of a surrounding

2) H= θ1- θ2 = Δθ Sea Breeze Land Breeze (T0) (black body)
2) I= ΔV ( ΔV= Vhigh-Vlow) θ0 θ0
R R R Wind blows from sea to land
Wind blows from land to sea θ1 Δt θ2
3) Thermal resistance, l during day time ΔQ =σ A (T4-T 4)
R = KA E= σ (T4-T04)
3) electrical resistance, R= l during night Δt 0
A
θ1> θ2
V -V (V -V ) =σ A (V1-V2) 4) H= θ1- θ2 = θ1- θ2 = KA (θ1- θ2(
4) I= 1 2 = 1 2 A R (l/KA) l RADIATION In the presence of a surrounding Δt=time
R l l
T0) (general body) θ surrounding temperature
5) Combination of conductors Absorptive, reflective and Transmitted power 0
5) Combination of resistors
ΔQ =σ eA (T4-T 4)

S
i) Series Combination Q Qr Q Energy absorbed E= σe (T -T0 )4 4

Absorptive power(a)= a =
0

C
i) Series Combination Δt

I
θ1 θ2 θ3 θn-1 θn Q Energy incident

S
Rn k1 k2 kn Qa

Y
R1 R2 Q Energy reflected
.........
Reflective power(r)= r = WIEN‛S LAW

H
l1 l2 ln Q Energy incident

P
Req=R1+R2+.......+Rn Qt Wien‛s displacement law

>
Q Energy transmitted 1
replace with resistors λm
Here ‘I‛ is same Transmitted power(t)= t = Eλ T
......... a+r+t=1 Q Energy incident

THERMAL PROPERTIES
R1 R2 λ mT =b
ii) Parallel Combination l1 l2
R 1= R2 = Find Req=R1+R2+........ b=Wien‛s constant
R1 K1A K2A EMISSIVE POWER/INTENSITY OF THERMAL RADIATION

H
From that find ‘Keq . ‛

A
Energy radiated Watt λm λ

L
[ [
R2 Here ‘H‛ is same Emissive power(E)= unit A

L
area+ time
4
m2 T
ii) Parallel Combination Hence 1 = 1

WA
Energy radiated Watt λ m T1=λ m T2 A2 T2
Rn θ1 θ2 Spectral emissive power(Eλ)= area+ time+ wavelength unit
m3 value- 2.89+ 10-3 mK
1 2
k1 A1 b
| Area =A= ∫E d λ=E= σ T4
-

λ
k2 A2 Relation between E & E λ=>E = ∫ [dimension]=[b]=LK

OF MATTER
0

1 = 1 + 1 +...... Eλ d λ
Req R1 R2 0

kn An EMISSIVITY (E)
θ1
l
θ2 “As the temperature of the body increases, the
Here (V1-V2) is same
=

Energy radiated by a general body wavelength at which the spectral intensity (E) is
e=
>

replace to resistors Energy radiated by a black body maximum shift towards left.”
R1 >0<e<1
value of e =
Eλ
l If e=0 , means general body radiates no energy
R2 R1 =
K1A1 If e=1 , it indicates a perfect black body T3
l T2 T1<T2<T3
R3 R2 =
K2A2
KIRCHHOFF‛S LAW λm1>λm2>λm3
T1
Find 1 = 1 + 1 +.... Ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is same
Req R1 R2 for all surfaces at the same temperature and is λ
λm3 λm2 λm1
from that find Keq equal to the emissive power of a perfectly balck
Here,Temp Difference same body at that temperature.
E1 E2 E =E
a1 = a2 =.........= A NEWTON‛S LAW OF COOLING
TEMPERATURE OF INTERMEDIATE JUNCTION Rate of cooling directly proportional to excess
STEFAN‛S LAW of temperature of the body
θ2 over that of surrounding.
I 1+ I 2 + I 3 = 0
k2,A Emissive power of a black body
θ1-θj θ2-θj θ3-θj fourth power of absolute temperature
θ1 θj l2 + + =0
R1 R2 R3 -dT
(T-T0)
E= σ T4 ΔQ = σ AT4 dt
,
l1 Δt T=Temperature of body
θ1 θ2 θ3
+ + Stefan‛s constant ΔQ Radiant power
T0=Temperature of surounding
R1 R2 R3 σ
Δt
k1,A l3 θ j=
1 + 1+1 value of σ 5.67+ 10-8 W/m2K4
k ,A
θ3 R1 R2 R3 Dimension [σ[ =MT-3K-4
3

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 Spontaneity
THERMOCHEMISTRY PHYSICS
WALLAH
STATE FUNCTION PATH FUNCTION
ENTHALPY
H = U + ngRT

ng = 0, H = U
Properties which depend only Depends on path or process. ng > 0, H > U
on initial and final state of system as well as initial and final state ng < 0, H < U
1) Heat of Reaction ( Hrxn.)
& do not depend on process or path of the system
All exothermic process are spontaneous

BOND ENERGY

THERMODYNAMICS
Hrxn.= Hproducts - Hreactants
e.g. U, H , S etc. e.g. work, heat

2) Heat of Formation
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES ENTROPY Heat Change in formation of 1 mole of substance at 298 K and 1 atm Pressure
(standard enthalpy of formation ) A + B C + D
1 3 Bond energy: a b c d
N2 + H2 NH3
Sgas > Sliquid > Ssolid 2 2
A + B C + D Hreaction= Bond energy of reactants - Bond energy of products

PHYSICS
EXTENSIVE INTENSIVE
a b c d = ( a + b) - ( c + d )
ENTROPY CHANGE

1) Isothermal NH3 = B.E = x

Properties which are dependent Hreaction= Heat of formation of products- Heat of formation of reactants
Properties which are independent V2 P1 B.E of N-H = x
S = nR ln = nR ln = ( c + d ) - ( a + b)
of matter (size & mass)present of matter(size & mass) present in V1 P2 3
in system system Standard enthalpy of formation ( 298 K, 1 atm) of element at it‛s standard CH4 = B.E = x
e.g. Mass, volume, Internal energy e.g. Pressure, temperature, 2) Isochoric ( P O T)
state is zero e.g., B.E of C-H = x
heat capacity, Entropy, Enthalpy Melting point, density,Specific heat T2 P2 4
S = nCv ln = nCv ln O2 (g) = 0 Cl2 (g) = 0 Br (g) = 0 Br2 (l) = 0
etc. Surface tension etc P1
T1

3) Isobaric
3) Enthalpy of Combustion (1 mole, 298 K )
WORK dm3or L
S = nCp ln
T2
T1
= nCp ln
V2
V1 (standard enthalpy of combustion )
W = P V = nRT
10-3 10-3 CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O ; H combustion

WALLAH
1 atm = 1.01 x 10 Pa Stotal > 0, Spontaneous
A B ; H1
5
P Pascal Cm3 m3
W =Joule 1 L atm = 101 J
V m3 Stotal = 0, Equilibrium A + B C + D
10-6 a b c d
B C ; H2
Stotal < 0, Non-spontaneous Enthalpy of
combustion:

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Hreaction= Heat of combustion of reactants - Heat of combustion of products
A C ; H3 =
= ( a + b) - ( c + d ) H1 + H2
GIBBS’S FREE ENERGY
G = H -T S
(Based on Law of conservation of energy) G < 0 Or (-)ve, Spontaneous A B ; H= x
U = q+ W 4) Heat of Neutralisation ( H = (-)ve)
G > 0 Or (+)ve, Non-spontaneous
G = 0 , Equilibrium
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O ; Hneutalisation
B A ; H = -x
A B ; H= x
S.A + S.B H = -13.7 k Cal = - 57 kJ

S.A + S.B > (S.A/ S.B + W.A/W.B)- > W.A+W.B ( Order of H neutralisation)
Equilibrium Temperature
SIGN CONVENTION nA nB ; H = nx
H
W(Compression) W(Expansion) Te =
S
(+)ve system (-)ve

q(Heating) q(Cooling)

Q = 0 ∆H ∆S ∆G = ∆H − T∆S Spontaneity. HESS' LAW OF CONSTANT

HEAT SUMMATION
Adiabatic process U = W

Insulated, Rapid process (-) (+) Always Negative Spontaneous at all temp
T= 0, U= 0
Isothermal process Q + W = 0 Non-spontaneous at all
Q =- W (+) (-) Always Positive temperature.
∆H1
FLOT V = 0 A B
Isochoric process W= 0
U = Qv=nCv T
+ve @ low temp. Spontaneous at T> Te
W= P V (+) (+)
Isobaric process
U = Q + W ∆H ∆H2
-ve @ high temp.
FREE Pext =0,W=0, U=0,q=0
-ve @ low temp. ∆H3
EXPANSION Isobaric
Spontaneous at low
ISOTHERMAL
P
(-) (-) D C
dT =0; U=0; q =–W temperature, T< Te
Reversible Isothermal Irreversible Isothermal Isothermal +ve @ high temp.
( ) [ ] ∆H = ∆H1 + ∆H2 + ∆H3
V2 Adiabatic
Wrev= nRTln Wirr=-Pext nRT nRT Isochoric
V1 P2 P1
V
 TIME PERIOD OF S.H.M SIMPLE PENDULUM
DIFFERENTIAL
1 2 3 4 5 6 l
EQUATION OF S.H.M
x T=2π
k g
k
ma= -kx
m
↑a F=-kx
l
mrel.
d 2x
F=-kx Liquid
H x T=2π k m = -kx
T=2π
m
Liquid
mrel=
m1m2
m1+m2
dt2
k
F=-kx F=-kx F=-kx m
T=2π d 2x -k x
=

OSCILLATIONS 01
m m m k+rHg
T=2π T=2π T=2π
k k k Second‛s pendulam dt 2 m
T=2 second
d 2x k
l=1 meter + x =0
dt m

PHYSICS
2

Concept of geffective
d 2x
l
+ w x =0
2
COMBINATIONS OF SPRINGS T=2π geff dt 2
SPECIAL CASE
k
Pendulum in lift w= 2 k w= m
m
Case 1-Moving up with constant acceleration ‘a‛
2) Parallel keq= k+2kcos2q
1) Series
k1 T1 k2 T2
geff=g+a
keq=
k1 k2 m keq= k1+k2
k
T=2π
m
keq ↑a A=Amplitude of SHM
k1+k2 l Φ =Initial phase difference

 
T=2π
T1 k1 m m eg: g+a 0

T=2π keq T=2π keq m m = 4. Kg

if q=120o,q=60o Case 2-Moving down with constant acceleration ‘a‛ Eg:
k k K = 320 N/m

WALLAH
TS2=T12+T22 1 1 1
T1 T2
k1
= + keq= k+2k=3k
4 d x + 320 x =0
2
Tp 2
T1 2
T2 2
4 2 geff=g-a
T2 k2 TS= T12+T22 k1 k2 ↑
2q T=2π
2m a dt2
3k
m T=2π
l
m g-a d 2x
+ 80 x =0
m dt2
k2 Case 3-Moving with constant velocity

CUTTING OF SPRINGS w =80

2
w= 80
↑ a=0
a
l
2p = 80
1 T=2π
ka k1L1=k2L2 g T
L
k k1 k2 Case 4-Free fall T= 2p
80
a=g
L L1 L2 geff=g-a=g-g=0 T
OSCILATION OF OSCILATION OF
LIQUID COLUMN FLOATING BODY L= L1+L2

kL kL Pendulum in a truck moving with

k1= k2= constant acceleration
L1 L2
H σ,m x
a
Liquid (r) k(L1+L2) k(L1+L2)
k2=
x

k1=
x

m L1 L2
T=2π rgA a geff= g2+a2
h g
σH
T=2π rg eg: T=2π
l
g2+a2
σ=Density of Body k
r=Density of liquid L1:L2:L3=1:2:3

PHYSICS
L Pendulam in Water
k(L1+L2+L3) k6
m k1= = = 6k
T=2π 2rgA L1 1

WALLAH
σ=Density of Bob
h
T=2π r=Density of liquid
g k6
k2= = 3k r
r=Density of liquid
2 geff=g 1- ( σ (
A=Area of U-tube k6 T=2π
l
k3= = 2k (
g 1-
r
σ (
3
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 PROJECTION OF CIRCULAR MOTION 1st Quadrant 2nd Quadrant
w
INITIAL PHASE FROM POSITION & DIRECTION
Start from mean position w
x=Asin(wt+Φ0) Start from extreme position
Φ
x=Asin(wt+Φ0)
0

x=Acos(wt+Φ0)
3rdQuadrant
x 1st Quadrant
w
>
w
> A
1) X= A =AsinΦ0
2 Φ
2 l 0

w x -A +A 2 2
1
1l
wt x=-A 2
x=0
2
x=+A t=0 Φ =30O= p6
-A 0
Φ
t=0 2 A
> 1) X= A =AcosΦ0
0

> p
x=Asin(wt+ 6 ) 2 2
4thQuadrant 2 Quadrant
nd

t=0 Φ =60O= p3
0

A
2) X= A =AsinΦ0 x=Acos(wt+ 3 )
p
A 2 2
Eg: Particle lies at x= [t=0] and move towards A
2
t=0 Φ =45O= p4
0
A
Projection/shadow of uniform circular motion in y axis is SHM 2) X= A =AcosΦ0

PHYSICS
p
x=Asin(wt+ 4 ) 2 2

> 1st Quadrant t=0 Φ =45O= p4

0
x=0 A x=A
3A 3A p
w 2 3) X=
2
=AsinΦ0 x=Acos(wt+ 4 )
2l
2
From 0 to A 2
t=0
Φ =60O= p3
1
1l
0

p
x=0 1l 2l x=A x=Asin(wt+ 3 )

x=0 A A 3A x=A
2 2 2

WALLAH
OSCILLATIONS 02 Velocity of SHM
Graphical Representation of Velocity

Start from mean position

x=Asin(wt+Φ0) Φ0 = 0
Start from extreme position
x=Acos(wt+Φ0) Φ0 = 0
x=Asin(wt+Φ0)
x
v=Awcos(wt+Φ0)
x
Graphical Representation of Displacement
v= w A -x
2 2

Two particles executing SHM meet at X= 3A

Start from mean position v=Awcos(wt+Φ0) v=-Awsin(wt+Φ0)
2
x=Asin(wt+Φ0), Φ0 = 0
Start from extreme position
x=Acos(wt+Φ0),Φ0 = 0
a) x=0 vmax=Aw
v

A 3A w
b) x= v= 2
2
for particle A w
A Aw v

X= 3A
3A
=AsinΦA B ΦB A c) x= v= 2
2 2 Φ A
2
p
t=0 Φ =60O= 3
A d) x= A v=0

Calculation of time
for particle B

PHYSICS
T T
3A A→ w
X= 3A =AcosΦB 12 6
2 2 q2

x=0 A x=A v2
→
B v1
t=0 p q1
4
Φ =30 = O

WALLAH
B
6 x=0 X= 3A x=A T
2 8
x=0 x1 x2
Phase difference x=0 A x=A
2
Φ=30o+30o=60o or 300o T T
V12x22-V22x12 V12-V22
A=
6 12
w=
3A
q1-q2 x=0 x=A V12-V22 x22-x12
∆q
)T
∆t= =
) 2
w 2p

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 Acceleration of SHM Graphical Representation of Acceleration
Calculation of Time period
v Start from mean position Start from extreme position
x=Asin(wt+Φ0) and amplitude v=Awcos(wt+Φ0), Φ0 = 0

<
v=-Awsin(wt+Φ0), Φ0 = 0
p p
v=Awcos(wt+Φ0) vmax=Aw amax=Aw2 v v
2 2
a=-Aw2sin(wt+Φ0) amax vmax2
w= v A= a
amax=-Aw2

PHYSICS
a< x
< max
max
a=-Aw2cos(wt+Φ0)
2p amax a=-Aw sin(wt+Φ0)
2

p =
Phase difference between x and v= T vmax
2 a

Phase difference between v and a=

p vmax
2 T =2p a
max
Phase difference between x and a= p

WALLAH
Energy of SHM
OSCILLATIONS

T.E

K.E P.E

1) x= A
1 1
K.E= mv2 = mw2(A2-x2) 2
2 2 E
K.E=P.E=
1 mw2A2 2 -A A
KE=0 KEmax= 2
A A
KE=0 2 2
A
03

2) x=
x=-A x=0 x=A 2
P.E= E
1 mw2A2
K.E= 3E Total mechanical energy(E) =
1 4 4 2
P.E= mw2x2
2
3) x=0 Note: In SHM, if particle oscilate with
1
PEmax= mw2A2
2
PE=0 PEmax= 1 mw2A2
2
frequency w, then the K.E & P.E oscilate
K.E= E P.E=0
x=-A x=0 x=A
with 2 w
1 mw2A2 4) x=A
Total mechanical energy =
2 K.E= 0 P.E=E

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 Classification of waves
Waves According to Classification of waves based on vibration of particles All travelling wave satisfy a differential
wave is a disturbance which propagates equation called wave equation.
energy and momentum from one place to Necessity of medium Energy propagation Dimension Vibration of particles Transverse waves Longitudinal waves
another without the transport of medium. Mechanical Progressive Transverse
waves waves
One Dimensional
waves
Particles of the medium vibrates in a
direction perpendicular to the direction
Particles of the medium vibrates in the
direction of wave motion.
d
_y = _
2
1 d_y
2

The medium should have elasticity, of propagation of wave.

Particles of the medium.
dx ν dt2
2 2

inertia and uniform density Non-mechanical Stationary Two Dimensional Longitudinal V

waves(EMW) waves waves
Characteristics of Wave v
Three Dimensional
can travel in
=> The particles of the medium are executing vacuum
simple harmonic motion. dy _ dy
_ =- ω + _
=> The phase of vibration of the particle keep dt k dx
on changing. A Transverse wave on a string Longitudinal wave in a fluid

S
=> Wave carries energy and momentum. It travels in the form of crests (C) and It travels in the form of compression Velocity of particle=-Velocity wave+ Slope of the graph

I C
troughs (T). (C) and rarefaction (R).
=> The velocity of the particle is not equal to

S
velocity of wave. C C Maximum C R C R CR

Y
pressure and
density

H
velocity of particle Acceleration Intensity of wave

P
T T Minimum of particle
Equation of progressive wave _Energy
Important Terms Transverse waves can be transmitted These waves can be transmitted through I = time+ Area = 2π ν a ρ ν
2 2 2
through solids,they can be setup on the solids,liquids and gases because for a=w y
V=w A2-y2
2

surface of liquids.But they can not be these waves propagation,volume

(i) y=A sin(ωt-kx) The general equation of a plane progressive wave with initial phase is amax=w2A
A Amplitude ν Frequency transmitted through liquids and gases. elasticity is necessary. Vmax=wA P
2π x) Displacement Oscillating term C C C C C C I=4_
π r2 I a ν2 a2
(ii) y=A sin(ωt- _ Amplitude
phase wave length T Time period
If vmax of the particle = n x vof wave


R
[
(iii) y=A sin 2π _t -_ x T T R
[


T y(x,t)=a sin(ωt + - 0/0)

- kx + Transverse-wave in a rod Longitudinal wave in a rod
2π (ν t-x)
(iv) y=A sin _ ω Angular frequency K Wave Constant
n= 2πA
PHYSICS
Angular frquency Initial phase Medium should posses the property of Medium should posses the property of
wA=n x l

H
x
(v) y=A sin ω (t- _
(
2π or 2π ν 2π
K= _
rigidity elasticity
2πA= n x l
l
ν Direction ω =_

A
T Transverse waves can be polarised Longitudinal waves can not be polarised l= 2πA

WALLAH

L
Propagation n

L
Movement of string of a sitar or violin, Sound waves travel through air,vibration
A= nl

WA
movement of the membrane of a tabla or of air column in organ pipes vibration of
Dholak,movement of kink on a rope,waves air column above the surface of water in 2π

WAVES
set-up on the surface of water. the tube of resonance apparatus.

1
Rate of Energy Transmission Rate of an power Transmission Case 2 Case 4 Factors affecting velocity of sound
dK = _
_ dU= _
1 μ Vω2A2 1 μ Vω2A2
_ → Temp
2 → Pressure → Density
dt dt 4 massive mass of string m
string Velocity at any Point • Velocity of sound in air Vα 1 V=
is independent of pressure m
velocity at bottom
V= gx V1 ρ2 V1 T1
Velocity of Transmission wave in a string. M
Mg
V1 = μ
V2
=
ρ1 V2
=
T2
Time taken to reach the pulse at Top V1 _
_ M
velocity at Top = 1 = _
l x V2 2 M+m
T=2 _
l
g g Temp Cofficient(α)
V2= (M+m)
μ
Increase in velocity of sound for 1oC
M or 1K rise in temperature of gas
T M-Mass of block
V= _ T=Mg
Velocity of Longitudual Wave m/s
μ
m m-mass of string Value of α =0.608
μ= _ o
C
T
_ l ρ-density of material Case 3 =0.61
V= ρπr2 μ= ρA of string E
V= _
ρ (E=Elasticity of the medium; ρ=density of the medium)
V1 _T r2 Time taken to reach the pulse at top Humidity
_ = T1 _
V r1 (1) As solids are most elastic while gases least i.e. ES>EL>EG. So
+

Humidity ↑
2

Velocity, v= T
the velocity of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in gases
massless μ Speed of sound ↑
Case 1 string
Sound travels faster in moist air
Velocity Sound (air) C than in dry air
l l μ γ= P
Time taken, t= = l CV
v T T P _ Newton
V= _
ρ
μ Mono atomic γ= 5/3 Relation between △X and △Φ
[ γ= 7/5
[ diatomic
△Φ= 2π △X
ρ
T=Mg 1- _ ρ-density of the liquid P γ _ Laplace
M
_
T= Tension in the string V= _
ρ
-density of the material l
_ρ
μ-Linear mass density of μ= Linear mass density
[ ρ
_
[
Mg 1- the string
V= _
μ
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 Wave combination of string Echo
Reflection of Mechanical waves
1) From rarer to denser medium 2) From rarer to denser medium
Source
Incident wave
Incident wave
-x +x -x +x
Reflection from rigid end/denser medium→ Phase change by π Rigid boundary Free boundary Observer d

Transverse
Source at distance “d” from screen
wave Rarer Denser
t= dv + dv = 2d
v
Reflection from free end/rarer medium→ No phase change
Reflected wave Transmitted wave
Persistance of hearing for
human ear is o.1 sec

S
Conditions for echo:

I C
if t > 0.1 ⇒ 2d > 0.1 ⇒ d > v
v

S
Transmitted wave 20

H Y
Reflected wave

P
Principle of superposition
The displacement at any time due to number of waves meeting simulatoneously at a point in a medium is the Incident wave y1= a1 sin(ωt-k1x) Incident wave yi= aisin(ωt-k1x)
vector sum of individual displacements due each one of the waves at that point of same time
Reflected wave yr= ar sin(ωt-k1(-x)+π) Reflected wave yr= ar sin(ωt-k1(-x)+0)
Superposition = -ar sin(ωt+k1x) = ar sin(ωt+k1x)
Transmitted wave yt= atsin(ωt-k2x) Transmitted wave yt= atsin(ωt-k2x)

A H
Interference Beat Standing wave

L
PHYSICS

L
• Constructive • In a string

A
• Destructive • In an open pipe
Beats:-
WALLAH

W
• In a closed pipe
sound waves travelling in same medium with slightly different frequencies
superimpose on each other.
r4π2
The intensity of resultant sound at particular position rises and falls regularly
Interference of sound wave with time.

WAVES
I1 a1 2 Imax (a1 + a2)2 ( I1 + I 2)2
= = = The phenomenon of variation of intensity of sound with time at a particular
Condition:- a2 Imin
I2 (a1 - a2)2 ( I1 - I 2)2 position is called beats.
•Two waves of same frequency, same wavelength, same velocity Point to remember:-
•Resultant intensities will be different from the sum of intensities 1) One beat:-
of each wave seperately i) For Constructive interference:-
•This is due to the interference of waves

y1= a1 sin ωt, y2= a2 sin(ωt + ϕ)

ϕ-Phase difference between two waves

y=y1+y2 ⇒ y= A sin(ωt + θ)
ϕ = O, 2 , 4

Imax = I1 + I2 +2 I1I2
, ---, 2
x=O, λ, 2λ, --- , nλ , when n= 0, 1, ---

= ( I1 + I2) = (A1+A2)
2 2
n when n = 0, 1 , 2, ---
Maximum intensity
(at t=0)

Becomes minimum
intensity
 One beat is formed

A= a12+a22+2a1a2cosϕ ii) For Destructive interference:-

a2sinϕ when ϕ=π, 3π, 5π, --- (2n-1)π ; where n=1,2,3,---
tanθ=
a1+a2cosϕ Again acheives
3
x= _ , _ _ maximum
, (2n-1) 2 , where,n=1,2,3,-----
2 2
Intensity A2
A2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cos ϕ Imin=I1+I2-2 I1I2 Beat period:-
Time interval between two sucessive beats (ie.two sucessive maximum of sound)
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos ϕ => Imin=( I1- I2)2 (A1-A2)2 is called beat period.

2
Beat frequency:-
No.of beats produced per second
Beat frequency:-
n= n1- n2

Beat period:- T= 1 = n 1n
Beat frequency 1 - 2

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 Determination of Unknown Frequency Frequency Increasing Resonance tube experiment
End correction:-
Let n2 is the unknown frequency of tuning fork B, and this tuning fork B produce x beats per 1 l - 3l
e= _ (
(
second with another tuning fork of known frequency n1.
As number of beat/sec is equal to the difference in frequencies of two sources, therefore n2 = n1 ± x
2 2 1

By loading By filing
3
_
_ l2+e =
l l1 +e= 4 5
_
If B is loaded with wax so its frequency decreases If B is filed, its frequency increases
4 l3+e =
     4
?) A Source of unknown frequency produces 4 beat/s when sounded with a

S
source of Known frequency 250 Hz. The second harmonic of the source n..................4 3 2 1

I C
of unknown frequency gives 5 beat/s when Sounded with a source of
frequency 513 Hz. The unknown frequency is?

S
 th
=  + (n-1) 

Y
n 1
a) 254 Hz b) 246 Hz c) 240 Hz d) 260 Hz

P H
Solution:
7 λ
_
l4+e =
4

PHYSICS
254 508 5 be
at
250 513

WALLAH
t
246 492 bea
21

Hence unknown frequency is 254 Hz

A L L A H
Standing Waves:

WAVES

W
Octave: The tone whose frequency is double the fundamental frequency is defined as Octave.

3
•When two progressive waves (both longitudinal and transverse) having same amplitude, time
period,frequency moving along a straight line in opposite direction a superpose a new wave is (i) If n2 = 2n1 it means n2 is an octave higher than n1 or n1 is an octave lower than n2.
formed. It is called stationary Or standing wave.

y=2a sin(kx) cos(ωt) (ii) If n2 = 23n1 it means n1 is 3-octave higher or n1 is 3-octave lower.
String (n+1) → node
= n T l= n x
l (iii) Similarly if n2 = 2nn1, it means n2 is n-octave higher n1 is n octave lower.
2l  2 n → antinode
1:2:3

Unison: If the two frequencies are equal then vibrating bodies are said
Relation between loudness and intensity
y=2a cos(kx) sin(ωt)
to be in unison.
(n+1) → antinode

Open pipe = n l= n x
l n → node
L log10 Intensity I0=10-12W/m2
2l  2 Resonance: The phenomenon of making a body vibrate with it‛s natural frequency under the
influence of another vibrating body with the same frequency is called resonance.
1:2:3
unit(dB) unit W/m2
Comparative Study of Stretched Strings, Open Organ Pipe and Closed Organ Pipe
I0=Threshold intensity
I
y=2a sin(kx) cos(ωt)
dB=10+ log10 Δ L = change in loudness
Closed pipe n=1,3,5....
S . NO Parameter Stretched string Open organ pipe Closed organ pipe I0
= n
2l 
l= n x
l
4 Fundamental frequency or v v v
Δ I = change in intensity
1 1st harmonic
n1 =
2l
n1 =
2l
n1 =
4l

I1
2
Frequency of n2 = 2n1 n2 = 2n1
L1=10+ log10 I1 L1
or 2nd harmonic 1 overtone
st 1 overtone
st
Missing
I0
Note
3
n3 = 3n1 n3 = 3n1 n3 = 3n1
I2 I2 L2
L2=10+ log10
Frequency of
or 3rd harmonic 2nd overtone 2nd overtone 1st overtone
Distance between two adjacent node & antinode is
2 I0

[
Frequency ratio of
Distance between two adjacent node & antinode is 4 [(
( II
2:3:4..... 2:3:4..... 3:5:7.....

( II
4 overtones (
Phase difference between 2 particle at both sides of node is 180 o
Frequency ratio of
L2-L1=10 log 2
-log 1

or
5 harmonics
1:2:3:4..... 1:2:3:4..... 1:3:5:7..... 0 0

( II
Strain and pressure is maximum at node and minimum at antinode 6 Nature of waves
Transverse
stationary
Longitudinal
stationary
Longitudinal
stationary Δ L =10 log 2
(
1

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 Case 8
Doppler Effect Case 4 (source approaching a stationary wall)
(source is stationary, listener is moving
Whenever there is a relative motion between a source
of sound and the listener, the apparent frequency of sound away from the source)
heard by the listener is different from the actual VS

S
frequency of sound emitted by the source.

C
V+V

I
VS=0 l= _s 

S
VL
V-Vs

Y
General equation

P H
(when both source & listener are moving)
V-V
(
l= _L 
(
VL VS V Case 9
(V- V +
l= _L
( (source is moving away from stationary wall)
V+
- VS Sound
Case 5
Case 1 (source is moving away from the listener,
(listener is stationary & source is approaching the listener) listener is stationary)

L A H
( V+V

L
VL=0
VL=0 V-V (
l= _S 

W A
VS

( (
V
( ( S
l= _  l= _V
V- VS V+ VS

Case 10
Case 2
Case 6 VS

(The source is stationary & listener is approaching the source) x

(source and listener moving in same direction) )θ

( V-V
VS COS θ
1

1= _
L θ2 COS ( 
V+V COS θ1
VL=0 y
s

V+VL
_
z

l= 
V+Vs
V+VL
(
l= _
( θ2 VL

V 

)
VL VS
Case 3 Case 11
(source & listener are approaching each other)
( V+V
VS (
θ2 COS
Case 7 )θ
x
l= _
L
V-V COS θ1

s
VL
1
VS COS θ
(source and listener moving in opposite direction)
y x
_
z COS θ1=
VL x2+y2
VS y
_
θ2 VL COS θ2=
x2+y2
VS

)
(V+V (
l= _L 
( V-V
l= _L
( 
V-Vs V+V s

 
PHYSICS
WAVES
A
B
(V-V
(V+V Beat(Δ) =lB-lA
4
( ( 2VL
Note:  = _L   = _L 
WALLAH
l l
A V B V
 [V+V -V+V ] Δ= _
VL = V
V L L

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