Here’s a detailed summary of Photosynthesis along with the full Unit 4 topics for Edexcel A-Level
Biology.
Photosynthesis: Detailed Notes
1. Overview of Photosynthesis
Definition: Photosynthesis is the process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy in
glucose. It occurs in chloroplasts of plant cells.
General Equation
(!)
• Endothermic reaction (requires energy).
• Occurs in chloroplasts, specifically in the thylakoid membranes and stroma.
2. Structure of the Chloroplast
• Thylakoids: Contain chlorophyll, the pigment that absorbs light.
• Grana: Stacks of thylakoids where the light-dependent reaction occurs.
• Stroma: Fluid-filled space where the light-independent reaction (Calvin cycle) takes
place.
3. Stages of Photosynthesis
Stage 1: Light-Dependent Reaction (LDR) (in Thylakoids)
Key Steps:
1. Light absorption
• Chlorophyll absorbs light → Excites electrons.
• Electrons move through the electron transport chain (ETC).
2. Photolysis of Water
• Water splits into O₂, protons (H⁺), and electrons.
• (!)
• Oxygen diffuses out as a waste product.
3. ATP Production (Photophosphorylation)
• Excited electrons travel down ETC.
• Energy pumps protons (H⁺) into thylakoid space → Creates proton gradient.
• H⁺ diffuses back via ATP synthase → ATP is made.
4. NADP Reduction
• Electrons combine with H⁺ and NADP⁺ → Forms NADPH (used in Calvin cycle).
Products of LDR:
ATP (provides energy for Calvin cycle).
NADPH (provides H⁺ and electrons for Calvin cycle).
O₂ (waste product).
Stage 2: Light-Independent Reaction (Calvin Cycle) (in Stroma)
Key Steps:
1. Carbon Fixation
• CO₂ combines with RuBP (5C) → Forms two 3C molecules of GP.
• Catalyzed by enzyme RuBisCO.
2. Reduction
• GP → TP (Triose Phosphate) using ATP and NADPH.
3. Regeneration of RuBP
• Some TP is converted back to RuBP using ATP.
• The rest forms glucose & organic molecules (e.g., starch, lipids).
Products of Calvin Cycle:
Glucose (used in respiration & storage).
RuBP regenerated for the cycle to continue.
Uses ATP & NADPH from LDR.
4. Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
1. Light Intensity
• Increases rate of LDR (more ATP & NADPH produced).
• Too high → Chlorophyll gets damaged.
2. CO₂ Concentration
• Affects Calvin cycle (carbon fixation).
• Optimum ~0.04% CO₂.
3. Temperature
• Affects enzyme activity (RuBisCO, ATP synthase).
• Above 30°C → Photorespiration increases, reducing efficiency.
• Above 45°C → Enzymes denature.
4. Water Availability
• Needed for photolysis.
• Low water → Stomata close → Less CO₂ intake.
5. Adaptations in Plants
C3 Plants (Normal Photosynthesis)
• Example: Wheat, rice, trees
• Use Calvin cycle normally.
C4 Plants (Hot & Sunny Conditions)
• Example: Maize, sugarcane
• Store CO₂ in mesophyll cells to avoid photorespiration.
• More efficient in high temperatures.
CAM Plants (Desert Plants)
• Example: Cactus, pineapples
• Stomata open at night to take in CO₂ and store it for daytime.
• Reduces water loss.
Unit 4 Full Summary (Including Photosynthesis & Microbiology)
1. Energy Flow & Ecosystems
• Trophic levels & food webs.
• Energy transfer (GPP, NPP, efficiency calculations).
2. Nutrient Cycles
• Carbon cycle (photosynthesis, respiration, combustion).
• Nitrogen cycle (N-fixation, nitrification, denitrification).
3. Succession & Conservation
• Primary vs. secondary succession.
• Human impacts & conservation strategies.
4. Climate Change & Its Effects
• Greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄).
• Effects (biodiversity loss, sea level rise).
• Solutions (renewable energy, reforestation).
5. Evolution & Speciation
• Natural selection & genetic drift.
• Allopatric & sympatric speciation.
6. Microbiology
Microbial Growth
• Conditions (temperature, pH, oxygen).
• Bacterial growth curve (lag, log, stationary, death).
• Serial dilution & viable counts.
Aseptic Techniques
• Flaming inoculation loop, disinfecting surfaces.
• Streak plate & pour plate methods.
Antibiotics & Resistance
• Bactericidal (kills) vs. Bacteriostatic (stops growth).
• Antibiotic resistance (MRSA, plasmids, mutations).
• Prevention (stewardship, combination therapy).
Exam Tips
Use diagrams for LDR, Calvin cycle, and nutrient cycles.
Practice past paper questions (especially calculations).
Revise core practicals (microbial growth, photosynthesis).
Understand adaptations (C3, C4, CAM plants).
