Cells

HAVE YOU EVER

WONDERED…
• what your skin and hair
would look like if they were
magnified?
• why plants are green but
humans are not?
• why animals need a
skeleton but plants
do not?

After completing this chapter students should be able to:

• recall that cells are the basic units of living things • recall that some organisms consist of a single cell
• use a light microscope to examine a variety of cells • describe the specialised cells and tissues involved
• distinguish plant cells from animal or fungal cells in structure and function of particular organs
• identify structures within cells and describe their • explain that mitosis is the type of cell division
functions used for growth and repair.

39
 Making things bigger
2.1
Sometimes people wear glasses to
help them to see clearly. Even if you
have very good eyesight, some things
in our world are so small or so far
away that you will need help to see
them. Astronomers use telescopes to
observe distant stars or details of the
surface of the Moon and planets.
Binoculars help bird watchers identify
birds high in a tree. Using
microscopes, scientists can see things
that are invisible to the naked eye.

science fun
It looks different! @LZ
Do this …
What can you see using a magnifying glass Use the magnifying glass to look at familiar things around
that you could not see before? you. Some suggestions are your fingerprint, the hairs on
the back of your hand or arm, soft leaves, soil, an ant and
Collect this … pictures from a newspaper.
• magnifying glass
Record this …
Describe what you could see with the magnifying glass
that you could not see with your naked eye.
Explain why you were able to see things differently.

40 PEARSON science
Microscopes The type of microscope used in schools and many
laboratories is a light microscope. Light from a mirror
Small things need to be magnified or made bigger or a lamp passes through a specimen or object. The
so that they become visible to us. Scientists use specimen being looked at must be very thin so that the
microscopes to do this. Objects that can only be seen light can pass through it easily. The light then passes
using a microscope are described as microscopic. through a series of lenses that cause the specimen to
Microscopes allowed scientists to see the tiny building appear bigger. What you see through the microscope is
blocks that make up living things and to see for the first called the image. You will probably use a microscope
time microscopic living things such as bacteria. Figure like the one shown in Figure 2.1.2. This is a monocular
2.1.1 compares the detail you can see with and without a light microscope (monocular microscope) because
microscope. it has only one eyepiece or ocular lens. Many light
microscopes have two eyepieces or ocular lenses. They
are binocular microscopes.

Eyepiece or ocular lens Coarse focus

magnifies the image knob
used to focus
the image on
low power

Objective lens
magnifies the image

Fine focus
knob
used to
focus the
image on
high power
Stage
where the
specimen is
placed

Mirror or lamp Handle

directs light up through the for carrying the
stage and specimen microscope

Figure This photograph shows how 1

2.1.2 the parts of a microscope are p46
organised.

2.1

Stereo microscopes
When you hear music in stereo or see an image in
stereo, it means that the information is coming from
two different directions. Using a stereo microscope is
Figure In the picture on the top, you can see the baby’s
2.1.1 like having two monocular microscopes joined together,
hair and scalp, but a microscope can show so
much more than your naked eye can. Using a with each one focusing on the same point but from
very powerful microscope, you can see single different angles. The image you see is therefore in three
hairs surrounded by skin cells of the scalp. dimensions.

Cells 41
 Table 2.1.1 Comparison of types of light microscope

Monocular or binocular Stereo microscope

microscope
Provides a two-dimensional Provides a three-
image of the specimen. dimensional image of the
specimen.

Maximum magnification about Maximum magnification

×1000. about ×100.

When viewed through the When viewed through the

microscope, the image microscope, the image
appears to move in the appears to move in the
opposite direction to the same direction as the
actual movement. actual movement.

Light passes through the Light reflects off the

specimen. specimen.

Specimen is placed on a Specimen can be

slide. May be complete anything—no preparation
objects such as microscopic is required.
organisms or fibres. However,
specimens are frequently a
very thin slice.

When the specimen is sliced, Provides a view of the

it provides a view of the inner surface of the specimen.
structure of the specimen.

Shows colour of the original Shows colour of the

Figure Stereo microscopes give a realistic 3D view of specimen; however, stains or original specimen
2.1.3 the specimen. The distance between the dyes can be used to increase
the contrast between parts.
specimen and the objective lens also leaves
room for scientists to work on the specimen.

Magnification
The light source for stereo microscopes may be lamps The magnification of the microscope tells you how
or reflected light from the Sun. Light shining onto much bigger the image is than the real object. If the
the specimen is reflected back up through the lenses microscope has a magnification of ×10, then the image
to create the image. Light does not pass through the is ten times bigger than the actual object. (The symbol ×
specimen, and therefore the specimen does not have to stands for magnified by.)
be thinly sliced or prepared in any other way. This means
that anything can be placed under a stereo microscope.
The distance between the objective lens and the
specimen is much greater than in a monocular or
Calculating magnification
binocular microscope. This means that you can work on The microscope in Figure 2.1.2 on page 41 has
two lenses—the eyepiece or ocular lens, and
the specimen as you are viewing it. This gives the stereo
the objective lens. Both lenses magnify the
microscope its other name of dissecting microscope. A
specimen. To calculate the total magnification,
dissection is when a scientist cuts apart a dead plant or
you multiply the magnification of the ocular lens
animal to study it. Scientists can carry out dissections by the magnification of the objective lens. Some
while they are looking through the microscope: the examples are shown in Table 2.1.2.
scientist in Figure 2.1.3 is dissecting a plant.
Table 2.1.2 Calculation of common magnifications
When you move a specimen under a stereo microscope
the image moves in the same way. That is, you move Ocular lens Objective Calculation
magnification lens and total
the specimen to the right and the image also moves to
magnification magnification
the right.
× 10 ×4 × 10 × 4 = × 40
Table 2.1.1 compares monocular or binocular × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = × 100
microscopes with stereo microscopes.
× 10 × 40 × 10 × 40 = × 400

42 PEARSON science
 Discovering bacteria

SciFile
As the magnification increases, then the amount of the The 17th century Dutch scientist
specimen you can see (the field of view) gets smaller. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
discovered bacteria by observing the
The maximum magnification achieved by light
plaque from between his own teeth
microscopes is about ×1000. At this under a microscope.
magnification some of the largest bacteria are
2
just visible. p47
Table 2.1.3 Comparison of TEM and SEM
The magnification of stereo microscopes is
lower than in monocular or binocular microscopes, with TEM SEM
×100 the usual maximum magnification. Specimen is a very thin Specimen can be anything.
slice. No need to slice.

Very small measurements Electrons pass through Electrons reflect off the surface
the specimen. of the specimen.
Units like metres (m) or centimetres (cm) are normally
used to describe your height, and centimetres or Provides a view of the Gives greatly magnified views
inner structure of the of objects (e.g. insects, leaf
millimetres (mm) to describe the diameter of a coin or specimen (e.g. a cell). surface, bacteria).
the length of a pin. However, it is difficult to measure
Image is black and white Image is black and white but
the diameter of the full stop at the end of a sentence but can be coloured to can be given false colour using
because a full stop is less than one millimetre in increase contrast. computers.
diameter. You will either have to estimate the size of the
full stop as a fraction of a millimetre, or use a smaller
unit. Many of the objects observed using a microscope Scanning
are smaller than the full stop and so must be measured electron
in units smaller than a millimetre. microscope
image
A micrometre (µm) is one-thousandth of a millimetre,
or one-millionth of a metre. It is the unit most often
used by scientists to measure microscopic objects.

Electron microscopes
Light
Electron microscopes are much more powerful than
microscope
light microscopes. You can see this in Figure 2.1.4. image
Electron microscopes use beams of tiny particles called
electrons instead of light, and they are able to magnify
up to a million times. There are two types of electron Figure
microscopes: transmission electron microscopes (TEM) 2.1.4
and scanning electron microscopes (SEM). Table 2.1.3
compares these two types of microscopes. Light microscopes and scanning electron microscopes
provide very different images of the same cells.

Converting units Table 2.1.4 Converting units of length

of length Unit of length Convert by To
Scientists use many units of length Kilometres (km) × 1000 Metres (m)
and often have to convert one to Metres (m) × 100 Centimetres (cm)
the other. In the metric system, Centimetres (cm) × 10 Millimetres (mm)
these conversions are carried out Millimetres (mm) × 1000 Micrometres (μm)
by multiplying or dividing by a
Metres (m) ÷ 1000 Kilometres (km)
factor of ten such as 10, 100 or
Centimetres (cm) ÷ 100 Metres (m)
1000. Table 2.1.4 shows you how
to make some conversions. Millimetres (mm) ÷ 10 Centimetres (cm)
Micrometres (μm) ÷ 1000 Millimetres (mm)

Cells 43
 2.1 Unit review

Remembering 13 Calculate the total magnification in the following

examples.
1 Name the lenses found in a light microscope.
Ocular lens Objective lens
2 Recall the units used to measure microscopic
objects. a ×4 ×10

3 Recall what happens to the field of view as the b ×10 ×100

magnification used increases.
c ×4 ×40
4 Name two different types of:
14 The image of the specimen shown in Figure 2.1.5
a light microscope
was obtained using a magnification of ×40. Apply
b electron microscope. your knowledge of magnification to draw a picture
of the image magnified ×80.
Understanding
5 Explain why people examining a crime scene might Figure
use a magnifying glass as they search for clues. 2.1.5

6 Define the following terms.

a microscopic
b specimen
c image
7 Describe what happens to the image seen in a
×40
monocular microscope when the slide is moved:
a to the left
b to the right
c downwards. Analysing
8 Explain why the specimen prepared for a 15 Use the information in Figure 2.1.6 to compare the
monocular microscope must be very thin. size of a human cheek cell, a fat cell, a red blood cell
and a white blood cell.
9 Describe how to calculate the magnification of a
microscope.
cheek cell
10 Explain why there is more detail in an image
white blood cell
produced using a TEM than in the image from a
light microscope.

fat cell
Applying
11 Calculate the numbers missing from the following
red blood cell
unit conversions.
a 5 cm = mm
b 8000 µm = mm
c 1m= µm 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
micrometres (μm)
12 Calculate how many micrometres are in
3 millimetres.
Figure
2.1.6

44 PEARSON science
16 Compare the way the electrons move to produce the
images in a SEM and a TEM.
Creating
20 Construct a table that lists the parts of the
17 Compare the way that specimens are prepared for a
microscope and summarises the functions of each
stereo microscope and a monocular microscope.
part.
18 Compare the image seen using a stereo microscope
with the image created with a SEM.
Inquiring
Evaluating 1 Research microscopes and state the maximum
19 a Identify the type of microscope that most likely magnification that can be achieved by different
produced the image shown in Figure 2.1.7. types.
b Justify your answer. 2 Research electron microscopes and state when the
first one was built and who built it.
3 Investigate ways that electron microscopes are used
in a variety of workplaces.
4 Use available resources to research and describe
Figure an electron.
2.1.7

Cells 45
 2.1 Practical activities

Preparing a wet mount sample

1 Place a drop of water onto the specimen on
the microscope slide. If a stain is being used,
then it can be added to the drop of water at
this stage.
2 Gently lower a thin glass cover slip onto it as
shown in Figure 2.1.8. drop of water
Figure
3 Soak up any excess water or stain with a 2.1.8
piece of filter paper or tissue.

1 Getting to know the microscope 4 Slowly move the slide containing the newsprint to
the left, and record which way the image appears to
Before starting this activity, make sure that you have
move.
read and understood the Skill Builders ‘Preparing a wet
mount’ and ‘Using a microscope’ at the top of these 5 Record how the image moves when the slide is
pages. moved to the right, away from and towards you.
6 Increase the magnification and then observe the
Purpose news print again.
To make a wet mount and view it using a monocular or
Results
binocular microscope.
For two different magnifications:
Materials
1 Sketch what you see in a field of view.
• monocular
2 Record the magnification used.
microscope SAFETY
• microscope lamp (if Cover slips and 3 Count how many letters fit in the field of view.
needed) microscope slides Discussion
• a section of newspaper break easily. Treat them
containing small print with care. 1 Recall whether the letter ‘e’ was the same way up as
on the newsprint, or upside down.
• eye-dropper
2 Recall how the letters in the specimen appeared to
• glass microscope slide
move by copying the following sentence into your
• cover slip notebook and filling in the blanks as you go.
Procedure When I moved the slide to the right, the letters
1 Cut out a small section (1 cm × 1 cm) of newspaper appeared to move to the ____. Moving the slide
with small print. Make sure that there is a letter ‘e’ in towards me seemed to make the letters move ____
the section. from me. Then, when I moved the slide away from
2 Use the newspaper to prepare a wet mount slide me, the letters moved ____ me. Every time I moved the
by following the procedure described in the Skill slide, the letters seemed to go in the ____ direction.
Builder above. 3 State how many letters fitted into the field of view at
3 Set the microscope to the lowest magnification and each magnification.
focus the image of the newsprint. Try to get the letter 4 Explain the relationship between the field of view
‘e’ into the field of view. and the amount of the specimen that can be seen.

46 PEARSON science
 Using a microscope
1 Place the slide on the stage and secure it using the clips. Eyepiece

2 Adjust the mirror or diaphragm so that the maximum

amount of light is passing through the slide. Coarse and
Objective
lens
3 Select the objective lens with the lowest magnification. fine focus
knobs
4 Looking at the microscope from its side, adjust the
coarse focusing knob to bring the stage and objective Stage
lens as close as possible to each other.
5 Looking through the eyepiece, turn the coarse focusing
knob so that the stage and objective lens move further Diaphragm
apart. (under stage)

6 Keep doing this until the specimen is in focus.

7 Adjust the fine focusing knob to sharpen the focus on Lamp
the specimen.
8 If you miss the point of focus, go back to step 4 and Figure
start again. 2.1.9

2 I can see more!

Before starting this activity, make sure that you Procedure
have read and understood the Skill Builder ‘Using a 1 Observe a small specimen of each item under the
microscope’ above. microscope.

Purpose 2 If you do not see an image, try shining the

To observe common objects at various magnifications. microscope lamp onto the surface of the object.
You may notice that this works very well with solid
Materials objects.

• monocular or binocular Results

microscope Sketch what you see in each case and record the
• microscope lamp SAFETY magnification used to obtain the clearest image.
• glass microscope slides Cover slips and
microscope slides Discussion
• cover slips break easily. Treat them 1 Describe in words how each specimen appeared.
• eye-dropper with care. In your description note observations that were not
• small samples suitable possible without the microscope.
for viewing under a
microscope, such as a sugar crystal (both plain and 2 State which specimen you found most interesting,
caster), salt, copper sulfate, hair, clothing fibres, and explain why.
leaf, insect, writing sample (in ballpoint pen ink),
mini grid (optional). Note: These do not need to be
viewed as wet mounts.

Cells 47
 Natural building blocks
2.2

By using microscopes, scientists

have shown that cells are the
building blocks of all living things.
Inside living cells there are many
parts. Each part has a particular
function or job to do.

Animal cells Nucleus Cell membrane

The control centre of the The ‘skin’ that holds the
Cells are the building blocks of all living things, cell. It controls all the cell together. It controls
including animals. If an animal cell was made big chemical reactions in the what comes into and
cell, how the cell develops leaves the cell.
enough to hold in your hands, then it would probably
and how it reproduces.
feel like a clear balloon filled with water or thin jelly. You
would also be able to see that there are tiny things inside
the cell. These things are usually only visible using a
microscope. Figure 2.2.1 shows the structure of a typical
animal cell.
An electron microscope is needed to see some even
smaller cell parts in the cytoplasm. These smaller parts
are known as organelles. Each organelle has a special
function: Vacuole
• Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, which There may be several
Cytoplasm
very small vacuoles in
release energy from food. A watery, jelly-like mixture an animal cell. They
that contains many smaller may contain wastes or
• Ribosomes are microscopic factories that produce
parts where the work of chemicals that are being
the proteins used by the body for growth and repair. the cell takes place. moved around the cell.
• Lysosomes are the garbage disposal units that get rid
of wastes from the cell. This typical animal cell contains smaller parts
• Endoplasmic reticulum form pathways that allow Figure
known as organelles. Each organelle has its
2.2.1
materials to move quickly and easily through the cell. own specific job to do within the cell.

48 PEARSON science
 ribosome science fun

Human cells 5V
What do your cells look like?

Collect this ...

• monocular microscope
• lamp
endoplasmic • commercially prepared slide of cheek cells
reticulum
mitochondria Do this ...
1 Place the prepared slide of cheek cells on the
microscope stage. These cells have probably
been prepared using a stain that makes them
easier to see.
2 Observe the cells first under low power and
then under high power.

Record this ...

Describe what you saw.
Figure The organelles within a cell are so small that
2.2.2 they can only be seen clearly with an electron Explain the function of each feature you observed
microscope at magnifications of over ×100 000. in the cell.

Vacuole
Plant cells The vacuole in plant cells is large and occupies most
of the cell. It is filled with sap and stores water, wastes
Plants have the same parts as animal cells plus a few extra and nutrients. When it is full the vacuole pushes
parts. Figure 2.2.3 shows the structure of a typical plant against the cell wall and helps to keep the plant rigid.
cell. Like animal cells, plants cells have a cell membrane,
cell membrane
cytoplasm and a nucleus. The vacuole in a plant cell is
much larger than in animal cells. Plant cells also have nucleus
a cell wall outside the cell membrane. The cell wall
cytoplasm
helps support the plant and gives it shape. Many plant
cells contain additional organelles called chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts contain a green substance called
chlorophyll and are the site of photosynthesis. Plants
cannot go hunting for their food. Instead, they make
it themselves using energy from the Sun to chemically
combine water and carbon dioxide (one of the gases in
air) to make a sugar called glucose. This process, called Cell wall
Plants do not have a
photosynthesis, takes place in chloroplasts, which are Chloroplast skeleton like you, so
found in the green parts of plants. Plants make their own food from they need something
water and carbon dioxide (one else to keep them
of the gases in air) using energy upright and to keep
from the Sun. Photosynthesis their shape. This is
1 2
takes place in chloroplasts, the function of the cell
p55 p56
which are found in the green wall, which lies outside
parts of plants. the cell membrane.

2.2 2.3 2.4 Figure

A typical plant cell has all the organelles that
2.2.3 an animal cell has but also has chloroplasts
and a cell wall.
Cells 49
 How many?
There are about 50 trillion
cells in your body. They

SciFile
come in different shapes ‘shadow’ of nucleus
and sizes, each with their
own special job to do. For
example, cells in the heart
cause it to beat. Some blood
cells fight infection, while Chloroplasts
others carry oxygen around are bright
your body. green.
Plant cells

Fungal cells
Cells of fungi have the same parts as animal cells. As nucleus
shown in Figures 2.2.5 and 2.2.6, fungal cells also have
a cell wall like a plant cell. However, plant and fungal
cell walls are made of different chemicals. Fungal cells
do not have chloroplasts; therefore they cannot make
their own food. Fungi produce substances that digest
the material they are growing on. They then absorb the Animal cells
digested materials into their cells.

nucleus
cell wall
nucleus
cell wall

vacuole

Figure A typical fungal cell has the same organelles Fungal cells
2.2.4 as an animal cell. It also has a cell wall like
that found in a plant cell.

Figure A nucleus is present in all cells, animal, plant

2.2.5 and fungal.
Tough stuff
The cell walls of plants are so
‘chemically tough’ that
animals cannot digest them
without help. Bacteria in the
SciFile

stomach of cows and other

plant-eating animals digest Figure
the cell walls, making the 2.2.6
nutrients available to the
animals. When humans chew, Yeast is a fungus made
they crush plant cells, of only one cell. Most
releasing the contents, but fungi, however, are
the cell wall leaves the body made up of many cells.
undigested. This undigested This mushroom is an
cell wall is the fibre in our diet. example.

50 PEARSON science
 A microscope is
Figure
2.2.7 needed to see red and
white blood cells.

Nature and development of science

Cells and microscopes

Zaccharias Janssen and his son Hans made reading glasses. In about 1590 they were
experimenting with their lenses and placed two lenses inside a tube. They then looked
through it. Objects placed close to the tube appeared much larger. This observation
was the first step towards inventing the microscope.

In 1665 the English scientist Robert Hooke used

a microscope like the one shown in Figure 2.2.8
to investigate cork. He saw that cork resembled a
honeycomb. The cork was made of small boxes that
Hooke described as cellulae (a Latin word meaning
‘little storage rooms’). You can see them in his drawing
in Figure 2.2.9. Hooke had discovered
cells. Cork cells are dead plant cells and
have nothing inside them; therefore
Hooke saw only cell walls. Since
the time of Hooke, the term
cellulae has changed to
become cells.
Figure
2.2.9
Figure
2.2.8
Hooke’s original 1665
drawing of cork cells
Robert Hooke’s
microscope
A few years later, in 1674, the Dutchman Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek used a microscope to look at pond
water and saw small things moving about. What he
was seeing were small, single-celled (unicellular) living
things. This made Leeuwenhoek the first person to
observe and describe microscopic living things. He
was also the first person to observe and describe
human red blood cells and bacteria. To do this,
Leeuwenhoek had improved on the early microscopes
and he achieved magnifications of up to ×250.

Cells 51
 Many years later, in 1833, the Scottish scientist
Robert Brown discovered that plant cells were not In 1931 the
just empty boxes but that they had a nucleus inside German engineer
them. It took another 70 years to identify other Ernst Ruska
organelles such as the chloroplasts. (Figure 2.2.11)
designed
In 1838 Matthias Schleiden, a German scientist, and built the
analysed the known information about plant cells. first electron
He proposed that cells are the basic building blocks microscope.
of all plants, and that new plants start off as a single This allowed
cell. As plants grow, new cells are produced. scientists to see
A year later a friend of Schleiden’s, Theodor even smaller
Schwann, proposed that all animals are made things such as
of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of life. viruses, which
Identifying this link between plants and animals is are too small
regarded by scientists as one of the most important to be seen
discoveries in the development of biology. using light
microscopes. Figure
Ernst Ruska
In 1842 the Swiss scientist Karl Nägeli observed 2.2.11
cells dividing to make new cells. This was the first It had been
time that scientists understood that new cells came known since
from existing cells. 1898 that ‘invisible agents’ called viruses caused
diseases in plants and animals. However, it was
In 1855 the German scientist Rudolf Virchow linked 1935 before these agents were made visible using
the observations of Nägeli and Brown. He proposed an electron microscope and viruses were seen for
that all cells develop from existing cells and don’t the first time.
just spring up from nowhere.
Since their invention, the magnification of electron
The work of these people led to the development of microscopes has improved and they are
cell theory, which explains the relationship between now capable of magnifying an object
cells and living things. Cell theory states: up to 1 000 000 times. A typical electron 2.5
• All living things are made up of one or more cells. microscope is shown in Figure 2.2.12.
• Cells are the basic building blocks of all living
things, making up their structure and allowing
them to function.
• New cells are produced from existing cells. This
is what is happening in Figure 2.2.10.

Figure Figure
2.2.10 One cell dividing to produce two cells 2.2.12 A scanning electron microscope

52 PEARSON science
2.2 Unit review

Remembering 5 Name the process by which plants manufacture

their food.
1 Name the part of animal cells that:
a controls the movement of materials into and out
of the cell
Understanding
b controls all the chemical reactions within the 6 Explain why microscopes are needed to study cells.
cell 7 Predict what would happen if:
c is a watery jelly-like liquid. a the membrane of a cell burst
2 Name the part of plant cells: b the nucleus was removed from a cell
a that controls the movement of materials into c plant cells had no chlorophyll.
and out of the cell
8 Explain why it is important to record the
b in which photosynthesis takes place magnification used when drawing cells seen using a
c that forms the skeleton of the plant. microscope.
3 Name the parts of the cell labelled A, B and C in
Figure 2.2.13. Applying
a 9 Identify which organelles would be present in large
numbers in cells that:
b a require a lot of energy
b manufacture proteins
c carry out photosynthesis.
10 Identify the type of cell or organelle being described
in each of the following sentences.
a It is rigid, and when examined under a very high
power on the microscope, no green structures
could be seen.
Figure
2.2.13
b The picture produced by an electron microscope
c showed channels that criss-crossed the cell.
c Chemical tests revealed that energy was released
in large quantities.
4 Name the parts of the cell labelled A, B and C in d There was a rigid outer layer surrounding a
Figure 2.2.14. watery jelly with distinct green areas.

b
Analysing
11 Compare plant and animal cells.
12 Contrast plant and fungal cells.
13 Discuss the benefits and disadvantages associated
with cells having a cell wall.

a
Figure
2.2.14
c

Cells 53
 2.2 Unit review

Evaluating
14 Propose reasons why humans need a bony skeleton.
15 Sketch a Venn diagram like that shown in Figure
2.2.15. From the descriptions of cells on pages
48–49, select the characteristics that would go in
each part of the diagram.

Plant cell Both Animal cell

Figure
2.2.17

18 Students were once allowed to prepare their own

Figure slides using samples of their own cheek cells. This is
2.2.15
now not allowed. Propose reasons why.
19 Propose the advantages of using prepared slides
16 a Classify the type of cell shown in Figure 2.2.16 as rather than students making their own slides.
a plant or an animal cell.
b Justify your answer.
Creating
20 As large organisms such as humans grow, they make
more and more very tiny cells. What if they were
made of only a very few cells and these cells just got
bigger and bigger? Construct a scenario (or possible
outcome) of how that would change the way we live.

Inquiring
1 Research what people thought living things were
made of before cells were discovered.
2 Research the life and times of one of the scientists
mentioned on pages 51–52 who helped develop our
understanding of cells. Prepare a short biography of
Figure the person’s life and achievements.
2.2.16
3 Investigate the development of microscopes from
the first use of lenses to electron microscopes
17 a Classify the cell shown in Figure 2.2.17 as an and the scanning probe microscopes used today.
animal or a fungal cell. Relate the development of the technology to our
b Justify your answer. knowledge of cells.

54 PEARSON science
 2.2 Practical activities

1 Observing cells 3 Place a drop of water and a drop of iodine on the

sample and carefully place a cover slip on top of the
Before starting this activity make sure you have read onion skin and water. The iodine stains the cells and
and understood the Skill Builders ‘Drawing from the makes them easier to see.
microscope’ and ‘Increasing magnification’ below.
4 Use the microscope to observe the cells at two
different magnifications.
Purpose
To observe and draw cells. 5 Carefully peel a thin layer of skin from the outside of
the rhubarb leaf stalk. Repeat the procedure, but do
Materials not use the iodine stain.
• microscope and lamp SAFETY Results
• filter paper Iodine stains. Avoid
Sketch a few cells at the higher magnification. On your
• microscope slide and cover slip contact with skin
diagram record the type of cell you have drawn and the
• eye-dropper and clothes.
magnification used.
• water
• iodine Discussion
• slices of onion and rhubarb leaf stalk 1 Refer back to the diagram of the typical plant cell
• tweezers shown in Figure 2.2.3 on page 49. Of the parts
Procedure labelled on that diagram, list the parts you were
able to see clearly in the onion skin cell and in the
1 Carefully peel a thin (one cell thick) layer of onion rhubarb skin cell.
skin.
2 List the parts you could not see. Explain why you
2 Use tweezers to place a small sample of the onion were not able to see them.
skin onto a glass microscope slide. Make sure the
skin is not folded. 3 Compare the onion cells and rhubarb cells.
4 Propose a reason why onion cells were stained with
iodine but rhubarb cells were not.

Drawing from the microscope

Follow these steps to draw what you see
through the microscope.

1 Use a sharp lead pencil. Increasing magnification

2 Draw only the lines that you see. Don’t use When you want to change the magnification of
shading or colouring. a microscope from a lower magnification to a
higher magnification, follow these steps.
3 Each diagram should take up one-quarter
to one-third of an A4 page. 1 Make sure that the specimen, or the part of
4 Record the magnification used to draw this the specimen that you want to look at, is in
specimen next to its diagram. the centre of the field of view.
5 State the name of the specimen and the 2 Focus the specimen on low power.
date of the observation. 3 Without moving anything else, carefully turn
6 A written description below the diagram is the objective lenses around so that one with
also often helpful. a higher magnification is above the slide.
7 When the image has many cells of the 4 Look through the eyepiece. If the specimen
same type, you only need to draw a few is not in focus, use the fine focus only to
cells to represent the specimen. sharpen the image.

Cells 55
 2.2 Practical activities

2 Membrane at work 8 Use a balance to determine the mass of each egg

and record the mass in a table like the one shown in
A hen’s egg is really just a very large cell with a shell the Results section.
around it. When you break an egg, you can sometimes
9 Place one egg in each container of water and put on
see a very thin skin just under the shell. That skin is the
the lid or cover with plastic wrap.
membrane of the egg.
10 Each day, for the next 3 days, measure and record
Purpose the mass of the egg.
To observe a membrane at work. 11 Predict what you think will happen to the eggs.
Record your prediction
Materials
12 On day 3 measure and record the volume of the
• 2 eggs
water remaining in each of the containers.
• 500 mL white vinegar
• salt Results
• 500 mL distilled water
1 Observe and record any changes to the eggs.
• electronic balance or beam balance
• 200 mL measuring cylinder Treatment Mass of egg (g)
• container large enough to hold two eggs immersed Day 0 Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Change
in vinegar
Distilled water
• 2 wide-mouthed glass jars with lids
Salt water
Procedure
2 Record any change in volume of the water.
Part A
Treatment Volume of liquid (mL)
1 Place the two eggs in a container of vinegar so that
both eggs are completely covered. Day 0 Day 3 Change

2 Leave the eggs undisturbed for 2 days. By this time Distilled water 200
the vinegar should have dissolved the eggshell and Salt water 200
the membrane inside the shell becomes the outer
layer of the egg.
Discussion
Part B
1 Describe the changes that took place in the two
3 Make a concentrated salt solution by adding a eggs.
tablespoon of salt to 250 mL of distilled water.
2 Describe any change in the volume of the water in
4 Label the two glass jars ‘salt water’ and ‘distilled the two containers.
water’.
3 Propose reasons for the changes in the amount of
5 Measure out 200 mL distilled water and pour it into liquid.
the container labelled ‘distilled water’.
4 Propose reasons for the changes in the eggs.
6 Measure out 200 mL of the salt water and add it to
the container labelled ‘salt water’. 5 Explain what you think was happening to the eggs
and the role the membrane played.
7 Carefully remove the eggs from the vinegar and rinse
them. Pat them dry with paper towel. 6 Compare the actual results with your predictions.

56 PEARSON science
 Specialised cells
2.3
Many of the living things on
Earth are made up of only one
cell. This single cell has to carry
out all the functions of life.
These living things are too small
to be seen with the naked eye.
The living things that we can
see, such as plants and
animals, are made up of many
cells of different types. Each
type of cell is specialised to
carry out a particular job.

Unicellular organisms Many different types of unicellular organisms live

in watery environments. A drop of pond water seen
Living things that are made up of only one cell are known through a microscope can reveal a variety of living
as unicellular organisms. The prefix uni means one and things you will not have seen before like the diatoms
organism means a living thing. Therefore a unicellular and rotifers shown in Figure 2.3.2. Unicellular organisms
organism is a living thing that is made up of a single cell. belong to a group called the protists. Most protists are
Bacteria are unicellular organisms. Some bacteria cause harmless, but some can make you very sick. The water
disease and infection like the infected wound in Figure that comes through the taps has been treated to kill any
2.3.1. Others live on and in your body and help you to harmful organisms. If you are in the bush and
stay healthy. Bacteria are also used in the production of using untreated water, then for your health’s
cheese and yoghurt. 1
sake it is best to boil it before you drink it.
p63

diatom rotifer

Figure The yellow pus on infected wounds is an Figure Microscopic organisms such as diatoms and
2.3.1 accumulation of dead white blood cells that 2.3.2 rotifers are found in pond water.
have died trying to fight harmful bacteria.

Cells 57
 Specialised animal cells
Inside me!
Animals are more complex than plants and they have
You probably have ten times more

SciFile
bacteria living in your gut than you a greater variety of different cell types. The human
have cells in your body. You could body contains about 50 trillion cells and more than
live without these bacteria but you 200 different types of cells. A few of these 200 types are
are healthier when they are present.
described below.
They help with digestion, produce
vitamins and train your immune
Muscle cells
system to fight disease.
The three types of muscles in your body are voluntary
muscles (also called skeletal muscles), involuntary
muscles (also called smooth muscles) and cardiac
Multicellular organisms muscles.
Surrounding the bones of your skeleton are muscles that
Other living things such as humans, fish and the
you use to move around. You can choose to make these
tree and koala in Figure 2.3.3 are made of millions
muscles move (or not) and so they are referred to as
and millions of cells. They are called multicellular
voluntary muscles. For example, your biceps and triceps
organisms—multi means many.
are voluntary muscles that help control your arm. You can
In multicellular organisms, all the cells work together see a magnified view of voluntary muscle in Figure 2.3.4.
but they do not all do the same thing. Cells are
specialised. This means that they have a special
job to do in the body, and they have a structure 2.6
that makes them better able to do their job.

Figure The voluntary muscles (skeletal muscles)

2.3.4 attached to our bones have a striped
appearance and are also known as striated
(striped) muscles.

You have other muscles in your body that work without

you having to think about it. They are the muscles
involved in breathing and those that keep food
moving though your gut. These muscles are known as
involuntary muscles. Your diaphragm controls your
breathing and is an involuntary muscle, as are the
Figure This koala and the tree in which it is sitting muscles in the wall of your digestive tract or gut. An
2.3.3 are both multicellular organisms. image of involuntary muscle is shown in Figure 2.3.5.

58 PEARSON science
 Figure
2.3.7
Figure
2.3.5
Nerve cells like
Most of the this one can be
involuntary found in your
muscles do not brain. The
have a striped axons make
appearance and connections
are also known with other brain
as smooth cells.
muscles. Blood cells
Figure 2.3.8 shows some blood cells. Red blood cells
All muscles (voluntary or involuntary) contain a large carry oxygen from your lungs around your body to the
number of mitochondria. This is because muscles cells where it is used to release the energy you need.
require a lot of energy to keep working and it is the They also carry some of the waste carbon dioxide from
mitochondria that provide the energy. the cells back to your lungs so that you can get rid of
Cardiac muscle (Figure 2.3.6) is the type of muscle in it from your body. The white blood cells have a very
the heart. Cardiac muscle is involuntary muscle but it different job. They are part of the immune system and
has a striped appearance like voluntary muscles. Unlike help the body to fight infection.
other muscles that are striped, cardiac muscle does not
Figure
get tired. It has very large numbers of mitochondria 2.3.8
to provide a continuous supply of energy. These
characteristics allow the heart to beat continuously.
There are many
more red cells
in your blood
Figure
2.3.6 than white cells.

Cardiac muscle
is an involuntary
muscle that has
characteristics Fat cells
of both striated
You have two different types of fat cells in your body.
muscle and
Brown fat cells are used to produce heat for the body,
smooth muscle.
especially when it gets cold and you are shivering. The
white fat cells in Figure 2.3.9 are used as a store of energy.
Nerve cells They also form an insulating layer under the skin that
Nerve cells make up your brain. They also carry helps to keep your body at a constant temperature.
information from your brain to other parts of your body
such as your muscles, and from your muscles back to Figure
your brain. As Figure 2.3.7 shows, some nerve cells have 2.3.9

very long fibres called axons extending from the cell.

These allow the cell White fat cells
to carry messages (here stained
New blood over long distances.
purple) are
Red blood cells are the found under the
The longest axon of
only cells in the human skin where they
SciFile

a human nerve cell provide an

body that do not have a
nucleus. This means they reaches from the insulating layer
can’t reproduce and need base of the spine to that helps to
to be continually replaced. the toes, and can be keep you warm.
Your body makes billions
over a metre long. 2.7 2
of new red blood cells
p64
every day.

Cells 59
 Specialised plant cells
Plants contain cells of many shapes and sizes. Each type
of cell is specialised to carry out a different function Photosynthetic cells
Cells near the surface of the
within the plant. Figure 2.3.10 shows some different
green parts of stems and
plant cells that have different functions. leaves have large numbers of
chloroplasts. In the chloroplasts
is a green chemical called
chlorophyll. This chemical traps
the Sun’s energy, which the plant
then uses in photosynthesis.
Plant cells that are not exposed
to sunlight, such as those
in the roots, do not contain
chloroplasts and are not green.

Guard cells
Guard cells are found on the leaves and
stems of plants. Guard cells work in pairs
to open and close very tiny pores (or
holes) in the leaves called stomata. Gases
needed by the plant enter through open root hair
stomata and unwanted gases leave the
same way. Guard cells close the stomata cell in root
when plants need to reduce water loss.

nucleus
soil

Root hairs
Plants cannot move around to get
water from where it is available. This
means they need an efficient way
of taking in water where they are
growing. Water comes into plants from
the soil through the surface of their
cells. The more surface they have in
contact with the soil, the more water
they will be able to take in. Some of
Conducting cells the cells on the outer surface of roots
have extensions called root hairs.
Plants take in water from the soil through
These root hairs increase the surface
their roots. The water is needed in the
area of the root by a large amount.
leaves for photosynthesis. This means
that water has to be transported from
the roots to the leaves. Plants make
their food in the leaves but the cells of
the roots and stems need food if they Structural cells
are going to stay alive. This means the The cell walls act as the skeleton
food has to be transported from the of plants. When plants grow they
leaves to the roots and stems. Inside the become bigger and heavier. Then
plant there are cells that are specialised their skeleton needs to get stronger.
for transported water and food. These The cell walls of many cell types,
conducting cells are long thin tubes like especially the water-conducting cells
drinking straws. in the plant stem, become thicker and
stronger, providing more support. The
wood of tree trunks is mostly cells
with walls that are so thick that the
Figure Different plant cells have cell has died. The living part of a tree
2.3.10 different jobs to do. trunk is just below the bark.

60 PEARSON science
2.3 Unit review

Remembering Analysing
1 List three specialised cell types found in plants. 9 Classify each of the organisms in Figure 2.3.11 as
unicellular or a multicellular.
2 List three specialised cell types found in animals.
3 State which has more different types of cells: plants
or animals. a
4 State what the following prefixes mean.
a uni as the prefix to unicellular
b multi as the prefix to multicellular
5 Name the following types of cells.
a leaf cells where the plant’s food is made
b animal cells that send electrical messages
around the body
c animal cells that help fight infection
d cells that control the gases going into and
leaving a leaf
6 Recall the different types of animal cells by
matching the ones below with their specialised
tasks. b
a fat cells cells that contract, causing
bones to move
b cardiac muscle carry oxygen from the lungs
to the cells
c red blood cells where the body stores energy
d skeletal muscle muscle that does not get
tired and keeps the heart
pumping

Understanding
7 a Define the term specialised cell.
b Explain why the cells of multicellular organisms
are not all the same. c

Applying
8 There are about 5 million red blood cells in every
millilitre of blood. Calculate the number of red
blood cells in an:
a average blood donation of about 450 mL
b adult human (about 6 litres of blood).

Figure
2.3.11

Cells 61
 2.3 Unit review

10 Compare unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Inquiring
11 Classify the following muscles as voluntary or
involuntary. 1 Jellyfish have very specialised stinging cells.
a muscles of upper leg Investigate how these cells help the jellyfish to
b tongue survive.
c muscles in the oesophagus (the tube carrying 2 Considering the function of red blood cells, research
food from the mouth to the stomach) why the lack of a nucleus is an advantage.
12 Contrast the three types of muscle of the human 3 a Research the characteristics of cells of fungi and
body. diatoms.
b Compare their characteristics with the cells of
Evaluating plants and animals.
c Discuss the classification of these cells.
13 a Propose ways in which a cell from the root of a
plant would be different from a leaf cell. 4 Bacteria are very simple unicellular organisms. They
b Justify your answer. are very important to humans for many reasons.
Research bacteria and why they are important to
14 What if the cells in your body were all the same?
humans.
Propose ideas of how this would change the way
your body works.
15 There are many mitochondria in the muscle cells of
animals.
a Propose which type of plant cells could also
have very high numbers of these organelles.
b Justify your answer.

Creating
16 Construct a table with three columns.
a In the left-hand column, list four specialised
plant cells.
b In the middle column, describe what the cells Figure Bacteria are simple, very small organisms
do. 2.3.12 made of just one cell. A bacterium has no
c In the right-hand column, describe how the cell organelles.
is specialised to do this job.
17 You have been shown a type of cell you have never
seen before. It is a small cell but the membrane on
the outside has many extensions, giving it a very
large surface area.
a Create a picture of what this cell would look like.
b Use your knowledge of specialised cells to
predict the sort of job this cell would do and
whether the cell is from a plant or an animal.

62 PEARSON science
 2.3 Practical activities

1 Looking at pond water

Purpose Results
To observe microscopic organisms in pond water.
1 Record the number of different types of organisms.
Materials 2 Sketch the organisms you see and label any parts
• light microscope you can identify.

• microscope slides 3 Use Figure 2.3.13 to identify the organisms you saw.
• cover slip Discussion
• pond water 1 a List the different types of organisms you saw.
• eye-dropper b For each organism:
SAFETY i state whether it was unicellular or not
• cotton wool
Do not drink
• paper towel or tissue ii describe its characteristics.
pond water. Wash your
hands thoroughly after 2 Describe the difficulties you had when observing
Procedure
the activity. the organisms.
1 Place two drops of pond
3 Propose a reason why the fibres of cotton wool were
water on a slide.
added to the slide.
2 Tease out a few fibres of cotton wool and place them
4 Describe the most interesting organism you
on the slide.
observed.
3 Carefully lower the cover slip onto the slide and dry
off any excess water.
4 Examine the slide using the low power of the
microscope.
5 Now try high power. Remember that you are not
only magnifying the size of the organisms but it also
looks as though you are magnifying the speed at
which they move.
Cyclops
Diatoms

Amoeba Euglena
Spirogyra Nematode

Figure
2.3.13

Paramoecium Chlamydomonas Daphnia

Cells 63
 2.3 Practical activities

2 My cell Procedure
1 Decide whether you are going to make a plant cell or
Purpose an animal cell, a typical cell or a specialised cell.
To make a model of a cell.
2 Make a list of the parts of the cell and their
Materials characteristics.
You can decide on your 3 Decide what you could use to represent the cell
own materials. parts. Make a list of your choices, giving a reason for
Suggestions include: each choice.
SAFETY 4 Construct your cell.
• plastic food wrap
Be careful if you are
or freezer bags 5 Explain to other members of the class how you
using hot water or sharp
• cotton wool, instruments. have constructed your cell and why you chose the
wool, thread material you did.
• gelatine and Discussion
hot water
1 Assess how successful your model cell was.
• container for mixing gelatine
• container for heating water 2 List the positive comments others in the class make
about your cell.
• buttons, marbles, lollies such as jelly beans
3 List the suggestions of areas you could improve on.
• stiff cardboard
4 Describe what you would change if you were to
make another cell.

Figure This model of an animal cell was made using felt,

2.3.14 fabric and toy stuffing.

64 PEARSON science
 Cell to organism
2.4
Wombats and wattles, fish and
frogs, crows and crabs are all
complex organisms that
perform a variety of functions.
They breathe, reproduce, digest
food and get rid of wastes. To
perform these functions, the
cells of multicellular organisms
are organised into tissues,
which in turn are organised into
organs and then into systems.

science fun

Soft bones
Bones are complex organs with living
cells and deposits of calcium. Vinegar
is a weak acid that dissolves calcium.
@LZ Tissues and organs
Collect this ... Many different things need to happen in an organism if
• 2 uncooked chicken bones it is going to stay alive and function well. There is a need
• vinegar for some form of organisation. In complex organisms
• jar such as the human and dog in Figure 2.4.1 on page 66,
there are several different levels of organisation. These
Do this ... levels are shown in Figure 2.4.2 on page 66.
1 Fill a jar with vinegar and place one chicken
bone in the jar overnight. • Tissues: Cells that perform the same function are
not scattered throughout the body; they are grouped
2 Leave the other chicken bone untreated.
together to form tissues.
3 Observe the bones the next day.
• Organs: The next level of organisation is into
4 Predict what you think will happen to the bone
organs. An organ is a structure that contains at least
in the vinegar.
two different types of tissue that work together to
5 Compare the two bones the next day. complete a task.
Record this ... • Organ systems: Organs are then arranged into organ
Describe what happened. Was your prediction systems. Organ systems have two or more different
correct? organs that work together.
Explain why you think this happened.

Cells 65
 Figure Column-shaped cells make up the epithelium
2.4.3 lining your small intestine.

Figure The boy and the dog are both complex

2.4.1 Connective tissue adds support and structure to the
organisms. Their cells are organised into
tissues, tissues into organs, and then organs body. Examples of connective tissue are fat, bone,
into systems. cartilage, ligament and tendon such as that shown in
Figure 2.4.4. Some types of connective tissue are strong
and fibrous. Ligaments hold bones together at the joints.
If you sprain your ankle or wrist badly, then it is likely that
systems Figure you have torn some of the fibres of the ligaments holding
organs 2.4.2 the bones together. Tendons join muscles to bones.

tissues Muscle tissue is a specialised tissue that can contract,

In a complex
becoming shorter and fatter. For example, the muscle on
organism, there are
the front of your upper arm (the bicep) bulges when you
many more cells
than there are pull up your forearm. You can see this in
tissues, many more Figure 2.4.5. Each individual cell of the
cells
tissues than muscle has contacted. However, one
organs, and many cell on its own, or even a few cells
more organs than contracting, would not be strong
systems. enough to pull up your arm. It takes
thousands of cells
working together to
1
Tissues move the bones of
p72
your arm.
In the human body there are four different types
of tissues: The white tissue in this
Figure
• epithelium model is tendon. It connects
2.4.4
muscles and bone.
• connective tissue
• muscle tissue
biceps
• nerve tissue.
Epithelium is just another name for skin. The
cells of an epithelium form a continuous layer
that is more than just the skin covering the triceps
1
pxxx
outside of your body. It continues into the body.
It lines the inside of your mouth right down
to your stomach and through the rest of your
Figure Muscles in the front of the arm
insides. It also covers all the organs of the body. 2.4.5 contract to pull the arm up.
You can see epithelium cells in Figure 2.4.3. Muscles cannot expand. Another
set of muscles (the triceps) at the
back of the arm contract to pull
the arm back down.
66 PEARSON science
 Nerve tissue such as that in Figure 2.4.6 can send In the heart shown in Figure 2.4.8, the tissues are
electrical signals around the body. These electrical grouped together for the specific purpose of ensuring
signals are managed by nerve tissue in the brain and that the blood flows round your body, carrying to the
passed down the spinal cord (a large bundle of nerve cells all the things they need to function. Your blood also
tissue) to the body. One nerve cell would not be able carries away wastes that could harm your cells.
to pass information around your body effectively.
Thousands of nerve cells are grouped together to form Nerve tissue generates the signal that causes
your nerves. the heart to beat. A group of nerve cells in the
right atrium, known as the SA node, triggers
each heartbeat. Nerve signals from the SA node
are transmitted through the heart, controlling the
frequency with which the heart beats.

Most of the
heart is muscle
tissue. The
contraction
Connective and relaxing
tissue forms the of the cardiac
heart valves. The muscles create
tissues of the the heartbeat
These nerve endings are attached to the valves must be
Figure that pushes the
muscle. The message passing along the nerve flexible enough to
2.4.6 blood from your
causes the muscle to react. let the valve open, heart around
allowing the blood your body.
to flow through.
They must also be
Organs strong enough to
Tissues are grouped together into organs. All the hold back the flow
of blood when the Figure The heart and
different tissues contribute to the job that the organ has valve is closed. 2.4.8 its tissues
to do. There are many different organs in your body,
such as the liver, kidneys and heart. Even your skin is an
organ—the largest organ of your body. As you can see in
Figure 2.4.7, it has many different parts. Systems
hair The organs of your body do not work independently.
oil hair erector temperature
gland shaft muscle receptor Organs are organised so that they can work together to
pain complete a task. These organs then form a system. For
receptors
example, a series of organs work together to change
the food you eat into a form that the body can use. This
epidermis system digests the food. The system is therefore called the
blood
digestive system. It is shown in Figure 2.4.9 on page 68.
capillaries
There are other systems in your body such as the:
dermis • respiratory system, which gets oxygen from the air
into your body and gets rid of waste carbon dioxide
• skeletal system, which is your skeleton and muscles
• excretory system, which gets rid of wastes from the
sweat
fat
gland body
• nervous system, which sends messages from your
sense organs to the brain and from the brain to other
parts of the body, including the muscles
hair nerve pressure • reproductive system.
follicle fibre receptor

Figure The skin is a complex organ.

2.4.7

Cells 67
 The liver and pancreas
are organs that
produce chemicals that In the mouth, food is
help with digestion. broken into smaller pieces
by the teeth, making it
easier to swallow and
digest.
In the large intestine, water
is removed from the waste
(mostly food you have not
been able to digest).

As it passes along the In the stomach and the

small intestine, the small intestine, food goes
digested food is absorbed through chemical changes
into the bloodstream. so that it can be used by
the body.

Figure Many organs work

2.4.9 Wastes are stored in the
together In the digestive
rectum until they are
system to change the food passed out of the body.
you eat into a form that
can be used by your cells.

2
p72

Dividing cells
Unicellular organisms reproduce by their cell dividing Cancer is a disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis.
to produce two new identical cells; that is, two new Scientists are looking for ways of controlling cell division
organisms. Multicellular organisms grow because in these cells and hope that will help to cure the disease.
existing cells divide to produce new cells. This type of
cell division is called mitosis. Mitosis is cell division
that produces two new identical cells. This process is Nucleus has
happening in Figure 2.4.10 divided into two.

At the beginning of mitosis, there is one cell. First the

nucleus divides into two. Then the cytoplasm divides. At
the end of the process, there are two identical cells.
You started life as a single cell. Now your body is made
of billions of cells. Most of the cells in your body were
produced by mitosis. Each time you cut yourself or
scrape the skin off your knee, the damage is repaired by Two new cells
mitosis producing new cells. are produced.
A new cell wall
Bacteria do not have a nucleus, but their cells can still has grown
divide to produce two identical bacteria. One way of between them.
controlling bacteria that cause disease is to find ways of
preventing them reproducing.
Figure
These cells are dividing by mitosis.
2.4.10

68 PEARSON science
 Stem cells have the ability
Figure
2.4.11
to become different types
of body cells.

Use and influence of science

Growing cells

All living things are made of cells regardless of how big or small, simple or complex
the organism is. The cells from all living things have many features in common and
so the study of cells can provide information about all living things.

In the last 100 years scientists have learnt how to

grow cells separate from the organism they came
from. This process is called cell culture. The cells are
kept at the correct temperature and in a solution that
provides them with all the minerals and nutrients they
require to keep them alive. You can see a scientist
working with cultured cells in Figure 2.4.12.
Cultured cells have been used to produce the vaccines
that protect us from diseases such as measles, rubella,
mumps, chickenpox and polio. These cells are also
used to produce agents that can help fight cancer.
Most cultured cells are not from humans. However,
there are times when human cells are cultured.
The bottles in which they are cultured are shown in
Figure 2.4.13.

Figure Tissues are cultured in flat bottles like these.

2.4.13

Growing tissue
When your body is damaged or new cells are required
to replace ones that are worn out, the cells in your
body divide. Skin cells divide to produce new skin
cells, and muscle cells produce new muscle cells. In
the human body, there are also special cells called
stem cells. Stem cells are able to become different
types of cells under special conditions. They can be
found in the roots of your hair. Cells from a few hairs
could be very useful if you had a large wound such as
Figure This researcher is working in a tissue culture
2.4.12 a burn. You can see some stems cells in Figure 2.4.14
laboratory.
on page 70.

Cells 69
 Figure
2.4.14

Stem cells
seen under a
scanning
electron
microscope

Stem cells extracted from the hair root are grown in Growing organs
culture for about two weeks. They are completely
surrounded by liquid and divide, forming small masses Scientists hope that in the future complete organs
of cells. After two weeks the upper surface of the cell can be grown for transplant. This is becoming closer
mass is exposed to the air. This is the trigger for the to reality.
stem cells to turn into skin cells and skin like that in There are children in the USA who have new bladders
Figure 2.4.15. that were grown from their own cells. These children
The skin is then grafted onto the wound. Within a few were born with defective bladders. Doctors took two
days, doctors will know if the graft is going to work. types of cells from the child’s own bladder—cells from
A successful skin graft will look just like your old skin the lining of the bladder, and muscle cells from the
within 10 weeks. outside. These cells were grown in culture solution
and when there were enough cells they were placed
In traditional skin grafts, healthy skin is taken from on a bladder-shaped shell made from a biodegradable
another part of your body to put over a wound. You material. The lining cells went on the inside of the shell
then end up with two scars. Which way would you and the muscle cells on the outside. The new bladder
prefer—the traditional method of cell culture or the continued to grow in culture for another seven weeks.
latest technology? After that it was sutured (stitched) into the body of the
patients where the new bladders continued to grow
and remain healthy.

The ear on the back of this mouse was grown

Figure from cartilage cells from a cow implanted on a
2.4.16
mould in the shape of an ear.
The experiment suggests that
replacement body parts may be 2.8
able to be grown in the future.

Figure A strip of skin is held above the

2.4.15 culture medium.

70 PEARSON science
 2.4 Unit review

Remembering b Predict what could happen if you do not have

enough calcium in your diet.
1 List these words in order from simplest structure to
14 In the diagrams A–D each small circle represents a
most complex.
cell. Select the diagram that best represents:
• tissue
a individual cells
• system b a body system
• cell c an organ.
• organ
2 Name four different organs in the body. A B
3 List two types of tissues found in the human body.
4 List three systems in the human body.
5 Name the type of cell division that makes new cells
in your body.
C D

Understanding
6 Describe what is meant by the term organ system.
7 Explain why skin is an organ rather than a tissue.
8 The contraction of muscle tissue can cause your arm
to bend, whereas contraction of a single muscle cell
would have no effect. Explain why. 15 Propose reasons why the muscles of your legs get
tired when you have been running fast.

Applying
9 Sketch diagrams to demonstrate the difference
Creating
between cells, tissues and organs. 16 Construct a drawing showing the organisation of
muscles, tendons and bones in the arm and how
they work together to bend and straighten the arm.
Analysing
10 Contrast:
a a cell and a tissue
Inquiring
b an organ and a system.
1 Research information about one of the systems of
11 Imagine what it would be like without some of your your body. Present a report to your class.
tissues. Compare the way your body works now with
2 Research the parts of a flower. Identify the organs
how you think it would work if you did not have:
it contains and the part each plays in plant
a nerve tissues reproduction.
b connective tissue in the form of tendons and
ligaments.
12 Compare cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle.

Evaluating
13 In the Science4fun activity on page 65, vinegar (an
acid) slowly removed calcium from chicken bones.
a Propose what might happen to bones that have
lost calcium.

Cells 71
 2.4 Practical activities

1 Muscles get tired 3 Describe any effect that raising your arm would
have on the:
Purpose a blood supply to your arm
To find out what contributes to muscle fatigue. b oxygen supply to your arm.
4 Explain why oxygen and blood are important to
Materials
muscles that are working.
• soft foam or rubber ball
5 Propose links between the results shown in the
• stop watch
graphs and what could be happening in your arm.
Procedure 6 Summarise the results of this activity.
Part A: Arm relaxed
1 Work in pairs. Squeeze the ball as many times as
you can in 30 seconds. Your partner should time
2 Where in my body?
you as you count.
Purpose
2 Rest for 10 seconds.
To find out what you know about organs in your body.
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 until you have completed 10
trials. Record your results in a table, showing the Materials
number of squeezes per trial. • large piece of butcher’s paper—you need to be able
to lie on it and draw round your body
Part B: Arm raised
• felt pen
4 Repeat steps 1–3 but this time hold your arm above
your head. Procedure
5 Do not lower your arm during the resting time. 1 Work in pairs. One person lies on the paper and the
other person draws an outline of their body.
Results
2 Make a list of all the parts you know are inside your
1 Record your results in a table like this. body.
Trial Number of squeezes 3 Think about the position in the body and size of the
organs. Start drawing the organs into the outline of
Part A Part B
the body.
1
4 When you have finished all you can do, share your
2
ideas with another pair.
3
5 Discuss any differences you have and make any
4
changes you want to your drawing.

2 Graph your results by constructing a line graph for 6 Share your drawing with the rest of the class.
each part. You can have two graph lines on the same
Discussion
axes.
1 Assess your knowledge of the body by giving it a
Discussion rating out of ten.
1 Analyse your results for Parts A and B. Was there any 2 Discuss why it is important that we know about the
evidence that your muscles were becoming tired structures inside our bodies. Do you think you need
(fatigued)? Explain why. more information?
2 Compare the two graphs. What can you say about
the amount of fatigue experienced by the arm?

72 PEARSON science
2 Chapter review

Remembering 11 Explain why muscle cells need to have large

numbers of mitochondria.
1 Draw a table with two columns.
a In the first column, list the parts of an animal
cell that can be seen under a light microscope.
Applying
b In the second column, list the parts of a plant 12 Use diagrams to demonstrate the differences
cell. between plant, animal and fungal cells.
2 Name the lens of the microscope that: 13 The term organelle means little organ. Organs
a you look through. and organelles are very different. Use words and
b is closest to the specimen. diagrams to demonstrate why organelle is an
appropriate name for these structures.
3 Name the process that occurs in chloroplasts.
14 Calculate the magnifications to fill in the blanks in
4 State what is different between unicellular and
this table.
multicellular organisms.
Ocular lens Objective lens Total
magnification
Understanding ×4 ×40
5 Outline the function of the following cell parts. ×10 ×100
a plant cell wall ×4 ×100
b cell membrane ×10 ×40
c nucleus ×10 ×1000
6 Explain the difference between a specimen and an
image when using a microscope. 15 The field of view of a microscope was measured and
found to be 3 mm using a magnification of ×10.
7 Describe what happens to the field of view when
a microscope is changed from low power to high Calculate the diameter of the field of view at the
power. following different magnifications and using the two
8 Predict what will happen to the field of view when a different units.
×10 objective lens is replaced by a ×4 objective lens.
Magnification ×10 ×100 ×1000
9 When focusing a microscope, you are supposed
Diameter of field 3
to look from the side as you bring the stage and of view (mm)
objective lens close together. Predict what could
happen if you were looking through the ocular lens Diameter of field
of view (μm)
as you did this.
10 Study the diagram below, which shows a root hair
cell.
a Describe the function of the root hair cell.
b Explain how the shape of this cell helps it to
carry out its function.

root hair

cell in root

nucleus
soil

Cells 73
 2 Chapter review

16 Identify the types of cells represented in these plant cells

diagrams. bacteria animal cells

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

micrometres (+m)
Can be seen under an electron microscope
Can be seen under a light microscope

a c
Figure
2.5.1

a Compare the size of plant cells and animal cells.

b Suggest a reason for plant cells being the first
ones to be seen.
c Bacteria were not discovered until long after
b d plant cells. Suggest why this was so.
20 Select the correct statements from the following list.
A A structure made up of different types of tissues
is an organ.
B When cells of the same type are grouped
together they form a system.
C There are many different organs in a tissue.
D Tissues are groups of cells of the same type.
E In a system many organs work together.
21 Look back at Figure 2.3.6 on page 59, showing
cardiac muscle. The fibres of cardiac muscle are
arranged in a network. Propose a benefit to you of
having the fibres interlocking in this way.
Analysing
17 Classify each of the following cell types as plant or Creating
animal cells.
22 Use the following ten key terms to construct a
a guard cells visual summary of the information presented in this
b nerve cells chapter.
c muscle cells
cell
d photosynthetic cells
plant
e root hair cells
animal
18 Compare the outer layer of plant cells and:
unicellular organism
a animal cells
multicellular organism
b fungal cells.
tissue
organ
Evaluating organ system
19 Select information from Figure 2.5.1 to use in your specialised cell 2.9
responses. microscopic

74 PEARSON science
Thinking scientifically

Q1 Four cells were viewed under a microscope Q3 When a cell was cut
and their diameter was measured. Use the from a section of a plant
information in the diagram to decide which one stem and viewed under a
was most likely to be a cell from an animal. microscope, it appeared
as a circle as shown.

Which one of the following could not be the

Plant cells
Animal cells three-dimensional shape of the cell?
Bacteria cells
A B

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Diameter (μm)
A 100 μm B 2 μm C D
C 15 μm D 45 μm

Q2 The unicellular organism shown was

viewed under a microscope with a
magnification of ×2. Which diagram
represents the image you would see?
Q4 Figure 2.6.1 shows a normal plant cell. What
would the cell look like if the plant it came from
had no water for 3 days?
A B

Figure
2.6.1

C D

A B

C D

Cells 75
 Glossary

Unit 2.1 Unit 2.2

Binocular microscope: a light Cells: the building blocks of all
microscope that has two living things
ocular lenses
Cell membrane: the ‘skin’ that
Dissection: when a scientist holds the cell together. It
cuts apart a dead plant or controls what comes into and
animal to study it leaves the cell
Electron microscope: Cell wall: the skeleton
Binocular
microscope that uses beams
microscope
of the plant Cell
of electrons to magnify up
Chloroplast: organelle
to a million times. There
within the cell where
are two types of electron microscopes: transmission
photosynthesis takes place
electron microscopes (TEM) and scanning electron
microscopes (SEM) Cytoplasm: a watery,
jelly-like mixture that
Field of view: the amount of the specimen seen through
contains many smaller
a microscope
parts where the work of
Image: what is seen using the microscope the cell takes place
Light microscope: a microscope that uses light to reveal Endoplasmic reticulum:
the image pathways along which
materials move through Chloroplast
Magnification: the amount by which the image is
a cell
magnified (made bigger) compared to the real object
(specimen) Lysosomes: organelles that get rid of wastes from cells
Magnified: made bigger Mitochondria: the powerhouses of the cell where the
energy is released from food
Micrometre: one-thousandth of a millimetre, or one-
millionth of a metre Nucleus: the control centre of a cell
Microscope: instrument used to make very small things Organelles: the smaller parts of a cell
look bigger
Photosynthesis: process used by plants to make food
Microscopic: describes objects that can only be seen from water and carbon dioxide using energy from the
using a microscope Sun
Monocular microscope: Ribosomes: organelles that produce proteins
a light microscope that has
Vacuole: small structure in animal cells that may
only one ocular lens
contain wastes or chemicals, or large sap-filled
Objective lens: the lens of the structure in plant cells that stores water, wastes and
microscope closest to the nutrients
stage
Ocular lens: the lens of the
microscope closest to your
eye
Specimen: the object Monocular
being looked at through a microscope
microscope
Stereo microscope: a binocular microscope that
creates a three-dimensional image

76 PEARSON science
Unit 2.3 Unit 2.4
Axon: long fibres that extend from nerve cells and carry Cell culture: growing cells separately from organisms in
messages over long distances the laboratory
Bacteria: very simple unicellular Connective tissue: adds
organisms that lack a nucleus support and structure to the
and other organelles body, e.g. fat, bone, cartilage,
blood tendon and ligament
Chlorophyll: the green
chemical in chloroplasts that Epithelium: skin
traps the Sun’s energy for
Mitosis: cell division that
photosynthesis Bacteria produces two identical cells
Mitosis
Guard cells: cells that work in
Muscle tissue: specialised
pairs to open and close the
tissue that can contract
stomata
Nerve tissue: many nerve cells
Multicellular organisms: living things made of many
grouped together
cells
Organ: a structure that
Nerve cells: cells that carry information in the body
contains at least two
Protists: a group of unicellular organisms often found in different types of tissues
ponds and soil that work together to
complete a task
Red blood cells: cells that carry oxygen from the lungs Muscle tissue
around the body Organ system: two or more
different organs that work
Root hairs: extensions on the outer surface of some
together
root cells
Tissue: groups of cells that
Specialised cells: cells that have a special job to do in
perform the same function in
the body and have a structure that makes them better
the body
able to do their job
Stem cells: cells that can
Stomata: very tiny pores
become different types
in leaves
of cells under specific
Unicellular organisms: conditions
living things made up of
only one cell
White blood cells: part of Organ system
the immune system; helps
the body to fight infection

Unicellular
organism

Cells 77