NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION TELS.

WO 2-4155
NEWS WASHINGTON,D.C. 20546 WO 3-6925

FOR RELEASE: SUNDAY

December 15, 1968
RELEASE NO: 68-208

P PROJECT: APOLLO 8

R
E GENERAL RELEASE
contents
1-10

S MISSION OBJECTIVES
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS
Launch Window
MISSION DESCRIPTION
11
12- 14
14
15-19

S FLIGHT PLAN
ALTERNATE MISSIONS
ABORT MODES
PHOTOGRAPHIC TASKS
20-23
24 26
27-29
30-32
SPACECRAFT STRUCTURE SYSTEMS 33-37
SATURN V LAUNCH VEHICLE 38-50
APOLLO 8 LAUNCH OPERATIONS 51-64
MISSION CONTROL CENTER 65-66
MANNED SPACE FLIGHT NETWORK -67-71

K APOLLO S RECOVERY
APOLLO 8 CREW
LUNAR DESCRIPTION
APOLLO PROGRAM MANAGEMENT/CONTRACTORS
APOLLO 8 GLOSSARY
72-73
74-86
87-88
89-94
95-101

-0-

12/6/68
 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION TELS . WO 2-4155
NEWS WASHINGTON, D .0 . 20546 WO 3-6925

FOR RELEASE: SUNDAY

December 15, 1968
RELEASE NO: 68-208

FIRST MANNED LUNAR ORBIT MISSION

The United States has scheduled its first mission

designed to orbit men around the Moon for launch Dec. 21 at
7:51 a.m. EST from the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration's John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

The mission, designated Apollo 8, will be the second

manned flight in the Apollo program and the first manned
flight on the Saturn V rocket, the United States' largest
launch vehicle.

Crewmen for Apollo 8 are Spacecraft Commander

Frank Borman, Command Module Pilot James A. Lovell, Jr.
and Lunar Module Pilot William A. Anders. Backup crew is
Commander Neil A. Armstrong, Command Module Pilot Edwin E.
Aldrin, Jr. and Lunar Module Pilot Fred W. Haise, Jr.

-more-
12/6/68
 -2-

Apollo 8 is an open-ended mission with the objective

of proving the capability of the Apollo command and service

modules and the crew to operate at lunar distances. A lunar

module will not be carried on Apollo 8 but Lunar Test
Article (LTA-B) which is equivalent in weight to a lunar
module will be carried as ballast.

The mission will be carried out on a step-by-step "commit

point" basis. This means that decisions whether to continue

the mission or to return to Earth or to change to an alternate

mission will be made before each major maneuver based on the
status of the spacecraft systems and crew.

A full duration lunar orbit mission would include 10

orbits around the Moon. Earth landing would take place some
147 hours after launch at 10:51 a.m. EST, Dec. 27.

Earlier developmental Apollo Earth-orbital manned and

unmanned flights have qualified all the spacecraft systems
--including the command module heat shield at lunar return
speeds--and the Apollo 7 ten-day failure-free mission in
October demonstrated that the spacecraft can operate for the
lunar-mission duration.

-more-
 -3-

Apollo 8 will gather data to be used in early development

of training, ground simulation and crew inflight procedures

for later lunar orbit and lunar landing missions.

The Dec. 21 launch date is at the beginning of the December

launch window for lunar flights. These windows hinge upon the
Moon's position and lunar surface lighting conditions at the
time the spacecraft arrives at the Moon and upon launch and

recovery area conditions. The December window closes Dec. 27.

The next comparable window opens Jan. 18 and closes Jan. 24.

The mission will be launched from Complex 39A at the

Kennedy Space Center on an azimuth varying from 72 to 108

degrees depending on the launch date and time of day of the
launch. The first opportunity calls for liftoff at 7:51 a.m.
EST Dec. 21 on an azimuth of 72 degrees. Launch of Apollo
8 will mark the first manned use of the Moonport.

The Saturn V launch vehicle with the Apollo spacecraft

on top stands 363 feet tall. The five first-stage engines

of Saturn V develop a combined thrust of 7,500,000 pounds at
liftoff. At igintion the space vehicle weighs 6,218,558
pounds.

Apollo 8 will be inserted into a 103 nautical mile

(119 statute miles, 191 kilometers) Earth orbit.

-more-
 -4-

During the second or third Earth orbit, the Saturn V

third-stage engine will restart to place the space vehicle

on a path to the Moon. The command and service modules will
separate from the third stage and begin the translunar coast
period of about 66 hours. A lunar orbit insertion burn with
the spacecraft service propulsion engine will place the space-
craft into a 60 x 170 nm (69 x 196 sm, 111 x 314.8 km)
elliptical lunar orbit which later will be circularized at

60 nm (69 sm, 111 km).

The translunar injection burn of the third stage will

place the spacecraft on a free-return trajectory, so that if
for some reason no further maneuvers are made, Apollo 8 would
sweep around the Moon and make a direct entry into the Earth's
atmosphere at about 136 hours after liftoff and land in the
Atlantic off the west coast of Africa. During the free-return
trajectory, corrections may be made using the spacecraft
Reaction Control System.

Ten orbits will be made around the Moon while the crew
conducts navigation and photography investigations. A trans-
earth injection burn with the service propulsion engine will
bring the spacecraft back to Earth with a direct atmospheric
entry in the mid-Pacific about 147 hours after a Dec. 21 launch.
Missions beginning later in the window would be of longer

duration.

-more-
 -5-

Several alternate mission plans are available if for

some reason the basic lunar orbit cannot be flown. The
alternates range from ten days in low Earth orbit, a high-
ellipse orbit, to a circumlunar flight with direct Earth entry.

As Apollo 8 leaves Earth orbit and starts translunar

coast, the Manned Space Flight Network for the first time
will be called upon to track spacecraft position and to relay
two-way communications, television and telemetry in a manned
spaceflight to lunar distance.

Except for about 45 minutes of every two-hour lunar

orbit, Apollo 8 will be "in view" of at least one of three
85-foot deep-space tracking antennas at Canberra, Australia,
Madrid, Spain, and Goldstone, California.

Speculation arising from unmanned Lunar Orbiter missions

was that mass concentrations below the lunar surface caused
"wobbles" in the spacecraft orbit. In Apollo 8 the ground
network coupled with onboard navigational techniques will
sharpen the accuracy of lunar orbit determination for future
lunar missions.

Another facet of communicating with a manned spacecraft

at lunar distance will be the use for the first time of the
Apollo high-gain antenna--a four-dish unified S-band antenna
that swings out from the service module after separation from

the third stage.

-more-
 -6-

The high-gain antenna relays onboard television and

high bit-rate telemetry data, but should it become inopera-

tive, the command module S-band omni antennas can relay voice
communications, low bit-rate telemetry and spacecraft commands

from the ground.

Apollo 8 will gather data on techniques for stabilizing

spacecraft temperatures in deep-space operations by investi-

gating the effects of rolling the spacecraft at a slow, fixed
rate about its three axes to achieve thermal balance. The
Apollo 8 mission will be the first opportunity for in-depth
testing of these techniques in long periods of sunlight away

from the reflective influence of the Earth.

Any solar flares occurring during the mission will be

monitored by Solar Particle Alert Network (SPAN) stations
around the world. Solar radiation and radiation in the Van
Allen belt around the Earth present no hazard to the crew of

Apollo 8 in the thick-skinned command module. The anticipated

dosages are less than one rad per man, well below that of a
thorough chest X-ray series.

Although Apollo 8's entry will be the first from a

lunar flight, it will not be the first command module entry
at lunar-return velocity.

-more -
 The unmanned Apollo 4 mission in November 1967 provided
a strenuous test of the spacecraft heatshield when the command
module was driven back into the atmosphere from a 9,769
nautical mile apogee at 36,545 feet-per-second. By comparison,
Apollo 8 entry velocity is expected to be 36,219 feet-per-
second. Heatshield maximum char depth on Apollo 4 was three-
quarters of an inch, and heat loads were measured at 620 BTUs
per square foot per second as compared to the 480 BTUs antici-
pated in a lunar-return entry.

Apollo 8 entry will be flown with a nominal entry range

of 1,350 nautical miles in either the primary or backup control
modes. Adverse weather in the primary recovery area can be
avoided by a service propulsion system burn prior to one day
before entry to shift the landing point. Less than one day
out, the landing point can be shifted to avoid bad weather by
using the spacecraft's 2,500 mile entry ranging capability.

The crew will wear the inflight coveralls during entry--

pressure suits having been doffed and stowed since one hour
after translunar injection. Experience in Apollo 7, when
the crew flew the entry phase without pressure suit, helmets
or gloves, prompted the decision not to wear suits once the
spacecraft's pressure integrity was determined.

-more-
I

-8-

The decision to fly Apollo as a lunar orbit mission was

made after thorough evaluation of spacecraft performance in
the ten-day Earth-orbital Apollo 7 mission in October and an
assessment of risk factors involved in a lunar orbit mission.
These risks are the total dependency upon the service pro-
pulsion engine for leaving lunar orbit and an Earth-return
time as long as three days compared to one-half to three hours
in Earth orbit.

Evaluated along with the risks of a lunar orbit mission

was the value of the flight in furthering the Apollo program
toward a manned lunar landing before the end of 1969. Princi-
pal gains from Apollo 8 will be experience in deep space navi-
gation, communications and tracking, greater knowledge of
spacecraft thermal response to deep space, and crew operational

experience--all directly applicable to lunar landing missions.

As many as seven live television transmissions may be

made from Apollo 8 as it is on its path to the Moon, in orbit
about the Moon and on the way back to Earth. The television
signals will be received at ground stations and transmitted
to the NASA Mission Control Center in Houston where they will

be released live to commercial networks.

-more-
 However, because of the great distances involved and
the relatively low transmission power of the signals from
the spacecraft to ground, the TV pictures are not expected
to be of as high quality as the conventional commercial
broadcast pictures.

Apollo 8 also will carry still and motion picture

cameras and a variety of different films for black and white
and color photography of the Moon and other items of interest.
These include photographs of an Apollo landing site under
lighting conditions similar to those during a lunar landing
mission.

The Apollo 8 Saturn V launch vehicle is different from

the two unmanned rockets that have preceded it in the following
major aspects:

The uprated J-2 engine capable of reaching a thrust of

230,000 pounds is being flown for the first time, on the
third (S-IVB) stage.

The new helium prevalve cavity pressurization system

will be flying on the first stage (S-IC) for the first time.
In this system, four liquid oxygen prevalves have cavities
filled with helium to create accumulators "shock absorbers"
that will damp out the "pogo" effect.

-more-
CI

..9a-

-more-
 - 10 -

The liquid hydrogen engine feed line for each J-2 engine
has been redesigned, and the auxiliary spark igniter lines
have been replaced with lines without flex joints.

A helium heater will be used as a repressurization system

on the S-IVB.

The center F-1 engine on the S-IC will be cut off early
to keep the acceleration forces from building up past the four
"G" level.

Software changes in the instrument unit will give a new

cant capability to the outboard F-1 engines. After clearing

the tower, the outboard engines will cant outward two degrees
to reduce the load on the spacecraft in the event of a premature
cutoff of an F-1 engine.

Film cameras will not be carried on the S-II stage to

record the first and second plane separations.

The forward bulkhead of the S-II fuel tank is a lightweight

type that will be used on future Saturn V vehicles.

(END OF GENERAL RELEASE; BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOLLOWS)

 -3.0a-

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(APOLLO 8)
 MISSION OBJECTIVES FOR APOLLO 8

* Demonstrate crew/space vehicle/mission support

facilities performance during a manned Saturn V mission
with command and service module.

* Demonstrate performance of nominal and selected

mission activities including (1) translunar injection; (2)
command service module navigation, communications and mid-
course corrections; and (3) command service module consumables
assesment and passive thermal control.

In addition, detailed test objectives have been designed

to thoroughly wring out systems and procedures that have a
direct bearing on future lunar landings and space operations
in the vicinity of the Moon.

-more-
 -12-

SEQUENCE OF EVENTS
NOMINAL MISSION

Time from Lift-off Event

(Hr:Min:Sec)
00:00:00 Lift-off
00:01:17 Maximum dynamic pressure
00:02:06 S-IC Center Engine Cutoff
00:02:31 S-IC Outboard Engine Cutoff
00:02:32 S-IC/S-II Separation
00:02:33 S-II Ignition
00:02:55 Camera Capsule Ejection
00:03:07 Launch Escape Tower Jettison
Mode I/ Mode II Abort Changeover
00:08:40 S-II Cutoff
00:08:41 S-II/S-IVB Separation
00:08:44 S-IVB Ignition
00:10:06 Mode IV Capability begins
00:10:18 Mode II/Mode III Abort Changeover
00:11:32 Insertion into Earth Parking Orbit
02:50:31 Translunar Injection Ignition
02:55:43 Translunar Injection Cutoff
Translunar Coast Begins
03:09:14 S-IVB/CSM Separation
04:44:54 Begin Maneuver to Slingshot Attitude
05:07:54 LOX Dump Begins
05:12:54 LOX Dump Ends

-more-
 -1 3-

Time from Lift-off Event

TLI+ 6 Hrs. Midcourse Correction 1

TLI+ 25 Hrs. Midcourse Correction 2

LOI- 22 Hrs. Midcourse Correction 3

LOI- 8 Hrs. Midcourse Correction 4

69:07:29 Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI 1 )

Initiation

69:11:35 Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI 1 )

Termination

73:30:53 Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI2)

Initiation
73:31:03 Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI 2 )
Termination
89:15:07 Transearth Injection Initiate
89:18:33 Transearth Injection Terminate
TEI+ 15 Hrs. Midcourse Correction 5
TEI+ 30 Hrs. Midcourse Correction 6
EI- 2 Hrs. Midcourse Correction 7
146:49:00 Entry Interface
147:00:00 SPLASHDOWN
 -13a-

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 -14-

Apollo 8 Window

Pre-Launch
Apollo 8 is scheduled to be launched from Launch
Complex 39, pad A, at Cape Kennedy, Florida on December 21,
1968. The launch window opens at 7:51 a.m. EST and closes
at 12:32 p.m. EST. Should holds in the launch countdown or
weather require a scrub, there are six days remaining in
December during which the mission could be launched.

December Launch WINDOW CUT)

Days for Apollo 8 Open Close

21 7:51 a.m. 12:32 p.m.

22 9:26 a.m. 2:05 p.m.
23 10:58 a.m. 3:35 p.m.
24 12:21 p.m. 4:58 p.m.
25 1:52 p.m. 6:20 p.m.
26 3:16 p.m. 6:20 p.m.
27 4:45 p.m. 6:20 p.m.

A variable launch azimuth of 72 degrees to 108 degrees

capability will be available to assure a launch on time. This
is the first Apollo mission which has employed the variable
launch azimuth concept. The concept is necessary to compensate
for the relative positioned relationship of the Earth at launch
time.
 (7 2 ° LAUNC HAZIMUTH)

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 -15-

MISSION DESCRIPTION

NOTE: Information presented in this press kit is based on

a nominal mission. Plans may be altered prior to or during
flight to meet changing conditions.

Launch Phase
Apollo 8 will be launched from Kennedy Space Center Launch
Complex 39A on a launch azimuth that can vary from 72 degrees
to 108 degrees, depending upon the time of day of launch. The
azimuth changes with time of day to permit a fuel optimum
injection from Earth parking orbit onto a free return circum-
lunar trajectory. Other factors influencing the launch windows
are a daylight launch (sunrise -30 min. to sunset +30 min.),
and proper sun angles on lunar landmarks in the Apollo landing
zone.
The planned Apollo 8 launch date of December 21 will call
for liftoff time at 7:51 a.m. EST on a launch azimuth of 72
degrees. Insertion into Earth parking orbit will occur at
11 min. 32 sec. ground elapsed time (GET) at an altitude of
103 nm (119 sm, 191.3 km). The orbit resulting from this
launch azimuth will have an inclination of 32.5 degrees to the
equator.

Earth Parking Orbit (EPO)

Apollo 8 will remain in Earth parking orbit after insertion
and will hold a local horizontal attitude during the entire
period. The crew will perform spacecraft systems checks in
preparation for the Translunar Injection burn.

Translunar Injection (TLI)

In the second or third revolution in Earth parking orbit,
the S-IVB third stage engine will reignite over the Pacific to
inject Apollo 8 toward the Moon. The velocity will increase
to 35,582 feet per second p.0,900 meters/sec.). Injection will
begin at an altitude of 10 nm (122 sm, 197 km) while the
vehicle is in darkness. Midway through the translunar injection
burn, Apollo 8 will enter sunlight.

-more-
 -16-

Translunar Coast

Following the translunar injection burn, Apollo 8 will

spend 66 hr. 11 min. in translunar coast. The spacecraft will
separate from the S-IVB stage about 20 minutes after the start
of the translunar injection burn, using the service module
Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters to maneuver out to
about 50 to 70 feet from the stage for a 13-minute period of
station keeping. The spacecraft will move away some five
minutes later in an "evasive maneuver" while the S-IVB is
commanded to dump residual liquid oxygen (LOX) through the
3-2 engine bell about 1 hr. and 30 min. after separation.
The third stage auxiliary propulsion system will be operated
to depletion. The LOX dumping is expected to impart a velo-
city of about 90 fps to the S-IVB to: lessen probability of
recontact with the spacecraft; and place the stage in a
"slingshot" trajectory passing behind the Moon's trailing
edge and on into solar orbit.
Four midcourse correction burns are possible during the
translunar coast phase, depending upon the accuracy of the
trajectory. The first burn, at translunar injection +6 hrs.,
will be done if the needed velocity change is greater than
3 fps; the second at TLI +25 hrs.; the third at lunar orbit
insertion (LOI) -22 hrs., and the fourth at LOI -8 hrs. The
last three burns will be made only if the needed velocity is
greater than 1 fps.

Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI)

The first of two lunar orbit insertion burns will be made
at 69:07:29 GET at an altitude above the Moon 69 nm (79 sm,
126.8 km). LOI Np. 1 will have a nominal retrograde velocity
change of 2,991 fps (912 m/Sec) and will insert Apollo 8 into
a 60 x 170 nm (69 x 196 sm, 111 x 314.8 km) elliptical lunar
parking orbit. At 73:30:53, LOI Burn No. 2 will circularize
the lunar parking orbit at 60 nm 69 em, 111 km) with a retro-
grade velocity change of 138 fps 42.2 Weec). The lunar
parking orbit will have an inclination of 12 degrees to the
lunar equator.

Lunar Parking Orbit (LPO)

During the 10 revolutions of lunar parking orbit, the
Apollo 8 crew will perform lunar landmark tracking and Apollo
landing site tracking and photographic tasks, and stereo
photography of the lunar surface from terminator to terminator.
The last two lunar revolutions will be spent in preparation
for the transearth injection burn.

-more-
 -17-

LUNAR ORBIT ACTIVITIES

Revolution Activity
LOI 1

2 Housekeeping, Systems Checks,

and Landmarks sightings

3 LOIp, System Checks and

Training Photography

4,5,6,7 General landmark sightings,

Stereo photography, and
general landmark photography
8 General photography, Landmark
sightings, Solar corona, Dim
Sky, and Earth Shine photo-
graphy

9 Prepare for TEl and perform

oblique stereo strip photo-
graphy
10 Perform TEI
 -18-

Trans-Rarth In ection TEI)

The SPS trans-Earth injection burn is nominally planned
for 89:15:07 GET with a posigrade velocity increase of 3520
fps (1073 m/sec). The burn begins on the backside of the
Moon and injects the spacecraft on a trajectory toward the
Earth. It will reach 400,000 feet altitude above Earth at
146:49:00 GET.
 -18a-

BE FORE SU B -S OLAR

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Transearth Coast Midcourse Manuevers
During the approximate 57-hour Earth return trajectory,
the Apollo 8 crew will perform navigation sightings on stars,
and lunar and Earth landmarks, communications tests and
spacecraft passive thermal control tests. Three midcourse
corrections are possible during the transearth coast phase,
and their values will be computed in real time. The mid-
course corrections, if needed, will be made at transearth
injection +15 hr., TEI +30 hr., and entry interface -2 hr.
(400,000 ft. altitude).

Entry) Landiqg
Apollo 8 command module will be pyrotechnically separated
from the service module approximately 15 minutes prior to
reaching 400,000 ft. altitude. Entry will begin at 146:49:00
GET at a spacecraft velocity of 36,219 fps (11005 m/sec).
The crew will fly the entry phase with the G&N system to
produce a constant deceleration (average 4 Os) for a direct
entry, rather than the dual-pulse "skip entry technique
considered earlier in Apollo program planning. Splashdown
is targeted for the Pacific Ocean at 165 degrees West longi-
tude by 4 degrees 55 min. North latitude. The landing foot-
print will extend some 1350 nm (1560 sm, 2497 km) from its
entry point. Splashdown will be at 13 min. 46 sec. after
entry.

CM END-OF-MISSION ENTRY AND LANDING POINTS*

Day Of Ent • Point Landi Point

Launch =titude _ngitude :titude Longitude
21 Dec 14° 42'N 174° 30'E 4° 55'N 165°00'W
22 Dec
5o35IN 173° 50'E 1° 00'S 165°00'W

23 Dec 1°20'N 174° 35'E 8° 10'S 165° 00'W

24 Dec 100 15 1 S 172° 15 1 E 12° 50'S 165°00'W

25 Dec 18° 55'S 171°25'E 18°00'S 165°00'W

26 Dec 25° 00'S 170045 1 E 22° l0'S 165°00'W

27 Dec 22 0 25'S 1700 55 1 E 25° 25'S 165° 00'W

*These points are for a 72 degree launch azimuth. Other
launch azimuths will change the data slightly.
-more-
 -19a-

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 -20-

FLIGHT PLAN
Crew Activities

The Apollo 8 flight plan calls for at least one

crewman to be awake at all times. The normal work/rest
cycle will be 17 hours of work followed by seven hours of
rest. The command module pilot and lunar module pilot
sleep periods are scheduled simultaneously.
Following the translunar injection burn, the crew
will take off their space suits and put on the inflight
coveralls for the duration of the mission.
The Apollo 8 spacecraft normally will remain fully
powered up throughout the entire mission, with the stabili-
zation and control system and navigation sextant and scanning
telescope turned on as needed. The inertial measuring unit
and command module computer will stay in the "operate mode.
Changes of lithium hydroxide canisters for absorbing
cabin carbon dioxide are scheduled at times when all crewmen
are awake, and all scheduled maneuvers will be made when all
crewmen are awake.
Flight plan updates will be relayed to the Apollo 8
crew over S-Band frequencies each day for the coming day's
activities.
Following is a brief summary of tasks to be accomplished
in Apollo 8 on a day-to-day schedule. The tasks are subject
to changes to suit opportunity or operational factors:
Launch Day (0-24 hours):
* CSM systems Checkout following Earth orbit insertion
* Translunar injection burn, separation from S-IVB and
transposition maneuver
* Monitor S-IVB LOX blowdown and "slingshot" maneuver
* Five sets of translunar coast star-Earth horizon navigation
sightings
* Perform first midcourse correction burn if required
* Star-Earth landmark navigation sightings
Second Day (24-48 hours):
* Midcourse correction burns Nos. 2 and 3 if required
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 -21-

• Star-Earth horizon, star-lunar horizon navigation sightings

Third Day (48-72 hours):
* Star-lunar horizon navigation sightings
* Midcourse correction burn No. 4 if required
* Lunar orbit insertion burn into initial 60 x 170 nm
(69 x 196 sm, 111 x 314.8 km) orbit
• General lunar landmark observation, photography, onboard
television
• Preparations for lunar orbit circularization burn
* Align IMU once during each lunar orbit dark period
Fourth Day ( 72-96 hours):
• Circularize lunar orbit to 60 am (69 sm, 111 km)
* Vertical stereo, convergent stereo navigation photography
• Solar corona photography
• Landmark and landing site tracking and photography
• Star-lunar landmark navigation sightings
* Transearth injection burn
Fifth Day (96-120 hours):
• Star-lunar horizon, star-Earth horizon navigation sightings
* Midcourse correction burns Nos. 5 and 6 if required
Sixth Day (120-144 hours):
• Star-Earth horizon and star-lunar horizon navigation
sightings
• Midcourse correction burn No. 7 if required
Seventh Day (144 hours to splashdown):
• Star-Earth horizon and star-Earth landmark navigation
sightings
• CM/SM separation, entry and splashdown.

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 -.22-

Recovery Operations

The primary recovery line for Apollo 8 is in the mid-

Pacific along the 165th west meridian of longitude where
the primary recovery vessel, the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown
will be on station. Nominal splashdown for a full=aUration
lunar orbit mission launched on time December 21 will be at
4 degrees 55 minutes north x 165 degrees west at a ground
elapsed time of 147 hours.
Other planned recovery lines for a deep-space mission
are the East Pacific line extending parallel to the coast-
line of North and South America, the Atlantic Ocean line
running along the 30th West meridian in the northern hemi-
sphere and along the 25th West meridian in the southern
hemisphere, the Indian Ocean line extending along the 65th
East meridian, and the West Pacific line along the 150th East
meridian in the northern hemisphere and jogging to the 170th
East meridian in the southern hemisphere. Secondary landing
areas for a possible Earth orbital alternate mission have
been established in two zones in the Pacific and two in the
Atlantic.
Ships on station in the launch abort area stretching
3,400 miles eastward from Cape Kennedy include the Helicopter
landing platform USS Guadalcanal, one of whose duties will
be retrieval of camera cassettes from the S-IC stage; the
transport USS Rankin, the tracking ship USNS Vanguard which
will be riliKsed from recovery duty aft6F—asertion into Earth
parking orbit, and the oiler USS Chuckawan.
In addition to surface vessels deployed in the launch
abort area and the primary recovery vessel in the Pacific,
16 HC-130 aircraft will be on standby at eight staging bases
around the Earth: Tachikawa, Japan; Pago Pago, Samoa; Hawaii;
Bermuda; Lajes, Azores; Ascension Island; Mauritius, and Panama
Canal Zone.
Apollo 8 recovery operations will be directed from the
Recovery Operations Control Room in the Mission Control Center
and will be supported by the Atlantic Recovery Control Center,
Norfolk, Va.; Pacific Recovery Control Center, Kunia, Hawaii;
and control centers at Ramstein, Germany; and Albrook AFB,
Canal Zone.

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 -23-

The Apollo 8 crew will be flown from the primary

recovery vessel to Manned Spacecraft Center after recovery.
The spacecraft will receive a preliminary examination, safing
and power-down aboard the Yorktown prior to offloading at Ford
Island, Hawaii, where the spacecraft will undergo a more complete
deactivation. It is anticipated that the spacecraft will be
flown from Ford Island to Long Beach, Calif„ within 72 hours,
and thence trucked to the North American Rockwell plant in
Downey, Calif., for postflight analysis.

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 RECO VER Y A REAS

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 -214-

ALTERNATE MISSIONS

Several alternate mission plans have been prepared

for the Apollo 8 mission, and the scope of the alternate
is dependent upon when in the mission timeline it becomes
necessary to switch to the alternate.
For example, if there is an early shutdown of the
S-IVB stage during the Earth parking orbit insertion burn,
the service propulsion system engine would be ignited for
a contingency orbit insertion (COI), and again ingited later
in the mission to boost the spacecraft to a 4,000 nm (4,610
sm, 7,400 km) apogee. The second burn into the high ellipse
would be done only if the COI burn required less than 900 fps
(274.5 m/sec) velocity increase. The COI-high apogee mission
is Alternate 1, and would have a duration of up to 10 days.
Alternate mission 2 would be followed if the S-IVB
failed to restart for the translunar injection burn out of
Earth parking orbit. This alternate calls for the SPS engine
to boost the spacecraft to the 4,000-nm (4,610 sm, 7,400 km)
apogee for two to four revolutions. A deboost maneuver later
would lower apogee and the mission would continue in low Earth
orbit for 10 days.
Alternate mission 3 is split into three subalternates,
each depending upon the apogee that can be reached after
early S-IVB cutoff during the translunar injection burn.
In the 3a alternate where apogee would be between 100 to
1,000 nm, (115-1,152 sm, 185-1,853 km) the orbit would be
tuned up with an SPS burn to permit landmark sighting and the
mission would follow the alternate 2 timeline. If apogee
ranged between 1,000 nm (1,152 sm, 1853 km) and 25,000 nm
(28,800 sm, 46,250 km), a phasing maneuver would be made at
first perigee to shift a later perigee over a network station,
where a deboost burn would lower apogee to 400 nm (461 sm,
740 km) and the mission would continue in low Earth orbit for
the 3b alternate.
Alternate 3e would be followed if apogee was between
25,000 nm (28,800 sm, 46,250) and 60,000 nm (69,100 sm, 111,000
km). This alternate calls for a phasing maneuver at first
perigee to shift later perigee to the recovery area. A second
maneuver at the later perigee would adjust the elliptical
orbit to one with a semi-synchronous period of about 12 hours--
that is, there would be two daily perigee deorbit periods,
one over the Pacific and one over the Atlantic. The entire
mission would be flown in this type orbit, including direct
entry from the high ellipse.

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 - 2 5-

Early TLI cutoff which would produce an apogee greater

than 60,000 nm (69,100 sm, 111,000 km) would fall into the
alternate 3d category. This alternate calls for a circum-
lunar flyby using the Service Propulsion System to cor-
rect the flight profile back to a free-return trajectory.
In some cases a lunar orbit mission may be possible.
All alternate mission plans call for water landings
along the nominal Pacific recovery line or in the Atlantic
and in general follow the lunar orbit mission timeline.
Entry velocities from any of the alternates range between
26,000 fps and 36,000 fps (7,930-11,080 m/sec).
Apollo 8 alternate mission are summarized in the
table below:
Apollo 8 Alternate Missions
Condition Summary Alternate Plan
1. S-IVB early cutoff on EPO If COI takes less than 900 fps
burn, COI with SPS (274.5 m/sec), use SPS to raise
apogee to 4,000 nm (4,610 sm,
7,200 km); if COI takes more
than 900 fps (274.5 m/sec) re-
main in Earth orbit up to 10
days.

2. In EPO but S-IVB fails Use SPS to raise apogee to

to restart for TLI 4,000 nm (4,610 sm„ 7,400 km);
remain in high ellipse for 2-4
revolutions, then deboost to
low Earth orbit for remainder
of 10 days.
3. Early S-IVB TLI cutoff
producing apogee Of:

a. 100-1,000 nm Burn to 4,000 nm (4,610 sm,

(115-1,152 sm, 185- 7,400 km) apogee, phase adjust
1,853 km) for landmark sightings, remain
in high ellipse for 2-4 revolu-
tions, lower apogee and continue
low Earth orbit mission.
b. 1,000-25,000 nm Make phasing maneuver at first
(1,152-28,800 sm, 1,853- perigee to shift later perigee
46,250 km) over network station; at that
perigee lower apogee to 400 nm
(461 sm, 740 km);later SPS burn
lowers apogee further and mission
continues in low Earth orbit.
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 - 26 -

c, 25,000-60,000 nm Remain in established trajectory

(28,800-69,100 stn and make direct entry. (SPS
46,250-111,000 km) fuel remaining not enough to
lower apogee to 400 nm (461sm,
740 km) and still perform deorbit
burn)

d. More than 60,000 nm Correct trajectory to lunar

(69,100 smy 111,000 km) flyby and Earth free-return
with SPS, direct entry.

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 -27-

ABORT MODES

The Apollo 8 mission can be aborted at anytime during

the launch phase or during later phases after a successful
insertion into earth orbit.
Abort modes can be summarized as follows:

Launch phase--
Mode 1 - Launch escape tower propels command module
safely away from launch vehicle. This mode is in effect
from about T-30 min. when LES is armed until LES jettison
at 3:07 GET and command module landing point can range from
the Launch Complex 39A area to 520 nm (600 sm, 964 km)
downrange.
Mode 11 - Begins when LES is jettisoned and runs to
10:00 GET. Command module separates from launch vehicle
and free-falls in a full-lift entry with landing between
400 and 3200 nm (461-3680 em, 741-5930 km) downrange.
Mode III - Begins when full-lift landing point reaches
3200 nm (3680 sm, 5930 km) and extends through orbital in-
sertion. The CSM would separate from the launch vehicle,
and if necessary, an SPS retrograde burn would be made, and
the command module would be flown half-lift to entry and
landing between 3000 and 3350 nm (3450-3850 sm, 5560-6200 km)
downrange.
Mode IV and Apogee Kick - Begins after the point the SPS
could be used to insert the CSM into an earth parking orbit
---from about 10 minutes after liftoff. The SPS burn into
orbit would be made two minutes after separation from the
S-IVB and the mission would continue as an earth orbit alter-
nate, or if other conditions warranted, to landing in the
West Atlantic or Central Pacific after one revolution, Mode
IV is preferred over Mode III. A variation of Mode IV is
the Apogee Kick in which the SPS would be ignited at first
apogee to raise perigee and thereby set up a suitable orbit
for a low earth-orbit alternate mission.
Earth Parking Orbit phase--
Aborts from earth parking orbit would be flown similar
to the normal deorbit and entry that was flown on Apollo 7:
SPS deorbit burn followed by CM/SM separation and guided
entry.

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 -28-

Translunar Injection Phase --

Aborts during the translunar injection phase are only
a remote possibility, but if an abort became necessary
during the TLI maneuver, an SPS retrograde burn could be
made to produce spacecraft entry. This mode of abort would
be used only in the event of an extreme emergency that
affected crew safety. The spacecraft landing point would
vary with launch azimuth and length of the TLI burn. Another
TLI abort situation would be used if a malfunction cropped
up after injection. A retrograde SPS burn at about 90
minutes after TLI shutoff would allow targeting to land in
an Atlantic contigency landing area between 71 and 171 hours
after initiating abort, depending on the change in velocity
applied.
Translunar Coast phase--
Aborts arising during the three-day translunar coast
phase would be similar in nature to the 90-minute TLI abort.
Aborts from deep space bring into the play the moon's anti-
pode (line projected from moon's center through earth's
center to opposite face) and the effect of the earth's rota-
tion upon the geographical location of the antipode. Abort
times would be selected for landing when the antipode crosses
165 WLong. The antipode crosses the mid-Pacific recovery
line once each 24 hours, and if a time-critical situation
forces an abort earlier than the selected fixed abort times,
landings would be targeted for the Atlantic Ocean, East
Pacific, West Pacific or Indian Ocean recovery lines in that
order of preference. From TLI plus 44 hours, a circumlunar
abort becomes faster than an attempt to return directly to
earth.
Lunar Orbit Insertion phase--
Early SPS shutdowns during the lunar orbit insertion
burn (LOI) are covered by Modes I and III in the Apollo 8
mission (Mode II involves lunar module operations). Both
modes would result in the CM landing the earth latitude of
the moon antipode at the time the abort was performed.
Mode I would be an SPS posigrade burn into an earth-return
trajectory as soon as possible following LOI shutdown during
the first two minutes of the LOI burn. Mode III occurs near
pericynthion following one or more revolutions in lunar orbit.
Following one or two lunar orbits, the Mode III posigrade SPS
burn at pericynthion would inject the spacecraft into a trans-
earth trajectory targeted for the mid-Pacific recovery line.

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 -29-
Lunar Orbit Phase --
If during lunar parking orbit it became necessary
to abort, the transearth injection (TEl) burn would be
made early and would target spacecraft landing to the
mid-Pacific recovery line.
Transearth Injection phase--
Early shutdown of the TEI burn between ignition
and two minutes would cause a Mode III abort and a SPS
posigrade TEl burn would be made at a later pericynthion.
Cutoffs after two minutes TEl burn time would call for a
Mode I abort---restart of SPS as soon as possible for
earth-return trajectory. Both modes produce mid-Pacific
recovery line landings near the latitude of the antipode
at the time of the TEI burn.
Transearth Coast phase--
Adjustments of the landing point are possible during
the transearth coast through burns with the SPS or the
service module RCS thrusters, but in general, these are
covered in the discussion of transearth midcourse correc-
tions. No abort burns will be made later than 20 hours
prior to entry to avoid effects upon CM entry velocity
and flight path angle.

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 -30-

PHOTOGRAPHIC TASKS

Photography seldom before has played as important a role

in a spaceflight mission as it will on Apollo 8. The crew
will have the task of photographing not only a lunar surface
Apollo landing site to gather valuable data for subsequent
lunar landing missions, but will also point their cameras to-
ward visual phenomena in cislunar space which heretofore have
posed unanswered questions.
A large quantity of film of various types has been
loaded aboard the Apollo 8 spacecraft for lunar surface photo-
graphy and for items of interest that crop up in the course
of the mission.
Camera equipment carried on Apollo 8 consists of two 70mm
Hasselblad still cameras with two 80mm focal length lenses, a
250mm telephoto lens, and associated equipment such as filers,
ringeight, spotmeter and intervalometer for stereo strip
photography. For motion pictures a 16mm Maurer data acquisi-
tion camera with variable frame speed selection will be used.
Accessories for the motion picture camera include lenses of
200, 75, 18 and 5mm focal lengths, a right-angle mirror, a
command module boresight bracket and a power cable.
Photographic tasks have been divided into three general
categories: lunar stereo strip photography, engineering photo-
graphy and items of interest.
Apollo 8 photographic tasks are summarized as follows:
Lunar Stereo Strip Photography -- Overlapping stereo 70mm
frames shot along the lunar orbit ground track with space-
craft aligned to local vertical. Photos will be used for ter-
rain analysis and photometric investigations.
Engineering Photography -- Through-the-window photography
of immediate region around spacecraft to gather data on exist-
ence of contaminant cloud around the spacecraft and to further
understand source of window visibility degradation. Cabin
interior photography documenting crew activities will also be
taken as an aid to following flight crews.
Items of Interest -- Dim-light targets: Gegenscheip ( a
round or elongated spot of light in space at a point 180 from
the sun) photos on one-minute exposure with spacecraft held
in inertial attitude on dark side on Moon and during trans-
lunar and transearth coast; Zodiacal light along the plane of
the ecliptic (path of Sun around celestial sphere), one-minute
exposures during dark side of lunar orbit; Star fields under
various lighting conditions to study effect of spacecraft
debris clouds and window contamination on ability to photograph
stars; lunar surface in earthshine to gain photometric data
about lunar surface under low-level illumination.
-MAY00-
 -3 1-

Lunar surface. in daylight at zero phase angle (space-

craft shadow directly below spacecraft) to further measure
reflective properties of lunar surface; lunar terminator in
daylight at oblique angles to evaluate capability of terrain
analysis on such photos; Apollo exploration sites,Surveyor
landing sites and specific features and areas to augment pre-
sent lunar surface photography and to correlate with Surveyor
photos; image motion compensation with long-length lenses by
tracking target with spacecraft; phenomena, features and other
items of interest selected by the crew in real time; and lunar
seas through red and blue filters for correlating with color
discontinuities observed from earth.
Apollo 8 film stowage is as follows: 3 magazines of
Panatomic-X intermediate speed black and white for total 600
frames; 2 magazines SO-368 Ektachrome color reversal for
total 352 frames; 1 magazine S0-121 Ektachrome special day-
light color reversal for total 160 frames; and 1 magazine 2485
high-speed black and white (ASA 6,000, push to 16,000) for
dim-light photography, total 120 frames. Motion picture film:
nine 130-foot magazines S0-368 for total 1170 feet, and two
magazines 30-168 high speed interior color for total 260 feet.
TELEVISION

As many as seven live television transmissions are being

considered during the Apollo 8 flight. Up to three transmiss
ions are being considered on the way to the Moon, one to two
from lunar orbit, and possibly two on the way back from the
Moon.
The frequency and duration of TV transmissions are de-
pendent upon the level of various other mission activities and
the availability of the spacecraft's high gain antenna. This
antenna is primarily used to transmit engineering data, which
has priority over TV transmissions.
The TV signals will be sent from the spacecraft to ground
stations at Goldstone, California and Madrid, Spain, where the
signal will be converted to commercial frequencies. The TV
signal will be released live to public networks from the Mission
Control Center, Houston.
Because of crew activities from launch through translunar
injection, TV operations are not planned prior to the trans-
lunar coast phase of the mission about 12 hours into the flight.
The purpose of television during Apollo 8 is to evaluate
TV transmission at lunar distances for planning future lunar
missions and to provide live TV coverage of the Apollo 8 flight
to the public.

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 -32-

The 4.5 pound RCA TV camera is equipped with 160 degree

and 9 degree field of view lens. A 12-foot power-video cable
permits the camera to be hand-held at the command module
windows for the planned photography.
In TV 'broadcast to homes, the average distance is only
five miles between the transmitting station and the home TV set,
while the station transmits am average of 50,000 watts of power.
In contrast, the Apollo 8 TV camera operates on only 20 watts,
and on this mission, will be over 200,000 miles from the home
TV sets.
The NASA ground station's large antenna and sensitive
receivers make up for most of this difference, but the Apollo
pictures are not expected to be as high quality as normal
broadcast programs.
 -33-

SPACECRAFT STRUCTURE SYSTEMS

Apollo spacecraft No. 103 for the Apollo 8 mission

is comprised of a launch escape system, command module,
service module and a spacecraft-lunar module adapter. The
latter serves as a mating structure to the instrument unit
atop the S-IVB stage of the Saturn V for this mission, lunar
module test article B (LTA--B) will be housed in the adapter.
Launch Escape System/(LES)--Propels command module
to safety in an aborted launch. It is made up of an open-
frame tower structure mounted to the command module by four
frangible bolts, and three solid-propellant rocket motors:
a 155,000-pound-thrust launch escape systeft motor, a 3,000-
pound-thrust pitch control motor that bends the command
module trajectory away from the launch vehicle and pad area.
Two canard vanes near the top deploy to turn the command
module aerodynamically to an attitude with the heat-shield
forward. Attached to the base of the Escape System is a boost
protective cover composed of glass, cloth and honeycomb, that
protects the command module from rocket exhaust gases from the
main and the jettison motor. The system is 33 feet tall, four
feet in diameter at the base and weighs 8,900 pounds (4040 kg).
Command Module (CM) Structure--The basic structure of
the command module is a pressure vessel encased in heat-shields,
cone-shaped 12 feet high, base diameter of 12 feet 10 inches,
and launch weight 12,392 pounds (5626 kg).
The command module consists of the forward compartment
which contains two negative pitch reaction control engines and
components of the Earth landing system; the crew compartment,
or inner pressure vessel, containing crew accommodations,
controls and displays, and spacecraft systems; and the aft
compartment housing ten reaction control engines and fuel tankage.

Heat-shields around the three compartments are made of

brazed stainless steel honeycomb with an outer layer of phe-
nolic epoxy resin as an ablative material. Heat-shield thick-
ness, varying according to heat loads, ranges from 0.7 inches
(at the apex) to 2.7 inches on the aft side.
The spacecraft inner structure is of aluminum alloy
sheet-aluminum honeycomb bonded sandwich ranging in thick-
ness from 0.25 inches thick at forward access tunnel to 1.5
inches thick at base.

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 -34-

Service Module (SM) Structure--The service module is a

cylinder 12 feet 10 inches in diameter by 22 feet long. For
the Apollo 8 mission, it will weigh 51,258 pounds (23,271 kg)
at launch. Aluminum honeycomb panels one inch thick form the
outer skin, and milled aluminum radial beams separate the in-
terior into six sections containing service propulsion system and
reaction control fuel-oxidizer tankage, fuel cells and onboard
consumables.
Spacecraft-LM Adapter (SLA} Structure--The spacecraft-
LM adapter is a truncated cone 2ti feet Iorig tapering from 260
inches diameter at the base to 154 inches at the forward end
at the service module mating line. Aluminum honeycomb 1.75
inches thick is the stressed-skin structure for the spacecraft
adapter. The SLA weighs 4,150 pounds (1,884 kg).
Spacecraft Systems

Guidance, Navigation and Control System/(GNCS)--Measures

and controls spacecraft attitude and velocity, calculates
trajectory, controls spacecraft propulsion system thrust vector
and displays abort data. The Guidance System consists of
three subsystems: inertial, made up of inertial measuring unit
and associated power and data components; computer, consisting
of display and keyboard panels and digital computer which pro-
cesses information to or from other components; and optic, in-
cluding scanning telescope, sextant for celestial and/or land-
mark spacecraft navigation.
Stabilization and Control System/(SCS)--Controls space-
craft rotation, translation and thrust vector and provides
displays for crew-initiated maneuvers; backs up the guidance
system. It has three subsystems; attitude reference, attitude
control and thrust vector control.
Service Propulsion System/(SPS)--Provides thrust for
large spacecraft velocity changes and de-orbit burn through
a gimbal-mounted 20,500-pound-thrust hypergolic engine using
nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer and a 50-50 mixture of unsymmetrical
dimethyl hydrazine and hydrazine fuel. Tankage of this system
is in the service module. The system responds to automatic
firing commands from the guidance and navigation system or to
manual commands from the crew. The engine provides a constant
thrust rate. The stabilization and control system gimbals the
engine to fire through the spacecraft center of gravity.

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 -35-

Reaction Control System/(RCS)--This includes two

independent systems for the command module and the service
module. The service module reaction controls have four
identical quads of four 100-pound thrust hypergolic engines
mounted, near the top of the Service Module, 90 degrees apart
to provide redundant spacecraft attitude control through cross-
coupling logic inputs from the Stabilization and Guidance
Systems. Small velocity change maneuvers can also be made
with the Service Module reaction controls. The Command Module
Reaction Control System consists of two independent six-engine
subsystems of 94 pounds thrust each. One is activated after
separation from the Service Module, and is used for spacecraft
attitude control during entry. The other is maintained in a
sealed condition as a backup. Propellants for both systems
are monomethyl hydrazine fuel and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer
with helium pressurization. These propellants are hypergolic,
i.e.: they burn spontaneously on contact without need for an
igniter.
Electrical Power System/(EPS)--Consists of three, 31-
cell Bacon-type hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell power plants in the
Service Module which supply 28-volt DC power, three 28-volt
DC zinc-silver oxide main storage batteries in the Command
Module lower equipment bay, two pyrotechnic batteries in the
Command Module lower equipment bay, and three 115-200-volt
400-cycle three-phase AC inverters powered by the main 28-volt
DC bus. The inverters are also located in the lower equipment
bay. supercritical cryogenic hydrogen and oxygen react in the
fuel cell stacks to provide electrical power, potable water and
heat. The Command Module main batteries can be switched to fire
pyrotechnics in an emergency. A battery charger builds the
batteries to full strength as required.
Environmental Control System/(ECS)--Controls spacecraft
atmosphere, presaure and temperature and manages water. In
addition to regulating cabin and suit gas pressure, temperature
and humidity, the system removes carbon dioxide, odors and
particles, and ventilates the cabin after landing. It collects
and stores fuel cell potable water for crew use, supplies water
to the glycol evaporators for cooling, and dumps surplus water
overboard through the urine dump valve. Excess heat generated
by spacecraft equipment and crew is routed by this system to
the cabin heat exchangers, to the space radiators, to the glycol
evaporators, or it vents the heat to space.

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 -36-

Telecommunication System--Consists of pulse code

modulated telemetry for relaying to Manned Space Flight
Network stations data on spacecraft systems and crew condition,
VHF/AM and unified S-Band tracking transponder, air-to-ground
voice communications, onboard television, and a VHF recovery
beacon. Network stations can transmit to the spacecraft such
items as updates to the Apollo guidance computer and central
timing equipment, and real-time commands for certain onboard
functions.
The Apollo high-gain steerable S-Band antenna will
be flown for the first time on the Apollo 8 mission. TNeployed
shortly after CSM separation from the S-IVB stage, the high-
gain antenna will be tested in the two-way mode between the
spacecraft and the Manned Space Flight Network stations during
translunar coast, lunar orbit and Rarth return.
The high-gain S-Band antenna consists of four, 31-inch-
diameter parabolic dishes mounted on a folding boom at the
aft end of the service module. Nested alongside the service
propulsion system engine nozzle until deployment, the antenna
swings out at right angles to the spacecraft longitudinal axis,
with the boom pointing 52 degrees below the heads-up horizontal.
Signals from the ground stations can be tracked either auto-
matically or manually with the antenna's gimballing system.
All normal S-Band voice and uplink/downlink communications will
be handled by the high-gain antenna.
Sequential System--Interfaces with other spacecraft systems
and subsystems to initiate critical functions during launch,
docking maneuvers, pre-orbital aborts and entry portions of a
mission. The system also controls routine spacecraft sequencing
such as Service Module separation and deployment of the Earth
landing system.
Emergency Detection System/(EDS) --Detects and displays
to the crew launch vehicle emergency conditions, such as
excessive pitch rates or two engines out, and automatically
or manually shuts down the booster and activates the launch
escape system; functions until the spacecraft is in orbit.
Earth Landing System/(ELS)--Includes the drogue and main
parachute system as well as post-landing recovery aids. In a
normal entry descent, the Command Module apex cover is jettisoned
at 24,000 feet, followed by two mortar-deployed reefed 16.5-foot
diameter drogue parachutes for orienting and decelerating the
spacecraft. After drogue release, three pilot chutes pull out
the three main 83.3-foot diameter parachutes with two-stage
reefing to provide gradual inflation in three steps. Two main
parachutes out of three will provide a safe landing.
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 -37-
Recovery aids include the uprighting system, swimmer
interphone connections, sea dye marker, flashing beacon,
VHF recovery beacon and VHF transceiver. The uprighting
system consists of three compressor-inflated bags to turn
the spacecraft upright if it should land in the water apex
down (Stable II position).
Caution and Warning System--Monitors spacecraft systems
for out-of-tolerance conditions and alerts crew by visual and
audible alarms so that crewmen may trouble-shoot the problem.
Controls and Displays--Provide readouts and control
functions of all other spacecraft systems in the command and
service modules. All controls are designed to be operated by
crewmen in pressurized suits. Displays are grouped according
to the frequency the crew refers to them.

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 -3Tar

Q-BALL (NOSE CONE)--..

PITCH CONTROL MOTOR

JETTISON MOTOR

LAUNCH ESCAPE MOTOR

STRUCTURAL SKIRT

LAUNCH ESCAPE TOWER

TOWER ATTACHMENT (4)

COMMAND MODULE
BOOST PROTECTIVE
COVER
EPS RADIATOR
REACTION CONTROL
SYSTEM ENGINES
SERVICE MODULE

SPS ENGINE EXPANSION NOZZLE

SPACECRAFT LM
ADAPTER (SLA)

SLA PANEL JUNCTION

(BETWEEN FWD AND AFT
PANELS)

NOTE: Lunar Module INSTRUMENT UNIT

ToTif Article will be (SHOWN AS REFERENCE)
looin. on this mission
instead of Lunar Module

SPACECRAFT CONFIGURATION
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 -37b-

ix

-Y

LA 1)1' ICH ESCAPE TOWER

•TTACJIA•E'JT ;TYPICAL;

CREA ACCESS
HA T 14

AFT
HEATSHIELD
SEA ANT HO;
ATTACH p^1 , 4T

POSITIVE PITCH ENGINES

.y

-2

LEFT HANu
FORWARD COMPARTMENT FORWARD EQUIPMENT BAY
RIGHT 'HAND
FORWARD
EQUIPMENT BAY

LOWER
EQUIPMENT
!AY

AFT EQUIPMENT STORAGE BAY

LEFT HAND EQUIPMENT BAY RIGHT HAND EQUIPMENT BAY

2'4 A

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 -37e-

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 -37d-

SERVICE MODULE
BLOCK II
ECS RADIATOR

EPS RADIATORS

SPS

DOCKING
LIGHTS S-BAND
CM/SM HIGH GAIN
-

FAIRING ANTENNA

:).410.1.:0, SUM, ;ANK

TRUSS it. PLACES.

EPS RADIATOR

FUEL CELL SPS HELIUM TANKS

POWER PLANTS

CS OUAD
02 TANKS

ECS SPACE RADIATOR

ri2 TANKS

FUEL STORAGE TANK

FUEL SUMP TANK

FUEL FILL POINT

SPS ENGINE
EXPANSION NOZZLE

AND A ARE SO-DEGREE SECTORS

1 AND S ARE 70-DEGREE SECTORS
1 AND 6 ARE 60-0EGREE SECTORS
 -38-

SATURN V LAUNCH VEHICLE

The white Saturn V launch vehicle, with the Apollo

spacecraft and launch escape system mounted atop, towers
363 feet above the launch pad. The three propulsive stages
and the instrument unit have a combined height of 281 feet.
The vehicle weighs 6,219,760 pounds at ignition.
Marked with black paint in sections for better optical
tracking, identified with huge red lettering, and wearing
the United States Flag on the first stage, the giant vehicle
is capable of hurling 285,000 pounds into low Earth orbit or
sending about 100,000 pounds to the Moon.

First Stage
The first stage (S-IC) of the Saturn V is 138 feet tall
and 33 feet in diameter, not including the fins and engine
shrouds on the thrust structure. It was developed jointly
by the National Aerohautica and Space Administration's
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., and The
Boeing Co.
Marshall assembled four S-IC stages: a structural test
model, a static test version and the first two flight stages.
The first flight stage launched Apollo 4 on the first Saturn V
flight Nov. 9, 1967. The second S-IC launched Apollo 6 on
April 4, 1968.
Boeing, as prime contractor, built two ground test units.
Boeing is responsible for assembly of the other 13 flight
stages at Marshall's Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans.
The first flight model S-IC built by Boeing is the first stage
of the AS-503 launch vehicle.
The static test model and the first three flight versions
were fired at the Marshall Space Flight Center Test Laboratory.
All other S-IC stages are being test fired at Marshall's
Mississippi Test Facility in Hancock County, Miss.
Dry weight of the first stage is 305,650 pounds. Its
two propellant tanks have a total capacity of 4.4 million
ounds of fuel and oxidizer -- some 202,000 gallons

1 1,352,711 pounds of RP-1 (kerosene) and 329,000 gallons

1 3,130,553 pounds of liquid oxygen. Stage weight at sepa-
ration, including residual propellants, will be 380,738 pounds.
The normal propellant flow rate to the five F-1 engines is
28,000 pounds per second. The five engines produce a combined
thrust roughly equivalent to 180 million horsepower at maximum
speed.
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 -39-

During the planned 151 seconds of burn time, the engines

will propel the Apollo/Saturn V to an altitude of 36.3 nautical
miles p1.9 sm, 67 km and carry it downrange 47.4 nautical
miles 54.6 sm, 88 km , making good a speed of 5,267,3 knots
(6,068 statute miles-per-hour) at first stage engine cutoff.
Four of the engines are mounted on a ring, each 90
degrees from its neighbor. These four can be gimballed to
control the rocket's direction of flight.
The fifth engine is mounted rigidly in the center.

Second Stage
The second stage (S-II) is 81.5 feet tall and 33 feet
in diameter. It weighs 88,600 pounds dry, 1,035,463 pounds
loaded with propellant. Weight at separation will be 103,374
pounds.
The 14,774 pounds difference between dry weight and weight
at separation includes the 12,610-pound. S-IC/S-II interstage
section, 2,164 pounds of ullage rocket propellants and other
items on board.
The stage's two propellant tanks carry about 271,800
gallons (152,638 pounds) of liquid hydrogen and 87,500 gallons
(792,714 pounds) of liquid oxygen. Its five J-2 engines
develop a combined thrust of 1 million pounds.
The second stage carries the rocket to an altitude of
105.8 nautical miles (121.9 sm, 197 km) and a distance of
some 805 nautical miles (927.4 sm, 1490 km) downrange. Before
burnout it will be moving 13,245 knots (15,258.3 mph). The
J-2 engines will run six minutes and seven seconds.
The Space Division of North American Rockwell Corp.,
builds the second stage at Seal Beach, Calif. The cylindrical
vehicle is made up of the forward skirt (to which the third
stage connects), the liquid hydrogen tank, the liquid oxygen
tank, the thrust structure (on which the engines are mounted
and an interstage section (to which the first stage connects
The tanks are separated by an insulated common bulkhead.
North American Rockwell conducted research and develop-
ment static testing at the Santa Susana, Calif., test facility
and at the NASA-Mississippi Test Facility. The flight stage
for the Apollo 8 was shipped via the Panama Canal for captive
firings at Mississippi Test Facility.

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 -40-

Third Stage
The third stage (S-IVB) was developed by the McDonnell
Douglas Astronautics Co. at Huntington Beach, Calif. It is
the larger and more powerful successor to the S-IV that served
as the second stage of the Saturn I.
The third stage is flown from its manufacturing site to
the McDonnell Douglas' Test Center, Sacramento, Calif., for
static test firings. The stage is then flown to the NASA-
Kennedy Space Center.
Measuring 58 feet 5 inches long by 21 feet 8 inches in
diameter, the stage weighs 26,000 pounds dry. At separation
in flight its weight will be 29,754 pounds exclusive of the
liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen in the main tanks. This
extra weight consists mainly of solid and liquid propellants
used in retro and ullage rockets and in the auxiliary propulsion
system (APS).
An interstage section connects the second and third stages.
This 8,760-pound section stays with the second stage at separa-
tion, exposing the single J-2 engine mounted on the thrust
structure. The after skirts,connected to the interstage at
the separation plane, encloses the liquid oxygen tank which
holds some 20,400 gallons of the oxidizer. Above this is the
large fuel tank holding about 77,200 gallons of liquid hydrogen.
Weight of the S-IVB and payload at insertion into parking orbit
will be 283,213 pounds. Weight at injection into translunar
trajectory will be 122,380 pounds.
Total usable propellants carried in the two tanks is
234,509 pounds, with fuel and oxidizer separated by an insulated
common bulkhead. Insulation is necessary in both upper stages
because liquid oxygen, at about 293 degrees below zero F, is
too warm for liquid hydrogen, at minus 423 degrees.
The aft skirt also serves as a mount for two auxiliary
propulsion system modules spaced 180 degrees apart. Each
module contains three liquid-fueled 147-pound thrust engines,
one each for roll, pitch and yaw, and a 72-pound-thrust,
liquid-fueled ullage engine.
Four solid-propellant retro-rockets of 37,500 pounds
thrust each are mounted on the interstage to back the second
stage away from the third stage at separation. The third stage
also carried two solid-propellant ullage motors of 3,400 pounds
thrust each. These motors help to move the third stage forward
and away from the second stage upon separation and serve the
additional purpose of settling the liquid propellants in the
bottoms of the tanks in preparation for J-2 ignition. The
first J-2 burn is 152 seconds, the second, 5 min. 12 sec.

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 -41-

Propulsion
The 41-rocket engines of the Saturn V have thrust
ratings ranging from 72 pounds to more than 1.5 million
pounds. Some engines burn liquid propellants, others use
solids.
The five F-1 engines in the first stage burn RP-1
(kerosene) and liquid oxygen. Each engine in the first stage
develops 1.415 million pounds of thrust at liftoff, building
up to 1.7 million pounds thrust before cutoff. The cluster
of five F-is gives the first stage a thrust range from
7.57 million pounds at liftoff to 8.5 million pounds just
before cutoff.
The F-1 engine weighs almost 10 tons, is more than 18
feet high and has a nozzle-exit diameter of nearly 14 feet.
The F-1 undergoes static testing for an average 650 seconds
in qualifying for the 150-second run during the Saturn V
first stage booster phase. This run period, 800 seconds,
is still far less than the 2,200 seconds of the engine
guarantee period. The engine consumes almost three tons of
propellants per second.
The first stage of the Saturn V for this mission has
four other rocket motors. These are the solid-fuel retro-
rockets which will slow and separate the stage from the second
stage. Each rocket produces a thrust of 87,900 pounds for
0.6 second.
The main propulsion for the second stage is a cluster of
five J-2 engines burning liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.
Each engine develops a mean thrust of 200,000 pounds (variable
from 175,000 to 225,000 in phases of flight), giving the stage
a total mean thrust of 1 million pounds.
Designed to operate in the hard vacuum of space, the
3,500-pound J-2 is more efficient than the F-1 because it
burns the high-energy fuel hydrogen.
The second stage also has four 21,000-pound-thrust solid-
fuel rocket engines. These are the ullage rockets mounted
on the interstage section. These rockets fire to settle
liquid propellant in the bottom of the main tanks and help
attain a "clean" separation from the first stage, then they
drop away with the interstage at second plane separation.

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 -42-

Fifteen rocket engines perform various functions on the

third stage. A single J-2 provides the main propulsive force;
there are two main ullage rockets, four retro-rockets and
eight smaller engines in the auxiliary propulsion system.

Instrument Unit
The Instrument Unit (IU) is a cylinder three feet high
and 21 feet 8 inches in diameter. It weighs 4,880 pounds.
Components making up the "brain" of the Saturn V are
mounted on cooling panels fastened to the inside surface of
the instrument unit skin. The refrigerated "cold plates" are
part of a system that removes heat by circulating fluid coolant
through a heat exchanger that evaporates water from a separate
supply into the vacuum of space.
The six major systems of the instrument unit are structural,
thermal control, guidance and control, measuring and telemetry,
radio frequency and electrical.
The instrument unit maintains navigation, guidance and
control of the vehicle; measurement of vehicle performance
and environment; data transmission with ground stations; radio
tracking of the vehicle; checkout and monitoring of vehicle
functions; detection of emergency situations; generation and
network distribution of electric power for system operation;
and preflight checkout and launch and flight operations.
A path-adaptive guidance scheme is used in the Saturn V
instrument unit. A programmed trajectory is used in the
initial launch phase with guidance beginning only after the
vehicle has left the atmosphere. This is to prevent move-
ments that might cause the vehicle to break apart while
attempting to compensate for winds, jet streams and gusts
encountered in the atmosphere.
If such air currents displace the vehicle from the
optimum trajectory in climb, the vehicle derives a new tra-
jectory. Calculations are made about once each second
throughout the flight. The launch vehicle digital computer
and launch vehicle data adapter perform the navigation and
guidance computations.
The ST-124M inertial platform -- the heart of the navi-
gation, guidance and control system -- provides space-fixed
reference coordinates and measures acceleration along the
three mutually perpendicular axes of the coordinate system.

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 -43-

International Business Machines Corp. is prime contractor

for the instrument unit and is the supplier of the guidance
signal processor and guidance computer. Major suppliers of
instrument unit components are: Electronic Communications,
Inc., control computer; Bendix Corp., ST-124M inertial plat-
form; and IBM Federal Systems Division, launch vehicle digital
computer and launch vehicle data adapter.

Launch Vehicle Camera Systems

Fewer cameras will be carried aboard the Saturn V launch
vehicle on the Apollo 8 mission than on the previous Saturn V
flights. The first stage will carry four motion picture cameras
and two television cameras. The film cameras will be ejected
for recovery.

First Stage -- Film Cameras

The four film cameras will be mounted on the inside of
the forward skirt of the first stage. Two cameras (1 and 3)
will be mounted lens forward and canted inward five degrees to
view the separation of the first and second stages. These two
cameras will start 144 seconds after liftoff and run about 40
seconds. Two cameras (2 and 4) will be mounted lens-aft, with
lenses connected by fiber optic bundles to manhole covers in
the top of the liquid oxygen tank. These covers provide viewing
windows and mounts for strobe lights. The tank will be lighted
inside by pulsed strobe to enable the cameras to record the
behavior of the liquid oxygen in flight. These two cameras
will be turned on 30 seconds before liftoff; the strobe lights
will be turned off shortly before first stage cutoff.
The film cameras, loaded with color film, are carried in
recoverable capsules inserted in ejection tubes. They will
be ejected 177 seconds after vehicle liftoff, or 25 seconds
after stage separation, at 49 nautical miles (56.4 sm, 90.8 km)
altitude at a point 76.8 nautical miles (88.5 em, 142 km) down-
range. Camera impact is expected some 413.2 nm (473 em, 763 km)
downrange about 11 minutes after liftoff.

First Stage -- Television

Both television cameras will be mounted inside the thrust
structure of the first stage.

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 -44-

A fiber optic bundle from each camera will split into

two separate bundles going to lenses mounted outside the
heatshield in the engine area. This will provide two images
for each camera, or four for the system. The images will be
tilted 90 degrees from vertical to give a wider view as two
images appear on each cathode ray tube. Each lens will view
the center engine and one outer engine, thus providing a
view of each outer engine working in conjunction with the
fixed center engine.
A removable aperture disk can De changed from f/2 to
f/22 to vary the image intensity. (Fiber optics reduce image
intensity about 70 per cent.) A quartz window, rotated by a
DC motor with a friction drive, protects the objective lens
on the end of the fiber optic bundle. Fixed metallic mesh
scrapers will remove soot from the rotating windows. Images
from the two objective lenses are combined into the dual image
in the larger fiber optics bundle by a "T" fitting. A 1.4-
element coupling lens adapts the large dual image bundle to
the camera.
Images from both cameras are multiplexed together for
transmission on a single telemetry link. The images are
unscrambled at the receiving station.
The video system cameras contain 28-volt vidicon cameras,
pre-amplifiers and vertical sweep circuits for 30 frames per
second scanning.
The TV cameras operate continuously from 55 minutes
before liftoff until destroyed on first stage reentry.

Ejection and Recovery

When the camera capsules are ejected, stabilization

flaps open for the initial part of the descent. When the
capsules descend to about 15,000 feet above ground a para-
balloon will inflate automatically, causing flaps to fall
away. A recovery radio transmitter and flashing light beacon
are turned on about 6 seconds after para-balloon inflation.
After touchdown, the capsule effuses a dye marker to aid
sighting, and it releases a shark repellent to protect the
capsules, para-balloon (which keeps the capsule afloat) and
the recovery team.

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 -5-

A Navy ship with helicopters and frogmen aboard will

be cruising in the splashdown area for the camera capsules.
The capsules will be picked up and flown by helicopter to
Kennedy Space Center. The capsules will then be transferred
to a data plane at Patrick Air Force Base, Fla., for immediate
transfer to the Marshall Center at Huntsville where the film
will be processed.
 -46-

Sequence of Events

NOTE: Information presented in this press kit is

based on a nominal mission. Plans may be altered
prior to or during flight to meet changing conditions.

Launch
The first stage of the Saturn V will carry the vehicle
and Apollo spacecraft to an altitude of 36.3 nautical miles
(41.9 sm, 67 km) and 47.4 nautical miles (54.6 sm, 88 km,
downrange, building up speed to 5,267.3 knots (6,068 mph)
in two minutes 31 seconds of powered flight.
After separation from the second stage, the first stage
will continue a ballistic trajectory ending in the
Atlantic Ocean some 357.6 nautical miles (412 sm, 665 km)
downrange from Cape Kennedy (latitude 30.24 degrees N
and longitude 74.016 degrees W) about nine minutes after
liftoff.
Second Stage
The second stage, with engines running 6 minutes
and 7 seconds will propel the vehicle to an altitude of
about 105.8 nautical miles (121.9 sm, 197 km) some 805
nautical miles (927.4 sm, 1490 km) downrange, building
up to 13,245 knots (15,258.3 mph) space fixed velocity.
The spent second stage will land in the Atlantic Ocean
about 19 minutes after lift-off some 2,190 nautical miles
(2,527 sm, 407 km) from the launch site, at latitude 31.79
degrees N and longitude 38,24 degrees W.
First Third-Stage Burn
The third stage, in its 152-second initial burn,
will place itself and the Apollo spacecraft in a circular
orbit 103 nautical miles (119 sm, 191.3 km) above the
Earth, Its inclination will be 32.5 degrees and orbital
period, 88.2 minutes. Apollo 8 will enter orbit at
about 47.08 degrees W longitude and 26.33 degrees
N latitude at a velocity of 25,592 feet-per-second
(17,433 statute mph or 15,132 knots).
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 -47-

Parking Orbit
While in the two revolutions in Earth parking orbit,
the Saturn V third stage and spacecraft systems will be
checked out in preparation for the second S-IVB burn.
Second Third-Stage Burn
Near the end of the second revolution, the J-2
engine of the third stage will be reignited for 5 minutes
12 seconds. This will inject the vehicle and spacecraft
into a translunar trajectory. About 20 minutes later the
CSM separates from the S-IVB/IU. Following separation,
the S-IVB performs an attitude maneuver in preparation
for dumping LOX residuals and a burn to depletion of the
S-IVB auxiliary propulsion system (APS). Dumping of
S-IVB LOX residuals and APS Burn on Apollo lunar missions
may be done to alter the velocity and trajectory of the
spent S-IVB-IU to place it in a "slingshot" trajectory
passing behind the Moon's trailing edge into solar orbit.

Differences In Apollo 6 and Apollo 8 Launch Vehicles

The new helium prevalve cavity pressurization system

will be flying on the S-IC for the first time. In this
system, cavities in the liquid oxygen prevalves are filled
with helium to create accumulators or "shock absorbers" to
damp out oscillations. This system was Installed to
prevent excessive longitudinal oscillations experienced
in the Apollo 6 flight.
The center engine of the S-IC stage will be cut off
early(l26 seconds after liftoff) in the boost phase.
This is being done to keep acceleration forces from
passing the four "g" level.

Software changes in the instrument unit will give

a new cant capability to the outboard F-1 engines of the
first stage. The engines will be in the normal position
until the vehicle clears the launch tower. The engines
will then cant outward two degrees to reduce the load
on the spacecraft in the event one of the F-1 engines
cut off prematurely.

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 -48-

The S-IC stage will also be carrying added instru-

mentation on this flight. The added instruments will
monitor the actions of the first stage in connection with
the accumulators installed to reduce longitudinal
oscillations.
On the S-Il stage, the propellant utilization system
will have an open loop capability for improved reliability.
Commands from the instrument unit will keep the propellants
close to the planned levels.
The liquid hydrogen engine feed line for each J-2
engine has been redesigned, and the auxiliary spark
igniter lines have been replaced.
Leaks developed in the Augmented Spark Igniter (ASI)
lines of two J-2 engines on the second Saturn V launched.
The new lines, without flex joints, were tested on the
Apollo 7 flight and verified as satisfactory.
Film cameras will nct be carried on the second stage
of Apollo 8. On Apollo 6 two recoverable cameras
recorded the first and second plane separations of the
first and second stages.
A lightweight forward bulkhead in the liquid
hydrogen tank is being used in this vehicle. The original
bulkhead was damaged during production of the S-lI stage
about two years ago. The new bulkhead is the same type
which will be used in S-Il stages of all future Saturn V
vehicles.
Added instrumentation will also be flown on the S-Il
stage. The added equipment will monitor the actions of
the new ASI lines and further verify their suitability
for future flights.
The thrust of the J-2 engines on this S-Il stage
will reach almost 230,000 pounds at one point. (Average
engine thrust will be 228,290.7 pounds for a total stage
thrust of 1,141,453.7 pounds.) The engines will ignite
at a mixture ratio of 5.0 to 1 and then shift to 5.5 to
1 for the first portion of the burn. The high thrust
occurs during the high mixture ratio burn phase. The
mixture ratio then shifts at 440 seconds after liftoff
back to 4.5 to 1 for the remainder of the powered flight.
(Average engine thrust is 180,168.7 pounds for a stage
total thrust of 900,843.7 pounds.)
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 The propellant utilization system for the S-IVB stage
will also have the open loop capability.
The J-2 engine of the third stage is an uprated
version with a top thrust of 230,000 pounds at the mixture
ratio of 5.5 to 1. However, the engine will not reach
230,000 pounds thrust on this flight because the 5.5
to 1 mixture ratio is not planned. It is the first
uprated J-2 engine to be flown.
A helium heater will be used as a repressurization
system on the S-IVB for the first time on this flight.
In this system, cold helium from the storage bottles
are heated to provide pressurization for the fuel tank.
The capability to reignite the S-IVB stage engine
after separation from the spacecraft has been added to
this vehicle. The prime mission plan calls for the
stage to be reignited in Earth parking orbit with the
spacecraft attached. The added capability will permit
stage reignition even if some unforeseen trouble requires
separation of the spacecraft from the stage while in
Earth parking orbit.
For example, loss of an F-1 engine during S-IC
powered flight might require the use of too much S-IVB
propellant in reaching Earth parking orbit. This would
leave a shortage of propellant for the translunar
injection burn. Also, a condition might be discovered
during parking orbit which would pose a risk to the
astronauts if the S-IVB was restarted while the spacecraft
was attached. In any event of separation, the S-NB
will still be restarted, if possible, so that test data
can be obtained from the stage even though it will
be unmanned.
The redesigned ASI line will also be flown on this
flight. It will be monitored again to verify satisfactory
findings on the AS-205 flight. Instrumentation for
checking out the new line has also been added, while
research and development instrumentation no longer needed
in some other parts of the vehicle has been removed.
Launch Vehicle Instrumentation and Communications

A total of 2,608 measurements will be taken in flight

on the Saturn V launch vehicle.
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 -50-

This includes 893 in the first stage, 978 in the

second stage, 359 in the third stage and 378 in the
instrument unit.
The Saturn V will carry 20 telemetry systems, six
on the first stage, six on the second stage, three on the
third stage and five on the instrument unit. The vehicle
will carry a radar tracking system on the first stage
and a C-Band system and command system on the instrument
unit. Each propulsive stage will carry a range safety
system as on previous flights. Four motion picture
cameras in recoverable capsules and two television
cameras will also be on the first stage.
 -51-

APOLLO 8 LAUNCH OPERATIONS

NASA's John F. Kennedy Space Center is responsible

for preflight checkout, test and launch of the Apollo 8
space vehicle. A government-industry team of about 450
will conduct the final countdown from Firing Room 1 of the
Launch Control Center (LCC).
The firing room team is backed up by more than 5,000
persons who are directly involved in launch operations at
KSC--from the time the vehicle and spacecraft stages arrive
at the center until the launch is completed.
Two major decisions made while flight hardware for
Apollo 8 was at Kennedy Space Center had a pronounced
affect on the scheduling of checkout and launch operations
at KSC.
The first was the decision in April of this year to
fly Apollo 8 as the first manned Saturn V flight. At
that time, the launch vehicle had been erected on its
mobile launcher in high bay number 1 of the Vehicle
Assembly Building (VAB).
As a result of this decision, it was necessary to
disassemble the stages so that the second stage (S-II) could
be returned to Marshall Space Flight Center's Mississippi
Test Facility (MTF). There it underwent modifications
to prepare it for manned flight and to ensure that the
problem which caused premature shutdown of two engines on
the previous flight was corrected.
While the second stage was at MTF, modification kits
were sent to KSC fpr installation on the first (S-IC)
and third (S-IVB) stages to correct the launch vehicle
longitudinal vibration anomaly and the failure of the
third-stage engine to reignite in orbit. Both of these
problems occurred on the second unmanned Saturn V flight,
Apollo 6.
The second stage was returned to KSC in late June
and erected on the booster in high bay number 1 in July.
The third stage and instrument unit were erected the
following month.
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In August the decision was made not to fly a lunar

module on Apollo 8. Lunar Module 3, which had been
scheduled for the mission, had been at KSC since June,
and was carried as part of the Apollo 8 spacecraft checkout
schedule. As a result of this decision, LM-3 was dropped
from the spacecraft schedule and a lunar module test
article was inserted.
Assembly and checkout of Apollo 8 has been carried
out while launch teams at KSC prepared and launched the
Apollo 7 mission and began preparation for the Apollo 9
and Apollo 10 missions, scheduled for the first and second
quarter of next year.
On Oct. 9, when the Apollo 8 space vehicle was
moved from the Vehicle Assembly Building to Pad A, the
launch team for Apollo 7 was conducting the final count-
down to launch for the first manned Apollo mission. The
Apollo 9 launch vehicle was already erected in the Vehicle
Assembly Building and its command, service, and lunar
modules were undergoing checkout in the Manned Spacecraft
Operations Building (MSOB) in the industrial area. Lunar
Module 4, the first flight hardware for Apollo 10 to arrive
at KSC, was also undergoing checkout in the MSOB.
The Apollo 8 command and service modules arrived at
KSC in mid-August and were taken to the Manned Spacecraft
Operations Building for checkout and altitude chamber
runs. The prime and backup crews each participated in
altitude chamber tests during which spacecraft and crew
systems were checked out at simulated altitudes in excess
of 200,000 feet.
At the completion of testing in the altitude chamber,
the CSM was mated to the spacecraft lunar module adapter
(SLA) and moved to the VAB where it was mechanically
mated to the launch vehicle. The move to the VAB and
erection on the launch vehicle was completed Oct. 7.
Following installation of certain ordnance items and the
launch escape system, the space vehicle was moved to Pad A
by the crawler transporter.
Integrated systems testing was conducted at the pad
and the space vehicle was electrically mated in early
November.

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The first overall test of the space vehicle, called

the Overall Test, Plugs In, verified the compatibility of
the space vehicle systems, ground support equipment, and
off-site support facilities by demonstrating the ability
of the systems to proceed through a simulated count-
down, launch, and flight. During the simulated flight
portion of the test, the systems were required to respond
to both emergency and normal flight conditions.
The space vehicle Flight Readiness Test was conducted
in mid-November. This was the last overall test before
the countdown demonstration. Both the prime and backup
crews participate in portions of the FRT, which is a
final overall test of the vehicle systems and associated
ground support equipment when all systems are as near as
possible to a launch configuration.
After hypergolic fuels were loaded aboard the space
vehicle and RP-1, the launch vehicle first stage fuel
was brought aboard, and the final major test of the sace
p
vehicle began. This was the countdown demonstration test
(CDDT), a dress rehearsal for the final countdown to
launch. The CDDT for Apollo 8 was divided into a "wet"
and a "dry" portion. During the first, or "wet" portion,
the entire countdown, including propellant loading, was
carried out down to T-8.9 seconds. The astronaut crews
did not participate in the wet CDDT. At the completion
of the wet CDDT, the cryogenic propellants (liquid oxygen
and liquid hydrogen) were off-loaded, and the final
portion of the countdown was re-run, this time simulating
the fueling and with the prime astronaut crew participating
as they will on launch day.
Because of the complexity involved in the checkout
of the 363-foot-tall Apollo/Saturn V configuration, the
launch teams make use of extensive automation in their
checkout. Automation is one of the major differences in
checkout used on Apollo compared to the procedures used
in the Mercury and Gemini programs.
RCA 110A compjters, data display equipment and
digital data techniques are used throughout the automatic
checkout from the time the launch vehicle is erected in
the VAB through liftoff. A similar, but separate computer
operation called ACE (Acceptance Checkout Equipment) is
used to verify the flight readiness of the spacecraft.
Spacecraft checkout is controlled from separate firing
rooms located in the Manned Spacecraft Operations Building.
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 -54-
Countdown

Hrs: Min: Secs:

T - 28: 00: 00 Start launch vehicle and space-
craft countdown activities

- 24: 30: 00 S-II power-up

- 24: 00: 00 S-IVB power-up

- 09: 00: 00 Six-hour built-in hold

- 09: 00: 00 End of built-in hold close

Command Module and boost protective
cover hatch

- 08: 59: 00 Clear pad for launch vehicle cryo

loading
- 07: 28: 00 Start S-IVB LOX loading
- 07: 04: 00 S-IVB LOX loading complete;
start S-II LOX loading

- 06: 27: 00 S-II LOX loading complete;

start S-IC LOX loading
- 04: 57: 00 S-IC LOX loading complete

- 04: 54: 00 Start S-II liquid hydrogen loading

- 04: 11: 00 S-Il liquid hydrogen loading
complete; start S-IVB liquid
hydrogen loading
- 03: 30: 00 Flight crew departs Manned
Spacecraft Operations building
- 03: 28: 00 S-IVB liquid hydrogen loading
complete
- 03: 13: 00 Closeout crew on station; start
ingress preps
- 02: 40: 00 Start flight crew ingress
- 02: 10: 00 Flight crew ingress complete
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Hrs: Min: Secs:

T - 01: 40: 00 Close spacecraft hatch

- 01: 00: 00 Start RP-1 level adjust

- 00: 42: 00 Arm Launch Escape System pyro
buses
- 00: 35: 00 132-1 level adjust complete
- 00: 15: 00 Spacecraft on internal power
- 00: 05: 30 Arm Safe and Arm devices
- 00: 03: 07 Terminal Count Sequence (TCS)
start
- 00: 00: 17.2 Guidance reference release
command
- 00: 00: 08.9 S-IC ignition command
- 00: 00: 00 Lift-off

NOTE: The foregoing is the Apollo 8 countdown that was pre-

pared as the press kit was ready for printing. Some
changes may be made as a result of the Countdown
Demonstration Test (CDDT).
 -56-

KSC Launch Complex 39

Launch Complex 39 facilities at the Kennedy Space

Center were planned and built specifically for the
Saturn V program, the space vehicle that will be used
to carry astronauts to the Moon.
Complex 39 introduced the mobile concept of launch
operations, a departure from the fixed launch pad techniques
used previously at Cape Kennedy and other launch sites.
Since the early 1950's when the first ballistic missiles
were launched, the fixed launch concept had been used
on NASA missions. This method called for assembly,
checkout and launch of a rocket at one site--the launch
pad. In addition to tying up the pad, this method also
often left the flight equipment exposed to the outside
influences of the weather for extended periods.
Using the mobile concept, the space vehicle is thoroughly
checked in an enclosed building before it is moved to
the launch pad for final preparations. This affords
greater protection, a more systematic checkout process
using computer techniques, and a high launch rate for the
future, since the pad time is minimal.
Saturn V stages are shipped to the Kennedy Space
Center by ocean-going vessels and specially designed aircraft,
such as the Guppy. Apollo spacecraft modules are transported
by air. The spacecraft components are first taken to the
Manned Spacecraft Operations Building for preliminary
checkout. The Saturn V stages are brought immediately
to the Vehicle Assembly Building after arrival at the
nearby turning basin.
Apollo 8 is the third Saturn V to be launched from
Pad A, Complex 39. The historic first launch of the
Saturn V, designated Apollo 4, took place Nov. 9, 1967
after a perfect countdown and on-time liftoff at 7 a.m.
EST. The second Saturn .V mission--Apollo 6--was conducted
last April 4.
 -57-

The major components of Complex 39 include: (1) the

Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) where the Apollo 8 was
assembled and prepared; (2) the Launch Control Center, where
the launch team conducts the preliminary checkout and count-
down; (3) the mobile launcher, upon which the Apollo 8 was
erected for checkout and from where it will be launched; (4)
the mobile service structure, which provides external access
to the space vehicle at the pad; (5) the transporter, which
carries the space vehicle and mobile launcher, as well as the
mobile service structure to the pad; (6) the crawlerway over
which the space vehicle travels from the VAB to the launch pad;
and (7) the launch pad itself.
The Vehicle Assembly Building

The Vehicle Assembly Building is the heart of Launch

Complex 39. Covering eight acres, it is where the 363-foot-
tall space vehicle is assembled and tested.
The VAB contains 129,482,000 cubic feet of space. It
is 716 feet long, and 518 feet wide and it covers 343,500
square feet of floor space.
The foundation of the VAB rests on 4,225 steel pilings,
each 16 inches in diameter, driven from 150 to 170 feet to
bedrock. If placed end to end, these piles would extend a
distance of 123 miles. The skeletal structure of the building
contains approximately 60,000 tons of structural steel. The
exterior is covered by more than a million square feet of
insulated aluminum siding.
The building is divided into a high bay area 525 feet
high and a low bay area 210 feet high, with both areas serviced
by a transfer aisle for movement of vehicle stages.
The low bay work area, approximately 442 feet wide
and 274 feet long, contains eight stage-preparation and check-
out cells. These cells are equipped with systems to simulate
stage interface and operation with other stages and the instru-
ment unit of the Saturn V launch vehicle.
After the Apollo 8 launch vehicle upper stages arrived
at the Kennedy Space Center, they were moved to the low bay
of the VAB. Here, the second and third stages underwent accep-
tance and checkout testing prior to mating with the S-IC first
stage atop mobile launcher No. 1 in the high bay area.
The high bay provides the facilities for assembly and
checkout of both the launch vehicle and spacecraft. It contains
four separate bays for vertical assembly and checkout. At
present, three bays are equipped, and the fourth will be reserved
for possible changes in vehicle configuration.
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Work platforms -- some as high as three-story buildings --

in the high bays provide access by surrounding the launch vehicle
at varying levels. Each high bay has five platforms. Each
platform consists of two bi-parting sections that move in from
opposite sides and mate, providing a 360-degree access to the
section of the space vehicle being checked.
A 10,000-ton-capacity air conditioning system, sufficient
to cool about 3,000 homes, helps to control the environment
within the entire office, laboratory, and workshop complex
located inside the low bay area of the VAB. Air conditioning
is also fed to individual platform levels located around the
vehicle.
There are 141 lifting devices in the VAB, ranging from
one-ton hoists to two 250-ton high-lift bridge cranes.
The mobile launchers, carried by transporter vehicles,
move in and out of the VAB through four doors in the high
bay area, one in each of the bays. Rach door is shaped like
an inverted T. They are 152 feet wide and 114 feet high at
the base, narrowing to 76 feet in width. Total door height is
456 feet.
The lower section of each door is of the aircraft
hangar type that slides horizontally on tracks. Above this
are seven telescoping vertical lift panels stacked one above
the other, each 50 feet high and driven by an individual motor.
Each panel slides over the next to create an opening large
enough to permit passage of the Mobile Launcher.
The Launch Control Center

Adjacent to the VAB is the Launch Control Center (LCC).

This four-story structure is a radical departure from the
dome-shaped blockhouses at other launch sites.
The electronic "brain" of Launch Complex 39, the LOC
was used for checkout and test operations while Apollo 8 was
being assembled inside the VAB. The LCC contains display,
monitoring, and control equipment used for both checkout and
launch operations.
The building has telemeter checkout stations on its
second floor, and four firing rooms, one for each high bay
of the VAB, on its third floor. Three firing rooms will contain
identical sets of control and monitoring equipment, so that
launch of a vehicle and checkout of others may take place
simultaneously. A ground computer facility is associated with
each firing room.

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 -59-

The high speed computer data link is provided between

the LCC and the mobile launcher for checkout of the launch
vehicle. This link can be connected to the mobile launcher
at either the VAB or at the pad.
The three equipped firing rooms have some 450 consoles
which contain controls and displays required for the check-
out process. The digital data links connecting with the high
bay areas of the VAB and the launch pads carry vast amounts
of data required during checkout and launch.
There are 15 display systems in each LCC firing room,
with each system capable of providing digital information
instantaneously.
Sixty television cameras are positioned around the
Apollo/Saturn V transmitting pictures on 10 modulated
channels. The LCC firing room also contains 112 operational
intercommunication channels used by the crews in the check-
out and launch countdown.
Mobile Launcher

The mobile launcher is a transportable launch base

and umbilical tower for the space vehicle. Three launchers
are used at Complex 39.
The launcher base is a two-story steel structure, 25
feet high, 160 feet long, and 135 feet wide. It is positioned
on six steel pedestals 22 feet high when in the VAB or at the
launch pad. At the launch pad, in addition to the six steel
pedestals, four extendable colums also are used to stiffen the
mobile launcher against rebound loads, if the engine cuts off.
The umbilical tower, extending 398 feet above the launch
platform, is mounted an one end of the launcher base. A ham-
merhead crane at the top has a hook height of 376 feet above
the deck with a traverse radius of 85 feet from the center of
the tower.
The 12-million-pound mobile launcher stands 445 feet
high when resting on its pedestals. The base, covering about
half an acre, is a compartmented structure built of 25-foot
steel girders.
The launch vehicle sits over a 45-foot-square opening
which allows an outlet for engine exhausts into a trench con-
taining a flame deflector. This opening is lined with a
replaceable steel blast shield, independent of the structure,
and will be cooled by a water curtain initiated two seconds
after liftoff.
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 -60-

There are nine hydraulically-operated service arms

on the umbilical tower. These swing arms support lines for
the vehicle umbilical systems And provide access for personnel
to the stages as well as the astronaut crew to the spacecraft.
On Apollo 8 two of the service arms (including the Apollo
spacecraft access arm) are retracted early in the count. A
third is released at T-30 seconds, and a fourth at about T-15
seconds. The remaining five arms Are set to swing back at
vehicle first motion after T-0.
The swing arms are equipped with a backup retraction
system in case the primary mode fails.
The Apollo access arm (swing arm No. 9), located at the
320-foot level above the launcher base, provides access to
the spacecraft cabin for the closeout team and Astronaut
crews. Astronauts Borman, Lovell and Anders will board the
spacecraft starting at about T-2 hours, 40 minutes in the count.
The access arm will be moved to a parked position, 12 degrees
from the spacecraft, at about T-42 minutes.
This is a distance of about three feet, which permits
a rapid reconnection of the arm to the spacecraft in the event
of an emergency condition. The arm is fully retracted at the
T-5 minute mark in the count.
The Apollo 8 vehicle is secured to the mobile launcher
by four combination support and hold-down arms mounted on the
launcher deck. The hold-down arms are cast in one piece, about
6 by 9 feet at the base and 10 feet tall, weighing more than
20 tons. Damper struts secure the vehicle near its top.
After the engines ignite, the arms hold Apollo 8 for
about six seconds until the engines build up to 95 per cent
thrust and other monitored systems indicate they are functioning
properly. The arms release on receipt of a launch commit signal
at the zero mark in the count.
The Transporter

The six-million-pound transporters, the largest tracked

vehicles known, move mobile launchers into the VAB and mobile
launchers with assembled Apollo space vehicles to the launch
pad. They also are used to transfer the mobile service structure
to and from the launch pads. Two transporters are in use at
Complex 39

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 -61-

The Transporter is 131 feet long and 114 feet wide.

The vehicle moves on four double-tracked crawlers, each
10 feet high and 40 feet long. Each shoe on the crawler
tracks seven feet six inches in length and weighs about A
ton.
Sixteen traction motors powered by four 1,000-kilowatt
generators, which in turn are driven by two 2,750-horsepower
diesel engines, provide the motive power for the transporter.
Two 750-kw generators, driven by two 1,065-horsepower diesel
engines, power the jacking, steering, lighting, ventilating
and electronic systems.
Maximum speed of the transporter is about one-mile-
per-hour loaded and about two-miles-per-hour unloaded. A
32 mile trip to the pad with a mobile launcher, made at less
than maximum speed, takes approximately seven hours.
The transporter has a leveling system designed to keep
the top of the space vehicle vertical within plus-or-minus
10 minutes of arc -- about the dimensions of a basketball.
This system also provides leveling operations required
to negotiate the five per cent ramp which leads to the launch
pad, and keeps the load level when it is raised and lowered
on pedestals both at the pad and within the VAB.
The overall height of the transporter is 20 feet from
ground level to the top deck on which the mobile launcher is
mated for transportation. The deck is flat and about the size
of a baseball diamond (90 by 90 feet).
Two operator control cabs, one at each end of the chassis
located diagonally opposite each other, provide totally en-
closed stations from which all operating and control functions
are coordinated.
The transporter moves on a roadway 131 feet wide,
divided by a median strip. This is almost as broad as an
eight-lane turnpike and is designed to accommodate a combined
weight of about 18 million pounds.
The roadway is built in three layers with an average depth
of seven feet. The roadway base layer is two-and-one-half feet
of hydraulic fill compacted to 95 per cent density. The next
layer consists of three feet of crushed rock packed to maximum
density, followed by a layer of one foot of selected hydraulic
fill. The bed is topped and sealed with an asphalt prime coat.

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On top of the three layers is a cover of river rock,

eight inches deep on the curves and six inches deep on the
straightway. This layer reduces the friction during steering
and helps distribute the load on the transporter bearings.
Mobile Service Structure

A .402-foot-tall, 9.8-million-pound tower is used to

service the Apollo-launch vehicle and spacecraft at the ned.
The 40-story steel-trussed tower, called a mobile service
structure, provides 360-degree platform access to the Saturn
vehicle and the Apollo spacecraft.
The service structure has five platforms -- two self-
propelled and three fixed, but movable. Two elevators carry
personnel and equipment between work platforms. The platforms
can open and close around the 363-foot space vehicle.
After depositing the mobile launcher with its space
vehicle on the pad, the transporter returns to a parking area
about 7,000 feet from the pad. There it picks up the mobile
service structure and moves it to the launch pad. At the
pad, the huge tower is lowered and secured to four mount
mechanisms.
The top three work platforms are located in fixed
positions which serve the Apollo spacecraft. The two lower
movable platforms serve the Saturn V.
The mobile service structure remains in position until
about T-11 hours when it is removed from its mounts and returned
to the parking area.
Water Deluge System

A water deluge system will provide a million gallons

of industrial water for cooling and fire prevention during
launch of Apollo 8. Once the service arms are retracted at
liftoff, a spray system will come on to cool these arms from
the heat of the five Saturn F-1 engines during liftoff.
On the deck of the mobile launcher are 29 water nozzles.
This deck deluge will start immediately after liftoff and will
pour across the face of the launcher for 30 seconds at the rate
of 50,000 gallons-per-minute. After 30 seconds, the flow will
be reduced to 20,000 gallons-per-minute.

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Positioned on both sides of the flame trench are a

series of nozzles which will begin pouring water at 8,000
gallons-per-minute, 10 seconds before liftoff. This water will
be directed over the flame deflector.
Other flush mounted nozzles, positioned around the pad,
will wash away any fluid spill as a protection against fire
hazards.
Water spray systems also are available along the
egress route that the astronauts and closeout crews would
follow in case an emergency evacuation was required.
Flame Trench and Deflector

The flame trench is 58 feet wide and approximately six

feet above mean sea level at the base. The height of the
trench and deflector is approximately 42 feet.
The flame deflector weighs about; 1.3 million pounds and
is stored outside the flame trench on rails. When it is moved
beneath the launcher, it is raised hydraulically into position.
The deflector is covered with a four-and-one-half-inch thick-
ness of refractory concrete consisting of a volcanic ash aggregate
and a calcuim aluminate binder. The heat and blast of the
engines are expected to wear about three-quarters of an inch
from this refractory surface during the Apollo 8 launch.
Pad Areas

Both Pad A and Pad B of Launch Complex 39 are roughly

octagonal in shape and cover about one fourth of a square
mile of terrain.
The center of the pad is a hardstand constructed of
heavily reinforced concrete. In addition to supporting the
weight of the mobile launcher and the Saturn V vehicle, it
also must support the 9.8-million-pound mobile service structure
and 6-million-pound transporter, all at the same time. The
top of the pad stands some 48 feet above sea level.
Saturn V propellants -- liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen,
and RP-I -- are stored near the pad perimeter.
Stainless steel, vacuum-Jacketed pipes carry the liquid
oxygen (L010 and liquid hydrogen from the storage tanks to
the pad, up the mobile launcher, and finally into the launch
vehicle propellant tanks.

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 -64-

LOX is supplied from a 900,000-gallon storage tank. A

centrifugal pump with a discharge pressure of 320 pounds-per-
square-inch pumps LOX to the vehicle at flow rates as high as
10,000-gallons-per-minute.
Liquid hydrogen, used in the second and third stages,
is stored in an 850,000-gallon tank, and is sent through
1,500 feet of 10-inch, vacuum-jacketed invar pipe. A vaporizing
heat exchanger pressurizes the storage tank to 60 psi for a
10,000-gallons-per-minute flow rate.

The RP-1 fuel, a high grade of kerosene is stored in

three tanks--each with a capacity of 86,000 gallons. It is
pumped at a rate of 2,000 gallons-per-minute at 175 Psig.
The Complex 39 pneumatic system includes a converter-
compressor facility, a pad high-pressure gas storage battery,
a high-presssure storage battery in the VAB, low and high-
pressure, cross-country supply lines, high-pressure hydrogen
storage and conversion equipment, and pad distribution piping
to pneumatic control panels. The various purging systems
require 187,000 pounds of liquid nitrogen and 21,000 gallons
of helium.

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 -65-

MISSION CONTROL CENTER

The Mission Control Center at the Manned Spacecraft

Center, Houston, is the focal point for all Apollo flight
control activities. The Center will receive tracking
and telemetry data from the Manned Space Flight Network.
These data will be processed through the Mission Control
Center Real-Time Computer Complex and used to drive
displays for the flight controllers and engineers in
the Mission Operations Control Room and staff support rooms.
The Manned Space Flight Network tracking and data
acquisition stations link the flight controllers at the
Center to the spacecraft.
For Apollo 8, all stations will be remote sites
without flight control teams. All uplink commands and
voice communications will originate from Houston, and
telemetry data will be sent back to Houston at high speed
(2,400 bits per second), on two separate data lines.
They can be either real time or playback information.
Signal flow for voice circuits between Houston and
the remote sites is via commercial carrier, usually
satellite, wherever possible using leased lines which
are part of the NASA Communications Network.
Commands are sent from Houston to NASA's Goddard
Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md., lines which link
computers at the two points. The Goddard computers
provide automatic switching facilities and speed buffering
for the command data. Data are transferred from Goddard
to remote sites on high speed (2,400 bits per second)
lines. Command loads also can be sent by teletype from
Houston to the remote sites at 100 words per minute.
Again, Goddard computers provide storage and switching
functions.
Telemetry data at the remote site are received by
the RF receivers, processed by the Pulse Code Modulation
ground stations, and transferred to the 642B remote-site
telemetry computer for storage, Depending on the format
selected by the telemetry controller at Houston, the
642B will output the desired format through a 2010 data
transmission unit which provides parallel to serial
conversion, and drives a 2,400 bit-per-second modem.
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 -66-

The data modem converts the digital serial data

to phase-shifted keyed tones which are fed to the high
speed data lines of the Communications Network.
Telemetry summary messages can also be output by
the 642B computer, but these messages are sent to Houston
on 100-word-per-minute teletype lines rather than on the
high-speed lines.
Tracking data are output from the sites in a low
speed (100 words) teletype format and a 240-bit block
high speed (2,400 bits) format. Data rates are 1 sample-6
seconds for teletype and 10 samples (frames) per second
for high speed data.
All high-speed data, whether tracking or telemetry,
which originate at a remote site are sent to Goddard
on high-speed lines. Goddard reformats the data when
necessary and sends them to Houston in 600-bit blocks
at a 40,800 bits-per-second rate. Of the 600-bit block,
480 bits are reserved for data, the other 120 bits for
address, sync, intercomputer instructions, and poly-
nominal error encoding.
All wideband 40,800 bits-per-second data originating
at Houston are converted to high speed (2,400 bits-per-
second) data at Goddard before being transferred to the
designated remote site.
 -67-

MANNED SPACE FLIGHT NETWORK

The Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN) will have 14

ground stations, four instrumented ships, and six instrumented
aircraft ready for participation in Apollo 8.

The MSFN is designed to keep in close contact with the

spacecraft and astronauts at all times, except for the approxi-
mate 45 minutes Apollo will be behind the Moon. The network
is designed to provide reliable, continuous, and instantaneous
communications with the astronauts, launch vehicle, and space-
craft from liftoff to splashdown.
As the spacecraft lifts off from Kennedy Space Center,
the tracking stations will be watching it. As the Saturn
ascends, voice and data will be instantaneously transmitted
to Mission Control Center (MCC) in Houston. Data will be run
through computers at MCC for visual display for flight controllers.
Depending on the launch azimuth, a string of 30-foot
diameter antennas around the Earth will keep tabs on Apollo 8
and transmit information back to Houston. First, the station
at Merritt Island, then it will be Grand Bahama Island,
Bermuda, the Vanguard tracking ship, and Canary Island. Later,
Carnarvon, Australia, will pick up Apollo 8, followed by
Hawaii, the Redstone tracking ship, Guaymas, Mexico, and
Corpus Christi, Texas.
For injection into translunar orbit, MCC sends a signal
through one of the land stations or one of the three Apollo
ships in the Pacific. As the spacecraft heads for the Moon,
the engine burn is monitored by the ships and an Apollo/Range
instrumentation Aircraft (A/RIA). The A/RIA provides a relay
for the astronauts' voice and data communication with Houston.
As the spacecraft moves away from Earth, first the smaller
30-foot diameter antennas communicate with the spacecraft, then
at a spacecraft altitude of 10,000 miles they hand over the
tracking function to the larger and more powerful 85-foot
antennas. These 85-foot antennas are near Madrid, Spain;
Goldstone, Calif.; and Canberra, Australia.
The 85-foot antennas are at 120-degree intervals around
Earth so at least one antenna has the Moon in view at all
times. As the Earth revolves from west to east, one station
hands over control to the next station as it moves into view
of the spacecraft. In this way, a continuous data and com-
munication flow is maintained.

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Data is constantly relayed back through the huge antennas

and transmitted via the NASA Communications Network--a half
million miles of land and underseas cables and radio circuits,
including those through communications satellites--to MCC.
This data is fed into computers for visual display in Mission
Control. For example, a display would show on a large map,
the exact position of the spacecraft. Or returning data could
indicate a drop in power or some other difficulty which would
result in a red light going on to alert a Flight Controller to
make a decision and take action.
Returning data flowing through the Earth stations give the
necessary information for commanding mid-course maneuvers to
keep the Apollo in a proper trajectory for orbiting the Moon.
On reaching the vicinity of the Moon the data indicate the
amount of burn necessary for the service module engine to place
the spacecraft in lunar orbit. And so it goes, continuous
tracking and acquisition of data between Earth and Apollo are
used to fire the spacecraft's engine to return home and place
it on the precise trajectory for reentering the Earth's
atmosphere.
As the spacecraft comes toward Earth at about 25,000 miles
per hour, it must reenter at the proper angle.
Calculations based on data coming in at the various
tracking stations and ships are fed into the computers at MCC
where flight controllers make decisions that will provide the
returning spacecraft with the necessary information to make
accurate reentry. Appropriate MSFN stations, including tracking
ships and aircraft repositioned in the Pacific for this event,
are on hand to provide support during reentry. An A/RIA air-
craft will relay astronaut voice communications to MCC and
antennas on reentry ships will follow the spacecraft.
During the journey to the Moon and back, television will
be received from the spacecraft at the various 85-foot
antennas around the world: Spain, Goldstone, and Australia.
Scan converters at Madrid and Goldstone permit immediate
transmission via NASCOM to Mission Control where it will be
released to TV networks.

NASA Communications Network - Goddard

This network consists of several systems of diversely

routed communications channels leased on communications satel-
lites, common carrier systems and high frequency radio facili-
ties where necessary to provide the access links.

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 -69-

The system consists of both narrow and wide-band channels,

and some TV channels. Included are a variety of telegraph,
voice and data systems (digital and analog) with a wide range
of digital data rates. Wide-band systems do not extend over-
seas. Alternate routes or redundancy are provided for added
reliability in critical mission operations.
A primary switching center and intermediate switching and
control points are established to provide centralized facility
and technical control, and switching operations under direct
NASA control. The primary switching center is at Goddard, and
intermediate switching centers are located at Canberra,
Australia; Madrid, Spain; London, England; Honolulu, Hawaii;
Guam; and Cape Kennedy, Florida.
For Apollo 8, Cape Kennedy is connected directly to the
Mission Control Center, Houston, by the communication network's
Apollo Launch Data System, a combination of data gathering and
transmission systems designed to handle launch data exclusively.
After launch, all network and tracking data are directed
to the Mission Control Center, Houston, through Goddard. A
high-speed data line (2,400 bits-per-second) connects Cape
Kennedy to Goddard, where the transmission rate Is increased
to 40,800 bits-per-second from there to Houston. Upon orbital
insertion, tracking responsibility is transferred between the
various stations as the spacecraft circles the Earth.
Two Intelsat communications satellites will be used for
Apollo 8. The Atlantic satellite will service the Ascension
Island Unified S-Band (USB) station, the Atlantic Ocean ship
and the Canary Island site.
The second Apollo Intelsat communications satellite, over
the mid-Pacific, will service the Carnarvon, Australia USB site
and the Pacific Ocean ships. All these stations will be able to
transmit simultaneously through the satellite to Houston via
Brewster Flat, Washington, and the Goddard Space Flight Center.

ENetatLgognEt2m1
At fraction-of-a-second intervals, the network's digital
data processing systems, with NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center
as the focal point, "talk" to each other or to the spacecraft
in real time. High-speed computers at the remote site (tracking
ships included) issue commands or "up" data on such matters as
control of cabin pressure, orbital guidance commands, or "go-
no-go" indications to perform certain functions.

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 -70-

In the case of information originating from Houston, the

computers refer to their pre-programmed information for validity
before transmitting the required data to the capsule.
Such "up" information is communicated by ultra-high-fre-
quency radio at about 1,200 bits-per-second. Communication between
remote ground sites, via high-speed communications links, occurs
about the same rate. Houston reads information from these
ground sites at 2,400 bits-per-second, as well as from remote
sites at 100 words-per-minute.
The computer systems perform many other functions, in-
cluding:
Assuring the quality of the transmission lines
by continually exercising data paths.

Verifying accuracy of the messages by repetitive

operations.
Constantly updating the flight status.
For "down" data, sensors built into the spacecraft con-
tinually sample cabin temperature, pressure, physical informa-
tion on the astronauts such as heartbeat and respiration, among
other items. These data are transmitted to the ground stations
at 51.2 kilobits (12,800 binary digits) per second.
At MCC the computers:
Detect and select changes or deviations, compare
with their stored programs, and indicate the
problem areas or pertinent data to the flight
controllers.
Provide displays to mission personnel.
Assemble output data in proper formats.
Log data on magnetic tape for replay.
Provide storage for "on-call" display for the
flight controllers.
Keep time.

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 -71-

Fourteen land stations are outfitted with computer systems

to relay telemetry and command information between Houston and
Apollo spacecraft: Canberra and Carnarvon, Australia; Guam;
Kauai, Hawaii; Goldstone, California; Corpus Christi, Texas;
Cape Kennedy, Florida; Grand Bahama Island; Bermuda; Madrid;
Grand Canary Island; Antigua; Ascension Island; and Guaymas,
Mexico.

Network Configuration for Apollo 8

Unified S-Band (USB) Sites:

NASA 30-Foot Antenna Sites NASA 85-Foot Antenna Sites

Antigua (ANG) Canberra (CNB), Australia
Ascension Island (ACN) (Prime)
Bermuda (BDA) Goldstone (GDS), California
Canary Island (CYI) (Prie)
m
Carnarvon (C R0), Australia Ma drid (MAD), Spain (Prime)
Grand Bahama Island (GBM) *Canberra (DSS-L2 Apollo Wing)
Guam (GWM) (Backup)
Guaymas (GYM), Mexico *Goldstone (DSS-11 Apollo Wing)
Hawaii (HAW) (Backup)
Merritt Island rI9, Florida *Madrid (DSS-61 Apollo Wing)
Corpus Christi TEX , Texas (Backup)

Tananarive (TAN), Malagasy Republic (STADAN station in support

role only.)

*Wings have been added to JPL Deep Space Network site operations
buildings. These wings contain additional Unified S-Band equip-
ment as backup to the Prime sites.
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 -72-

APOLLO 8 RECOVERY

The Apollo Shi p s

The mission will be supported by four Apollo instru-

mentation ships operating as integral stations of the
Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN) to provide coverage
in areas beyond the range of land stations.
The ships, Vanguard, Redstone, Mercury, and Huntsville
will perform tracking, telemetry, and communication
functions for the launch phase, Earth orbit insertion,
translunar injection (TLI), and reentry at the end of the
mission.
Vanguard will be stationed about 1,000 miles southeast
of Bermuda (25°N, 49°W) to bridge the Bermuda-Antigua
gap during Earth orbit insertion. Vanguard also functions
as part of the Atlantic recovery fleet in the event of
a launch phase contingency. Redstone, in the western
Pacific, north of Bougainville (2.5 °N, 155.5 °E); Mercury,
1500 miles further east (7.5°N, 181.5°E); and Huntsville,
near Wake Island (21.0°N, 169.0° E), provide a triangle
of mobile stations between the MSFN stations at Carnarvon
and Hawaii for coverage of the burn interval for trans-
lunar injection. In the event the launch date slips
from December 21, the ships will all move generally
southwestward to cover the changing flight window patterns.
Mercury and Huntsville will be repositioned along
the reentry corridor for tracking, telemetry, and
communications functions during reentry and landing.
The Apollo ships were developed jointly by NASA and
the Department of Defense. The DOD operates the ships
in support of Apollo and other NASA and DOD missions on
a non-interference basis with Apollo requirements.
The overall management of the Apollo ships is the
responsibility of the Commander, Air Force Western Test
Range (AFWTR). The Military Sea Transport Service
provides the maritime crews and the Federal Electric
Corporation of International Telephone and Telegraph,
under contract to AFWTR, provides the technical instru-
mentation crews.
- more -
 -73-

The technical crews operate in accordance with joint

NASA/DOD standards and specifications which are compatible
with MSFN operational procedures.
Apollo/Range Instrumentation Aircraft (A/RIA)
The Apollo/Range Instrumentation Aircraft (A/RIA)
will support the mission by filling gaps in both land and
ship station coverage where important and significant
coverage requirements exist.
During Apollo 8, the A/RIA will be used primarily
to fill coverage gaps of the land and ship stations in
the Pacific during the translunar injection interval (TLI).
Prior to and during the TLI burn, the A/RIA record
telemetry data from Apollo and provide a real-time voice
communication between the astronauts and the flight
director at Houston.
Six aircraft will participate in this mission
flying from Pacific air bases to positions under the
orbital track of the spacecraft and booster.
The A/RIA will fly, initially, out of Hawaii, Guam,
and the Philippines, as well as three bases in Australia:
Townsville, Darwin, and Perth. The aircraft, like the
tracking ships, will also be redeployed in a southwest
direction in the event of launch day slips.
The total A/RIA fleet for Apollo missions consist
of eight EC-135-A (Boeing 707) jet aircraft equipped
specifically to meet mission needs. Seven-foot para-
bolic antennas have been installed in the nose section
of the aircraft giving them a large, bulbous look.
They are under the overall supervision of the Office
of Tracking and Data Acquisition with direct supervision
the responsibility of Goddard. The aircraft, as well as
flight and instrumentation crews, are provided by the
Air Force and they are equipped through joint Air Force-
NASA contract action.

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 -74-

APOLLO 8 CREW

Crew Training

The crewmen of Apollo 8 have spent more than seven

hours of formal crew training for each hour of the lunar-
orbit mission's six-day duration. Almost 1,100 hours
of training were in the Apollo 8 crew training syllabus
over and above the normal preparations for the mission--
technical briefings and reviews, pilot meetings and study.
The Apollo 8 crewmen also participated in spacecraft
manufacturing checkouts at the North American Rockwell
plant in Downey, Calif., and in prelaunch testing at
NASA Kennedy Space Center. Taking part in factory
and launch area testing has provided the crew with
valuable operational knowledge of the complex vehicle.
Highlights of specialized Apollo 8 crew training
topics are:
* Detailed series of briefings on spacecraft
systems, operation and modifications.
* Saturn launch vehicle briefings on countdown,
range safety, flight dynamics, failure modes and abort
conditions. The launch vehicle briefings were updated
periodically.
* Apollo Guidance and Navigation system briefings
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Instrumentation
Laboratory.
* Briefings and continuous training on mission
photographic objectives and use of camera equipment.

* Extensive pilot participation in reviews of

all flight procedures for normal as well as emergency
situations.
* Stowage reviews and practice in training sessions
in the spacecraft, mockups, and Command Module simulators
allowed the crewmen to evaluate spacecraft stowage of
crew-associated equipment.
- more -
 -75-

* More than 200 hours of training per man in

Command Module simulators at MSC and KSC, including
closed-loop simulations with flight controllers in the
Mission Control Center. Other Apollo simulators at
various locations were used extensively for specialized
crew training.
* Entry corridor deceleration profiles at lunar-
return conditions in the MSC Flight Acceleration Facility
manned centrifuge.
* Water egress training conducted in indoor tanks
as well as in the Gulf of Mexico, included uprighting
from the Stable II position (apex down) to the Stable I
position (apex up), egress onto rafts and helicopter
pickup.
* Launch pad egress training from mockups and from
the actual spacecraft on the launch pad for possible
emergencies such as fire, contaminants and power failures.
* The training covered use of Apollo spacecraft
fire suppression equipment in the cockpit.
* Planetarium reviews at Morehead Planetarium,
Chapel Hill, N. C., and at Griffith Planetarium, Los
Angeles, Calif., of the celestial sphere with special
emphasis on the 37 navigational stars used by the Command
Module Computer.
Apollo 8 Spacesuits

Apollo 8 crewmen, until one hour after translunar

injection, will wear the intravehicular pressure garment
assembly--a multi - layer spacesuit consisting of a helmet,
torso and gloves which can be pressurized independently
of the spacecraft.
The spacesuit outer layer is Teflon-coated Beta
fabric woven of fiberglass strands with a restraint layer,
a pressure bladder and an inner high-temperature nylon
liner.
Oxygen connection, communications and biomedical
data lines attach to fittings on the front of the torso.

- more -
 -75a-

Pressure helmet
assembly
Feed port
Helmet attaching ring

Zipper access to shoulder disconnect

Electrical connector
Penlight pocket

Helmet tie down

0 inlet strap
2
02 outlet

Pressure gage—. Wrist disconnect

PGA
pressure glove

Entrance slide
Protective fastener flap
cover (detached)
Utility pocket

UCT and biomedical

injection flap patch

Data list pocket

Scissors pocket (detachable)
(detachable)

Check list pocket

(detachable)

Intravehicular configuration of the PGA.

- more-
 -76-

A one-piece constant wear garment, similar to

"long johns," is worn as an undergarment for the spacesuit
and for the in-flight garment is porous-knit cotton
with a waist-to-neck zipper for donning. Attach points
for the biomedical harness also are provided.
After taking off the spacesuits, the crew will wear
Teflon fabric inflight coveralls over the constant wear
garment. The two-piece coveralls provide warmth in
addition to pockets for personal items. The crew will
wear the inflight coveralls during entry. The soles
of the garment have been fitted with a special metal
heel clip which fits in the couch heel restraint.
Additionally, fitted fluorel foam pads on couch headrests
will provide head restraint during entry. These pads
will be stowed until just prior to entry.
The crewmen will wear communications carriers inside
the pressure helmet. The communications carriers provide
redundancy in that each has two microphones and two
earphones.
A lightweight headset is worn with the inflight
coveralls.

Apollo 8 Crew Meals

The Apollo 8 crew had a wide range of food items

from which to select their daily mission space menu.
More than 6o items comprise the selection list of freeze-
dried bite-size rehydratable foods.
Average daily value of three meals will be 2,500
calories per man.
Unlike Gemini crewmen who prepared their meals
with cold water, Apollo crewmen have running water for
hot meals and cold drinks.
Water is obtained from three sources--a dispenser
for drinking water and two water spigots at the food
preparation station, one supplying water at about 155
degrees F., the other at about 55 degrees F. The
potable water dispenser emits half-ounce spurts with
each squeeze and the food preparation spigots dispense
water in one-ounce increments.
- more -
 -77-

Spacecraft potable water is supplied from service

module fuel cell by-product water.
The day-by-day, meal-by-meal Apollo 8 menu for each
crewman is listed on the following page.

Personal Hygiene
Crew personal hygiene equipment aboard Apollo 8
includes body cleanliness items, the waste management
system and two medical kits.
Packaged with the food are a toothbrush and a two-
ounce tube of toothpaste for each crewman. Each man-meal
package contains a. 3.5 by 4-inch wet-wipe cleansing towel.
Additionally, three packages of 12 by 12-inch dry towels
are stowed beneath the command module pilot's couch.
Each package contains seven towels. Also stowed under
the command module pilot's couch are seven tissue
dispensers containing 53 3-ply tissues each.
Solid body wastes are collected In Gemini-type
plastic defecation bags which contain a germicide to
prevent bacteria and gas formation. The bags are sealed
after use and stowed in empty food containers for post-
flight analysis.
Urine collection devices are provided for use
either while wearing the pressure suit or in the inflight
coveralls. The urine is dumped overboard through the
spacecraft urine dump valve.
The two medical accessory kits, 6 by 4.5 by 4 inches,
are stowed on the spacecraft back wall at the feet of
the command module pilot.

The medical kits contain three motion sickness

injectors, three pain suppression injectors, one 2-oz
bottle first aid ointment, two 1-oz bottle eye drops,
three nasal sprays, two compress bandages, 12 adhesive
bandages, one oral thermometer and two spare crew
biomedical harnesses. Pills in the medical kits are 60
antibiotic, 12 nausea, 12 stimulant, 18 pain killer,
60 decongestant, 24 diarrhea, 72 aspirin and 21 sleeping.

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 -79-

Sleep-Work Cycles

At least one crew member will be awake at all times.

The normal cycle will be 17 hours of work followed by seven
hours of rest. Simultaneous rest periods are scheduled for
the command module pilot and the lunar module pilot. When
possible, all three crewmen will eat together, with one hour
allocated for each meal period.
Sleeping positions in the command module are under the
left and right couches, with heads toward the crew hatch.
Two lightweight Beta fabric sleeping bags are each supported
by two longitudinal straps attaching to lithium hydroxide
storage boxes at one end and to the spacecraft pressure vessel
inner structure at the other end.
Additional transverse restraint straps have been added
to the sleeping bags since the Apollo 7 mission to provide
greater sleeping comfort and body restraint in zero-g. The
sleeping bags have also been perforated for improved ventila-
tion.
Survival Gear

The survival kit is stowed in two rucksacks in the

right-hand forward equipment bay above the lunar module pilot.
Contents of rucksack No. 1 are: two combination
survival lights, one desalter kit, three pair sunglasses,
one radio beacon, one spare radio beacon battery and spacecraft
connector cable, one machete in sheath, three water containers
and two. containers of Sun lotion. Rucksack No. 2: one three-
man life raft with CO inflater, one sea anchor, two sea dye
ts, one mooring lanyard, three manlines
markers, three sunbonfle
and two attach brackets.
The survival kit is designed to provide a 48-hour
postlanding (water or land) survival capability for three
crewmen between kO degrees North and South Latitudes.
Biomedical Inflight Monitoring

The Apollo 8 crew inflight biomedical telemetry data

received by the Manned Space Flight Network will be relayed
for instantaneous display At Mission Control Center. Heart
rate and breathing rate data will be displayed on the flight
surgeon's console. Heart rate and respiration rate average,
range and deviation are computed and displayed on the digital
TV screens.

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 -79a -

VENTILATION HOLES
DETAIL 0 .060 IN. WA

__ -_;.-*-------
-
FLIGHT POSITION STOWED
POSITION
 - 7 9b-

RUCKSACK A

RUCKSACK B

3-MAN LIFE RAFT WITH SUN BONNETS

0
; 57 i

BEACON TRANSCEIVER,
WATER
BATTERY AND CABLE

FIRST AID KIT

SURVIVAL TABLETS (16)

GLASSES (3)
DESALTING KITS (2)

SURVIVAL
KNIFE SURVIVAL LIGHTS
 -8o-

In addition, the instantaneous heart rate, real time

and delayed EKG and respiration are recorded on strip charts
for each man.
Biomedical data observed by the flight surgeon and his
team in the Life Support Systems Staff Support Room will be
correlated with spacecraft and spacesuit environmental data
displays.

Blood pressure and body temperature are no longer

taken as they were in earlier manned flight programs.
The Crew on Launch Day

Following is a timetable of Apollo 8 crew activities

on launch day. (All times are shown in hours and minutes
before liftoff.)
T-9:00 - Backup crew alerted
T-8:30 - Backup crew to LC-39A for spacecraft pre-launch
checkouts
T-5:00 - Flight crew alerted
T-4:45 - Medical examinations
T-4:15 - Breakfast
T-3:45 - Don pressure suits
T-3:30 - leave Manned Spacecraft Operations Building for
LC-39A via Crew Transfer Van
T-2:30 - Arrive at LC-39A
T-2:37 - Enter elevator to spacecraft level
T-2:40 - Begin spacecraft ingress
Radiation Monitoring

Apollo 8 crew radiation dosages will be closely

monitored by onboard dosimeters which either provide crew
readouts or telemeter radiation measurements to Manned Space
Flight Network stations.

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 -80a-

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BI O M EDI C ALS E NS O R S

C O N STANT WE A RG A R M E NT FL I GH TO V ERALL S
 In addition, Solar Particle Alert Network (SPAN)
stations will monitor solar flare activity during the mission
to provide forecasts of any increase in radiation.
Five types of radiation measuring devices are carried
aboard Apollo 8, Each crewman wears standard passive film
dosimeters in the thigh, chest and ankle area which provide
cumulative postflight dosage readings. Each man also has
a personal radiation dosimeter that can be read for cumulative
dosage at any time. They are worn on the right thigh of the
pressure garment, and by option on either the shoulder or
thigh of the constant wear garment after the pressure suits
have been doffed.
Radiation dose rate within the spacecraft cabin is
measured by the radiation survey meter, a one-and-a-half
pound device mounted in the lower equipment bay near the
navigation sextant.
A Van Allen belt dosimeter mounted on the spacecraft
girth frame near the lunar module pilot's head measures and
telemeters onboard radiation skin dose rates and depth dose
rates to network stations.
Proton and alpha particle rates and energies exterior
to the spacecraft are measured and telemetered . by the nuclear
particle detection system mounted on the service module forward
bulkhead in the area covered by the fairing around the CM-SM
mating line.
SPAN sites keeping tabs on solar flare activity during
Apollo 8 will be NASA-operated stations at Manned Spacecraft
Center, Carnarvon, Australia, and Canary Islands; and Environ-
mental Sciences Services Administration (ESSA) sites at Boulder,
Colo., and Culgoora, Australia.

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 -81a-

PERSONAL
DOSIMETER

SPACE SUIT

FLIGHT
COVERALLS

CONSTANT.WEAR
GARMENT

PASSIVE DOSIMETER
(FILM PACK)

a
00
Eu

RADIATION
SURVEY
METER

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 CREW BIOGRAPHIES

NAME: Frank Borman (Colonel, USAF)

Commander
BIRTHPLACE AND DATE: Born March 14, 1928, in Gary, Ind., but
grew up in Tucson, Ariz. His parents, Mr. and Mrs. Edwin
Borman, now reside in Phoenix, Ariz.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: Blond hair; blue eyes; height: 5 feet
10 inches; weight: 163 pounds.
EDUCATION: Received a Bahoelor of Science degree from the
United States Military Academy at West Point in 1950
and a Master of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering
from the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena,
Calif., in 1957.
MARITAL STATUS: Married to the former Susan Bugbee of Tucson,
Ariz.; her mother, Mrs. Ruth Bugbee, resides in Tucson,
Ariz.
CHILDREN: Fredrick, October 4, 1951; Edwin, July 20, 1953.
OTHER ACTIVITIES: He enjoys hunting and water skiing.
ORGANIZATIONS: Member of the American Institute of Aeronautics
and Astronautics and the Society of Experimental Test
Pilots.
SPECIAL HONORS: Awarded the NASA Exceptional Service Medal,
Air Force Astronaut Wings, and Air Force Distinguished
Flying Cross; recipient of the 1966 American Astro-
nautical Flight Achievement Award and the 1966 Air Force
Association David C. Schilling Flight Trophy; co-
recipient of the 1966 Harmon International Aviation
Trophy; and recipient of the California Institute of
Technology Distinguished Alumni Service Award for 1966.
EXPERIENCE: Borman, an Air Force Colonel, entered the Air
Force after graduation from West Point and received
his pilot training at Williams Air Force Base, Arizona.
From 1951 to 1956, he was assigned to various fighter
squadrons in the United States and the Philippines..
He became an instructor of thermo-dynamics and fluid
mechanics at the Military Academy in 1957 and subsequently
attended the USAF Aerospace Research Pilots School from
which he graduated in 1960. He remained there ns an
instructor until 1962.

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 -83-

He has accumulated over 5,'i00 hours flying time,

including 4,500 hours in jet aircraft.

CURRENT ASSIGNMENT: Colonel Borman was selected as an

astronaut by NASA in September 1962. He has performed
a variety of special duties, including an assignment
as backup command pilot for the Gemini 4 flight and as
a member of the Apollo 204 Review Board.

As command pilot of the history-making Gemini 7 mission,

launched on Dec. 4, 1965, he participated in estab-
lishing a number of space "firsts"--among which are the
longest manned space flight (330 hours and 35 minutes)
and the first rendezvous of two manned maneuverable
spacecraft as Gemini 7 was joined in orbit by Gemini 6.

-end-
 -84-

NAME: James A. Lovell, Jr. (Captain, USN)

Command Module Pilot
BIRTHPLACE AND DATE: Born March 25, 1928, in Cleveland, Ohio.
His mother, Mrs. Blanche Lovell, resides at Edgewater
Beach, Fla.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: Blond hair; blue eyes; height: 5 feet
11 inches; weight: 170 pounds.
EDUCATION: Graduated from Juneau High School, Milwaukee,
Wisc.; attended the University of Wisconsin for 2
years, then received a Bachelor of Science degree from
the United States Naval Academy in 1952.
MARITAL STATUS: Married to the former Marilyn Gerlach of
Milwaukee, Wisc. Her parents, Mr. and Mrs. Carl
Gerlach, are residents of Milwaukee.
CHILDREN: Barbara L., October 13, 1953; James A., February
15, 1955; Susan K., July 14, 1958; Jeffrey C., January
14, 1966.
OTHER ACTIVITIES: His hobbies are golf, swimming, handball,
and tennis.
ORGANIZATIONS: Member of the Society of Experimental Test
Pilots and the Explorers Club.
SPECIAL HONORS: Awarded two NASA Exceptional Service Medals,
the Navy Astronaut Wings, two Navy Distinguished Flying
Crosses, and the 1967 FAI Gold Space Medal (Athens, Greece);
and co-recipient of the 1966 American Astronautical
Society Flight Achievement Award and the Harmon Inter-
national Aviation Trophy in 1966 and 1967.
EXPERIENCE: Lovell, a Navy Captain, received flight training
following graduation from Annapolis.
He has had numerous naval avintor assignments including
a 4-year tour as a test pilot at the Naval Air Test
Center, Patuxent River, Md. While there he served as
program manager for the F4H weapon system evaluation.
A graduate of the Aviation Safety School of the University
of Southern California, he also served as a flight
instructor and safety officer with Fighter Squadron 101
at the Naval Air Station, Oceana, Va.
Of the 4,000 hours flying time he has accumulated,
more than 3,000 hours are in jet aircraft.
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 -85-

CURRENT ASSIGNMENT: Captain Lovell was selected as an

astronaut by NASA in September 1962. He has since
served as backup pilot for the Gemini 4 flight and
backup command pilot for the Gemini 9 flight.
On Dec. 4, 1965, he and command pilot Frank Borman
were launched into space on the history-making Gemini
7 mission. The flight lasted 330 hours and 35 minutes,
during which the following space "firsts" were accomp-
lished: longest manned space flight; first rendezvous
of two manned maneuverable spacecraft, as Gemini 7 was
joined in orbit by Gemini 6; and longest multi-manned
space flight. It was also on this flight that numerous
technical and medical experiments were completed suc-
cessfully.
The Gemini 12 mission, with Lovell and pilot Edwin
A3drin, began on Nov. 11, 1966. This 4-day 59-revolu-
tion flight brought the Gemini Program to a successful
close. Major accomplishments of the 94-hour 35-minute
flight included a third-revolution rendezvous with the
previously launched Agena (using for the first time
backup onboard computations due to a radar failure);
a tethered station-keeping exercise; retrieval of a
micro-meteorite experiment package from the spacecraft
exterior; an evaluation of the use of body restraints
specially designed for completing work tasks outside of
the spacecraft; and completion of numerous photographic
experiments, the highlights of which are the first pictures
taken from space of an eclipse of the Sun.
Gemini 12 ended when retrofire occurred at the
beginning of the 60th revolution, followed by the
second consecutive fully automatic controlled reentry
of a spacecraft, and a landing in the Atlantic within 2i
miles of the prime recovery ship USS WASP.
As a result of his participation in this flight,
Lovell holds the space endurance record, with 425 hours
and 10 minutes, for total time spent in space. Aldrin
established a new EVA record by completing 5i hours
outs de the spacecraft during two standup EVAs and one
umbilical EVA.
SPECIAL ASSIGNMENT: In addition to his regular duties as a
member of the astronaut group, Captain Lovell was
selected in June 1967 to serve as Special Consultant
to the President's Council on Physical Fitness.

-end-
 -86-

NAME: William A. Anders (Major, USAF) , Lunar Module Pilot

BIRTHPLACE AND DATE: Born October 17, 1933, in Hong Kong;

his parents, Commander (USN retired) and Mrs. Arthur
F. Anders, now reside in La Mesa, Calif.

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: Brown hair; blue eyes; height: 5 feet

8 inches; weight: 145 pounds.
EDUCATION: Received a Bachelor of Science degree from the
United States Naval Academy in 1955 and a Master of
Science degree in Nuclear Engineering from the Air
Force Institute of Technology at Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, Ohio, in 1962.

MARITAL STATUS: Married to the former Valerie E. Hoard

of Lemon Grove, Calif., daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Henry
G. Hoard, of Oceanside, Calif.
CHILDREN: Alan, February 1957; Glen, July 1958; Gayle,
December 1960; Gregory, December 1962; Eric, July 1964.
OTHER ACTIVITIES: His hobbies are fishing, flying, camping,
and water skiing; and he also enjoys soccer.
ORGANIZATIONS: Member of the American Nuclear Society and
Tau Beta Pi.
SPECIAL HONORS: Awarded the Air Force Commendation Medal.
EXPERIENCE: Anders, an Air Force Major, was commissioned
in the Air Force upon graduation from the Naval Academy.
After Air Force flight training, he served as a fighter
pilot in all-weather interceptor squadrons of the Air
Defense Command.
After his graduate training, he served as a nuclear
engineer and instructor pilot at the Air Force Weapons
laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, N.M., where he
was responsible for technical management of radiation
nuclear power reactor shielding and radiation effects
programs.
He has logged more than 3,000 hours flying time.
CURRENT ASSIGNMENT: Major Anders was one of the third group
of astronauts selected by NASA in October 1963. He
has since served as backup pilot for the Gemini 11
mission.

-end-
 -87-

LUNAR DESCRIPTION

Terrain - Mountainous and crater-pitted, the former

rising thousands of feet and the latter ranging from a few
inches to 180 miles in diameter. The craters are thought
to be formed by the impact of meteorites. The surface is
covered with a layer of fine-grained material resembling
silt or sand, as well as small rocks.
Environment - No air, no wind, and no moisture. The
temperature ranges from 250 degrees in the two-week lunar
day to 280 degrees below zero in the two-week lunar night.
Gravity is one-sixth that of Earth. Micrometeoroids pelt the
Moon (there is no atmosphere to burn them up). Radiation might
present a problem during periods of unusual solar activity.
Dark Side - The dark or hidden side of the Moon no longer
is a complete mystery. It was first photographed by a Russian
craft and since then has been photographed many times, particu-
larly by NASA's Lunar Orbiter spacecraft.
Origin - There is still no agreement among scientists
on the origin of the Moon. The three theories: (1) the Moon
once was part of Earth and split off into its own orbit, (2)
it evolved as a separate body at the same time as Earth, and
(3) it formed elsewhere in space and wandered until it was
captured by Earth's gravitational field.
Earth to Moon Distances
Date At Surface to Surface
Dec. 21 5 p.m. EST 220,074 statute
Dec. 22 6 p.m. EST 221/r7 statute
Dec. 23 7 p.m. EST 227,182 statute
Dec. 24 7:30 p.m. EST 231,238 statute
Dec. 25 8 p.m. EST 235,186 statute
Dec. 26 9 p.m. EST 238,751 statute
Dec. 27 10 p.m. EST 241,779 statute

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 -88-

Physical Facts

Diameter 2,160 miles (about i that of Earth)

Circumference 6,790 miles (about 11 that of Earth)
Distance from Earth 238,857 miles (mean; 221,463 minimum
to 252,710 maximum)
Surface temperature 250 (Sun at zenith)-280 (night)
Surface gravity 1/6 that of Earth
Mass 1/100th that of Earth
Volume 1/50th that of Earth
Lunar day and night 14 Earth days each

Mean velocity in orbit 2,287 miles per hour

Escape velocity 1.48 miles per second
Month (period of rotation 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes
around Earth)

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 -89-

APOLLO PROGRAM MANAGEMENT/CONTRACTORS

Direction of the Apollo Program, the United States'

effort to land men on the Moon and return them safely to
Earth before 1970, is the responsibility of the Office
of Manned Space Flight (OMSF), National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, Washington, D.C.
NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC), Houston, is
responsible for development of the Apollo spacecraft,
flight crew training and flight control.
NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), Huntsville,
Ala., is responsible for development of the Saturn launch
vehicles.
NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Fla., is
responsible for Apollo/Saturn launch operations.
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), Greenbelt,
Md., manages the Manned Space Flight Network under the
direction of the NASA Office of Tracking and Data
Acquisition (OTDA).
Akollo/Saturn Officials

Dr. George E. Mueller Associate Administrator for

Manned Space Flight, NASA
Headquarters
Maj. Gen. Samuel. C. Phillips Director, Apollo Program
Office, OMSF, NASA
Headquarters
George H. Hage Deputy Director, Apollo
Program Office, OMSF,
NASA Headquarters
William C. Schneider Apollo Mission Director,
OMSF, NASA Headquarters
Chester M. Lee Assistant Mission Director,
OMSF, NASA Headquarters

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 -90-

Col. Thomas H. McMullen Assistant Mission Director,

OMSF, NASA Headquarters

Dr. Robert R. Gilruth Director, Manned Spacecraft

Center, Houston
George M. Low Manager, Apollo Spacecraft
Program, MSC
Kenneth S. Kleinknecht Manager, Command and Service
Modules, Apollo Spacecraft
Program Office, MSC
Donald K. Slayton Director, Flight Crew Opera-
tions, MSC
Christopher C. Kraft, Jr. Director Flight Operations,
MSC
Clifford E. Charlesworth Apollo 8 Flight Directors,
Glynn S. Lunney Flight Operations, MSC
M.L. Windier
Dr. Wernher von Braun Director, Marshall Space
Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.
Brig. Gen. Edmund F. O'Connor Director, Industrial
Operations, MSFC
Lee B. James Manager, Saturn V Program
Office, MSFC
William D. Brown Manager, Engine Program
Office, MSFC
Dr. Kurt H. Debus Director, John F. Kennedy
Space Center, Fla.
Miles Ross Deputy Director, Center
Operations, KSC
Rocco A. Petrone Director, Launch Operations,
KSC

Walter J. Kapryan Deputy Director, Launch

Operations, KSC
Dr. Hans F. Gruene Director, Launch Vehicle
Operations, KSC
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 -91-

Rear Adm. Roderick O. Middleton Manager, Apollo Program

Office, KSC
John J. Williams Director, Spacecraft
Operations, KSC
Paul C. Donnelly Launch Operations Manager, KSC
Gerald M. Truszynski Associate Administrator,
Tracking and Data Acquisition,
NASA Headquarters

H. R. Brockett Deputy Associate Administrator,

OTDA, NASA Headquarters
Norman Pozinsky Director, Network Support
Implementation Division, OTDA
Dr. John F. Clark Director, Goddard Space
Flight, Greenbelt, Md.
Ozro M. Covington Assistant Director for Manned
Space Flight Tracking, GSFC
Henry F. Thompson Deputy Assistant Director
for Manned Space Flight
Support, GSFC

H. William Wood Chief, Manned Flight Operations

Division, GSFC
Tecwyn Roberts Chief, Manned Flight Engineering
Division, GSFC
L. R. Stelter Chief, NASA Communications
Division, GSFC
Maj. Gen. Vincent G. Huston USAF, DOD Manager of Manned
Space Flight Support Operations
Maj. Gen. David M. Jones USAF, Deputy DOD Manager of
Manned Space Flight Support
Operations, Commander USAF
Eastern Test Range
Rear Adm. F. E. Bakutis USN, Commander Combined
Task Force 130 Pacific
Recovery Area (Primary)
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 -92-

The Boeing Co. First Stages (SIC) of Saturn

New Orleans V Flight Vehicles, Saturn V
Systems Engineering and
Integration Ground Support
Equipment

North American Rockwell Corp. Development and Production

Space Division of Saturn V Second Stage
Seal Beach, Calif. (S-II)
McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Development and Production
Co. of Saturn V Third Stage
Huntington Beach, Calif. (s-IN/B)
International Business Machines Instrument Unit (Prime
Federal Systems Division Contractor)
Huntsville, Ala.
Bendix Corp., Guidance Components for
Navigation and Control Div. Instrument Unit (Including
Teterboro, N.J. ST-12 24M Stabilized Platform)
Trans World Airlines, Inc. Installation Support, KSC

Federal Electric Corp. Communications and Instru-

mentation Support, KSC

Bendix Field Engineering Corp. Launch Operations/Complex

Support, KSC
Catalytic-Dow Facilities Engineering and
Modifications, KSC
ILC Industries Space Suits
Dover, Del.
Radio Corporation of America 110A Computer - Saturn
Van Nuys, Calif. Checkout
Sanders Associates Operational Display Systems
Nashua, New Hampshire Saturn
Brown Engineering Discrete Controls
Huntsville, Alabama
Ingalls Iron Works Mobile Launchers
Birmingham, Alabama (structural work)
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 -93-

Rear Adm. P. S. McManus USN, Commander Combined

Task Force 140 Atlantic
Recovery Area
Col. Royce G. Olson USAF, Director, DOD Manned
Space Flight Office

Brig. Gen. Allison C. Brooks USAF, Commander Aerospace

Rescue and Recovery Service

Major Apollo/Saturn V Contractors

Contractor Item
Bellcomm Apollo Systems Engineering
Washington, D.C.
The Boeing Co. Technical Integration and
Washington, D.C. Evaluation
General Electric-Apollo Apollo Checkout and
Support Department, Reliability
Daytona Beach, Fla.
North American Rockwell Corp. Spacecraft Command and
Space Division, Downey, Calif. Service Modules
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Lunar Module
Corp.,
Bethpage, N.Y.
Massachusetts Institute of Guidance & Navigation
Technology, Cambridge, Mass. (Technical Management)

General Motors Corp., AC Guidance & Navigation

Electronics Division, (Manufacturing)
Milwaukee
TRW Systems Inc. Trajectory Analysis
Redondo Beach, Calif.
Avco Corp., Space Systems Heat Shield Ablative
Division, Lowell, Mass. Material

North American Rockwell Corp. 3-2 Engines, F-1 Engines

Rocketdyne Division
Canoga Park, Calif.
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Smith/Ernst (Joint Venture) Electrical Mechanical
Tampa, Florida Portion of MLs
Washington, D.C.
Power Shovel, Inc. Crawler-Transporter
Marion, Ohio
Hayes International Swing Arm
Birmingham, Alabama
 -95--

APOLLO 8 GLOSSARY

Ablating Materials--Special heat-dissipating materials on the

surface of a spacecraft that can be sacrificed (carried
away, vaporized) during re-entry.
Abort--The cutting short of an aerospace mission before it has
accomplished its objective.
Accelerometer--An instrument to sense accelerative forces and
convert them into corresponding electrical quantities
usually for controlling,neasuring, indicating or recording
purposes.
Adapter Skirt--A flange or extension of a stage or section that
provides a ready means of fitting another stage or section
to it.
Antipode—Point on surface of planet exactly 180 degrees op-
posite from reciprocal point on a line projected through
center of body. In Apollo 8 usage, antipode refers to a
line from the center of the Moon through the center of
the Earth and projected to the Earth surface on the
opposite side. The antipode crosses the mid-Pacific
recovery line along the 165th meridian of longitude once
each 24 hours.
Apocynthion--Point at which object in lunar orbit is farthest
from lunar surface--object having been launched from body
other than Moon. (Cynthia, Roman goddess of Moon).
Apogee--The point at which a moon or artificial satellite in
its orbit is farthest from Earth.
Apolune--Point at which object launched from the Moon into
lunar orbit is farthest from lunar surface. e.g. Ascent
stage of lunar module after staging into lunar orbit
following lunar landing.
Attitude--The position of an aerospace vehicle as determined
by the inclination of its axes to some frame of reference;
for Apollo, an inertial, space-fixed reference is used.
Burnout--The point when combustion ceases in a rocket engine.
Canard--A short, stubby wing-like element affixed to an air-
craft or spacecraft to provide better stability.
Celestial Guidance--The guidance of a vehicle by reference to
celestial bodies.

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 -96-

Celestial Mechanics--The science that deals primarily with

the effect of force as an agent in determining the
orbital paths of celestial bodies.
Cislunar--Adjective referring to space between Earth and the
Moon, or between Earth and Moon's orbit.
Closed Loop--Automatic control units linked together with a
process to form an endless chain.

Control System--A system that serves to maintain attitude

stability during forward flight and to correct deflec-
tions.
Deboost--A retrograde maneuver which lowers either perigee or
apogee of an orbiting spacecraft. Not to be confused
with deorbit,
Delta V--Velocity change.
Digital Computer--A computer in which quantities are represented
numerically and which can be used to solve complex problems.
Down-Link--The part of a communication system that receives, pro-
cesses and displays data from a spacecraft.

Entry Corridor--The final flight path of the spacecraft before

and during Earth re--entry.
Escape Velocity--The speed a body must attain to overcome a
gravitational field, such as that of Earth; the velocity
of escape at the Earth's surface is 36,700 feet-per-
second.
Explosive Bolts--Bolts surrounded with an explosive charge
which can be activated by an electrical impulse.
Fairing--A piece, part or structure having a smooth, stream-
lined outline, used to cover a nonstreamlined object or
to smooth a junction.
Fuel Cell--An electrochemical generator in which the chemical
energy from the reaction of oxygen and a fuel is converted
directly into electricity.
G or G Force--Force exerted upon an object by gravity or by
reaction to acceleration or deceleration, as in a change
of direction: one G is the measure of the gravitational
pull required to move a body at the rate of about 32.16
feet-per-second.

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 -97-

Gimballed Motor--A rocket motor mounted on gimbal; i.e., on a

contrivance having two mutually perpendicular axes of
rotation, so as to obtain pitching and yawing correction
moments.
Guidance System--A system which measures and evaluates flight
information, correlates this with target data, converts
the result into the conditions necessary to achieve the
desired flight path, and communicates this data in the
form of commands to the flight control system.
Heliocentric--Sun-centered orbit or other activity which has
the Sun as its center.
Inertial Guidance--A sophisticated automatic navigation system
using gyroscopic devices, etc., for high-speed vehicles.
It absorbs and interprets such data as speed, position,
etc., and automatically adjusts the vehicle to a pre-
determined flight path. Essentially, it knows where it's
going and where it is by knowing where it came from and
how it got there. It does not give out any signal so it
cannot be detected by radar or jammed.
Injection--The process of injecting a spacecraft into a cal-
culated orbit.
Multiplexing--The simultaneous transmission of two or more
signals within a single channel. The three basic methods
of multiplexing involve the separation of signals by
time division, frequency division and phase division.
Optical Navigation--Navigation by sight, as opposed to mathe-
matical methods.
Oxidizer--In a rocket propellant, a substance such as liquid
oxygen or nitric acid that yields oxygen for burning the
fuel.
Penumbra--Semi-dark portion of a shadow in which light is partly
cut off. e.g., Surface of Moon or Earth away from Sun.
(See umbra.)
Pericynthion--Point nearest moon of object in lunar orbit--
object having been launched from body other than moon.
Perigee--The point at which a moon or an artificial satellite
in its orbit is closest to the Earth.

Perilune--The point at which a satellite (e.g., a spacecraft)

in its orbit is closest to the Moon: differs from
pericynthion in that the orbit is Moon-originated.

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 -98-

Pitch--The movement of a space vehicle about an axis (Y)

that is perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.
Re-entry--The return of a spacecraft that re-enters the
atmosphere after flight above it.
Retrorocket--A rocket that gives thrust in a direction
opposite to the direction of the object's motion.
Roll--The movements of a space vehicle about its longi-
tudinal (X) axis.
S Band--A radio-frequency band of 1550 to 5200 megacycles
per second.
Selenographic--Adjective relating to physical geography of
Moon. Specifically, positions on lunar surface as
measured in latitude from lunar equator and in longi-
tude from a reference lunar meridian.
Selenocentric--Adjective referring to orbit having Moon as
center, (Selene, Gr. moon)
Sidereal--Adjective relating to measurement of time, position
or angle in relation to the celestial sphere and the
vernal equinox.
Telemetering--A system for taking measurements within an
aerospace vehicle in flight and transmitting them by
radio to a ground station.
Terminator--Separation line between lighted and dark portions
of celestial body which is not self luminous.
Ullage--The volume in a closed tank or container above the
surface of a stored liquid. Also the ratio of this
volume to the total volume of the tank.
Umbra--Darkest part of a shadow in which light is completely
absent. e.g., Surface of Moon or Earth away from Sun.
Up-Link Data—Telemetry information from the ground.
Yaw--Displacement of a space vehicle from its vertical (z)
axis.

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 -99-

Apollo 8 Acronyms
(Note: This list makes no attempt to include all
Apollo program acronyms. Listed are several
acronyms that are encountered for the first time
in the Apollo 8 mission.)

AK Apogee kick
COI Contingency orbit insertion
EOI Earth orbit insertion
HGA High-gain antenna
TRIG Inertial reference integrating gyro
LOI Lunar orbit insertion
LPO Lunar parking orbit
,LTAB Lunar (module) test article B
MCC Midcourse correction, Mission Control Center
MSI Moon sphere of influence
REFSNMAT Reference to stable member matrix
TEI Transearth injection
TEMCC Transearth midcourse correction
TLI Translunar injection
TLMCC Translunar midcourse correction
 -100-

Conversion Factors

multiply To Obtain
Dis tance:

feet 0.3048 meters

meters 3.281 feet
kilometers 3281 feet
statute miles 1.b09 kilometers
nautical miles 1.852 kilometers
nautical miles 1.1508 statute miles
statute miles 0.86898 nautical miles

Velocity:
feet/sec 0.3048 meters/sec
meters/sec 3.281 feet/sec
fee t/sec 0.6518 statute miles/hr
statute miles/hr 1.609 km/hr
km/hr 0.6214 statute miles/hr

Liquid measure, weight:

gallons 3.785 liters
liters 0.2642 gallons
pounds 0.4536 kilograms
kilograms 2.205 pounds
pounds 14.0 stones

-more-
 -101-

Electrical Power Conversion

Voltage X Current in amps - power in watts

Watts I. voltage = amps
Watts 4. amps - voltage

-end-
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