,

LECTURE NOTES ON ALGEBRA

(MI1141E)

TUAN ANH DAO

SCHOOL OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS AND INFORMATICS

HANOI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA

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Chapter 1: Logics, Sets, Mappings and Complex numbers

1 LOGICS

2 SETS AND SET OPERATIONS

3 MAPPINGS

4 ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

5 COMPLEX NUMBERS

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Chapter 1: Logics, Sets, Mappings and Complex numbers

Lesson 1: LOGICS

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Lesson 1: Logics
I. Propositions and their operations
1. Definition: Proposition, in logic, is a statement that can be labeled
as either true or false, although we may not know which. It is often
denoted by A, B, C , ... or A1 , A2 , ...
• Any proposition has two possible truth-values: Its truth-value
= 1 if it is true or its truth-value = 0 if it is false.
• For notation simplicity, the symbol A may stand for the
proposition A or its truth-value, depending on the situation.
2. Examples:
• A = “Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam” ⇒ The truth-value of
A = 1 or A = 1 for simplicity.
• B = “Today is Sunday” ⇒ The truth-value of B =?
3. Operations on propositions:
• Negation: A
A A
For example, let A = ”1 < 2”.
1 0
Then, A = ”1 ≥ 2”.
0 1
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Lesson 1: Logics
• Conjunction: A ∧ B
A B A∧B
For example, A = “Bob likes apples” 1 1 1
and B = “Bob likes oranges”. 1 0 0
Then, A ∧ B = “Bob likes apples and oranges”. 0 1 0
0 0 0
• Disjunction: A ∨ B
A B A∨B
For example, A = “Bob likes apples” 1 1 1
and B = “Bob likes oranges”. 1 0 1
Then, A ∨ B = “Bob likes apples or oranges”. 0 1 1
0 0 0
• Implication: A → B
A B A→B
For example, A = “Today is a holiday” 1 1 1
and B = “The store is closed”. 1 0 0
Then, A → B = “If today is a holiday then the store
0 1 1
is closed”.
0 0 0
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Lesson 1: Logics
• Equality (biconditional): A ↔ B
A B A↔B
For example, A = “1 < 2”
1 1 1
and B = “1 + x < 2 + x”.
1 0 0
Then,
0 1 0
A ↔ B = “1 < 2 if and only if 1 + x < 2 + x”.
0 0 1
Remark: Two propositions A and B are logically equivalent, denoted
by A ⇔ B, if they have the same truth-values.
II. Properties of operations
1. Double negative law: A⇔A
2. Identity law:
A ∨ 0 ⇔ A and A ∧ 1 ⇔ A
3. Annulment law:
A∨1⇔1 and A∧0⇔0
4. Idempotent law:
A∨A⇔A and A∧A⇔A
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Lesson 1: Logics
5. Complement law:
A∨A⇔A and A∧A⇔A
6. Commutative law:
A∨B ⇔B ∨A and A∧B ⇔B ∧A
7. Associative law:
A ∨ (B ∨ C ) ⇔ (A ∨ B) ∨ C
A ∧ (B ∧ C ) ⇔ (A ∧ B) ∧ C
8. Distributive law:
A ∨ (B ∧ C ) ⇔ (A ∨ B) ∧ (A ∨ C )
A ∧ (B ∨ C ) ⇔ (A ∧ B) ∨ (A ∧ C )
9. De Morgan’s law:
A∨B ⇔A∧B
A∧B ⇔A∨B
Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA
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Lesson 1: Logics
10. Property of the implication operation:

A→B ⇔A∨B

III. Propositions with quantifiers ∀, ∃

1. “Every element x of the set S satisfies property P(x)”
= “∀x ∈ S, P(x)”
2. “There exists at least one element x of the set S that satisfies
property P(x)”
= “∃x ∈ S, P(x)”
3. The negation of propositions containing quantifiers ∀, ∃

∀x ∈ S, P(x) ⇔ ∃x ∈ S, P(x)

∃x ∈ S, P(x) ⇔ ∀x ∈ S, P(x)
Example:
A = “ lim xn = L ⇔ ∀ε > 0, ∃N0 ∈ N : ∀n ≥ N0 , |xn − L| < ε”
n→∞
Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA
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Chapter 1: Logics, Sets, Mappings and Complex numbers

Lesson 2: SETS AND SET OPERATIONS

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Lesson 2: Sets and set operations

I. Concepts of sets
1. Definition: A set is a collection of objects, things, people. Each of
objects in the set is called an element (or member) of the set.
2. Notation: Traditionally, we use upper case letters A, B, C,... and set
braces to denote a set. Elements of a set are denoted by lower case
letters a, b, c,...
Examples:
• A set of students in an university: A = {Tu Anh, Ba Anh, Tuan
Anh, Mai Phuong, Phuong Thu, ... }
• A set of football clubs: B = {MU, Real Madrid, Barca, Inter,
PSG, Bayern Munich, ... }
• R = The set of real number.
3. Remarks:
• If x is an element of E , then we denote by x ∈ E .
• If x is not an element of E , then we write x ∈/ E.
• The empty set is a set containing no any object. It is written by
the symbol ∅.
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Lesson 2: Sets and set operations

4. Description of a set: There are several ways to describe a set, namely
• Roster notation (or listing notation): We list all the elements of a set
in a couple of braces.
A = {Haiphong, Hanoi, Danang, Saigon}
• Set–builder notation: This is a notation which lists the rules that
determine whether an object is an element of the set.
√ √
B = {x ∈ R | − 5 ≤ x ≤ 5}
• Venn diagram: Some times we use a closed figure on the plan to
indicate a set. This is called Venn diagram.

Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA

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Lesson 2: Sets and set operations

5. Subset, two equal sets:
• A is called a subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B, if for any x ∈ A it
follows that x ∈ B.
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.
• We say that A and B are equal, i.e. A = B if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A.
√ √
{x ∈ R | − 5 ≤ x ≤ 5} = {x ∈ R | x 2 ≤ 5}
II. Operations on sets
1. Intersection: The intersection of A and B is a set that is defined by
A ∩ B = {x| x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
and by Venn diagram

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Lesson 2: Sets and set operations

2. Union: The union of A and B is the set that is defined by
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
and by Venn diagram

3. Subtraction: The subtraction of A and B, denoted by A\B, is given by

A\B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}
and by Venn diagram

Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA

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Lesson 2: Sets and set operations

4. Complement: Let A, B be two sets such that B ⊂ A. The set A\B
is called the complement of B in A, denoted by CA (B). It is defined
by
CA (B) = A\B = {x ∈ A | x ∈/ B}
and by Venn diagram

5. Cartesian product: The Cartesian product of A1 , A2 , . . . , An ,

denoted by A1 × A2 × . . . × An is given by
A1 × A2 × . . . × An = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )|xi ∈ Ai , where i = 1, n}.
Remark: Equality of elements in a Cartesian product
(a1 , . . . , an ) = (b1 , . . . , bn ) ⇔ a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 , · · · , an = bn
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Lesson 2: Sets and set operations

III. Properties on sets
1. Commutative law:

A∪B =B ∪A and A∩B =B ∩A

2. Associative law:

(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C ) and (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C )

3. Distributive law:

A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C )

A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ).
4. Property of the complement: If A, B ⊂ X , then A \ B = A ∩ B.
5. De Morgan’s law:

A∩B =A∪B and A ∪ B = A ∩ B.

Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA
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Chapter 1: Logics, Sets, Mappings and Complex numbers

Lesson 3: MAPPINGS

Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA

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Lesson 3: Mappings
I. Basic concepts
1. Definition: Let X , Y be two nonempty sets. A mapping f with
domain X and range (or codomain) Y is an assignment of each
element x ∈ X to an unique element y ∈ Y . We denote by
f : X →Y
x 7→ y = f (x).
Examples:
a) f : R → R b) f : R2 → R
2
x 7→ y = 2x − 3x − 1 x = (x1 , x2 ) 7→ y = 2x1 + 3x2 − 1
c) f : X → X ; f (x) = x, ∀x ∈ X . This is called the identity mapping
on the set X , denoted by IdX .
2. Images: If A ⊂ X , then the image of A is denoted by f (A), a subset
of Y which is defined by
f (A) = {y ∈ Y |y = f (x) and x ∈ A} = {f (x) | x ∈ A}.
Examples: a) Find f (A1 ), f (A2 ) with A1 = {−2, 5}, A2 = [0, 1].
b) Determine f (A) with A = {(1, 0), (−2, 4)}.
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Lesson 3: Mappings
3. Inverse Images: If B ⊂ Y , then the inverse image (or preimage) of
B is denoted by f −1 (B), a subset of X which is defined by
f −1 (B) = {x ∈ X | f (x) ∈ B}.
Examples: a) Find f −1 (B1 ), f −1 (B2 ) with B1 = {3, 5}, A2 = [3, 5].
b) Determine f −1 (B) with B = {1, 4}.
II. Classification of mappings
1. Injective: f is called injective if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) for any x1 , x2 ∈ X ,
then x1 = x2
2x + 3
Examples: f : R \ {1} → R with f (x) = .
x −1
2. Surjective: f is called surjective if f (X ) = Y , which is equivalent to
“the equation f (x) = m has at least one solution for any m ∈ Y ”.
Examples: f : R → R with f (x) = 2x 2 + 4x − 1.
3. Bijective: f is called bijective if it is both injective and surjective
⇔ “the equation f (x) = m has a unique solution for any m ∈ Y ”.
Examples: f : R2 → R2 with f (x1 , x2 ) = (2x1 + 3x2 − 1, 4x1 − x2 ).
Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA
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Lesson 3: Mappings
III. Composition of mappings and Inverse mapping
1. Composition of mappings: Let f : X → Y , g : Y → Z be two
mappings. The composition of g and f , denoted by h = g ◦ f , is
defined by
g ◦f : X →Z
x 7→ z = (g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)).
2x + 3
Examples: f : R \ {1} → R with f (x) = and g : R → R
x −1
with g (x) = x 2 + 1. Find g ◦ f .
2. Inverse mapping: Let f : X → Y be a bijective mapping. The
inverse mapping of f , denoted by f −1 , is defined by
f −1 : Y → X
y 7→ x = f −1 (y ).
Examples: a) f : R → R with f (x) = x 3 + 1. Determine f −1 .
b) f : R2 → R2 with f (x1 , x2 ) = (2x1 + 3x2 − 1, 4x1 − x2 ). Find f −1 .
Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA
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Chapter 1: Logics, Sets, Mappings and Complex numbers

Lesson 4: ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

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Lesson 4: Algebraic structures

I. Binary operations
1. Definition: Let M be a non-empty set. A binary operation on M is a
mapping as follows:

∗:M ×M →M
(a, b) 7→ m = ∗(a, b). For simplicity, we write ∗(a, b) = a ∗ b

Examples:
a) The usual addition + and the usual multiplication • are two
binary operations on R.
b) The usual division ÷ is not a binary operation on R, but is a
binary operation on√R∗ .
c) Let M = {a + b 2 | a, b ∈ Q}. The addition + and the
multiplication • of real numbers are the binary operations on M.
2. Remark: When we are talking about a set M, together with a fixed
binary operation ∗, we often write (M, ∗). Then, a couple (M, ∗) is
called an algebraic structure.
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Lesson 4: Algebraic structures

II. Some typical algebraic structures
1. Group: Let G be a non-empty set and ∗ be a binary operation.
Then, (G , ∗) is called a group if the following properties hold:
(G1) Associativity: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G .
(G2) Existence of identity element: ∃e ∈ G such that
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a ∀a ∈ G .
(G3) Existence of inverse element: Given a ∈ G , ∃a′ ∈ G such that
a ∗ a′ = a′ ∗ a = e.
• Remark: A group (G , ∗) is called a Abelian group if it also satisfies
the following commutative property:
x ∗ y = y ∗ x, ∀x, y ∈ G .
• Examples: a) (R, +) and (R∗ , .) are Abelian groups.
b) (N, +) and (Z∗ , ·) are not a group.
• Properties:
i) The identity element e is unique.
ii) The inverse element a′ of a is unique.
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Lesson 4: Algebraic structures

2. Ring: Let R be a non-empty set and ∗1 , ∗2 be two binary operations.

Then, (R, ∗1 , ∗2 ) is called a ring if the following properties hold:
(R1) (R, ∗1 ) is an Abelian group.
(R2) Associativity of ∗2 : (a ∗2 b) ∗2 c = a ∗2 (b ∗2 c) ∀a, b, c ∈ G .
(R3) Distributive property: For any x, y , z ∈ R it holds

(x∗1 y )∗2 z = (x∗2 z)∗1 (y ∗2 z) and x∗2 (y ∗1 z) = (x∗2 y )∗1 (x∗2 z).

• Remark:
i) (R, ∗1 , ∗2 ) is called a commutative ring if the binary operation
∗2 is commutative.
ii) (R, ∗1 , ∗2 ) is called a ring having identity if it has the identity
element for the binary operation ∗2 .
• Examples:
a) (Z, +, .), (Q, +, .) are commutative rings having identity.
b) (N, +, .) is not a ring.

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Lesson 4: Algebraic structures

3. Field: Let F be a non-empty set and ∗1 , ∗2 be two binary operations.

Then, (F , ∗1 , ∗2 ) is called a field if the following properties hold:
(F1) (F , ∗1 , ∗2 ) is a ring having identity.
(F2) Existence of inverse element of ∗2 : For any x ∈ F , x ̸= 0, there
always exists the inverse element x −1 such that

x ∗2 x −1 = 1,

where 0 and 1 are the identity elements of ∗1 and ∗2 , respectively.

• Remark: If (F , ∗1 , ∗2 ) is a field, then (F , ∗2 ) is an Abelian group.
• Examples:
a) (Q, +, .), (R, +, .) are fields.
b) (Z, +, √
.) is not a field.
√ √
c) Let Q[ 3] = {a + b 3 | a, b ∈ Q}. Whether (Q[ 3], +, .) is a
field or not?

Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA

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Chapter 1: Logics, Sets, Mappings and Complex numbers

Lesson 5: COMPLEX NUMBERS

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Lesson 5: Complex numbers

I. Construction of the field of complex numbers
1. How to construct: On the set R × R = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ R}, we
introduce two binary operations + and · as follows:
(+) : (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d).
(·) : (a, b) · (c, d) = (ac − bd, ad + bc).
• Remark: (
a=c
i) Comparison rule: (a, b) = (c, d) ⇔
b = d.
ii) (R × R, +, ·) is a field. Then, we call it the field of complex
numbers, denoted by C.
iii) For simplicity, we write an element (a, 0) ∈ C as an element
a ∈ R. This means R ⊂ C.
2. How to present complex numbers: Denoting i = (0, 1) we get
i) i 2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) = −1.
ii) z = (a, b) ∈ C:
z = (a, 0) + (0, b) = (a, 0) + (b, 0)(0, 1) = a + bi,
Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA
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Lesson 5: Complex numbers

• Remark:
i) z = a + bi is called the canonical form of the complex number z.
ii) The real number a is called the real part of z and denoted by
a = Re(z).
iii) The real number b is called the imaginary part of z and denoted by
b = Im(z).
iv) i is called the imaginary unit.
3. Operations of complex numbers in the canonical form:
• Addition: (a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
• Subtraction: (a + bi) − (c + di) = (a − c) + (b − d)i
• Multiplication: (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i
a + bi (a + bi)(c − di)
• Division: = , where c 2 + d 2 ̸= 0
c + di c2 + d2
• Conjugate of a complex number: z = √ a − bi
• Modulus of a complex number: |z| = a2 + b 2
 
z1 z1
• Properties: z1 ± z2 = z1 ± z2 ; z1 z2 = z1 z2 ; = ;
z2 z2
z1 |z1 |
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |; = ; z.z = |z|2 = a2 + b 2 .
z2 |z2 |
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Lesson 5: Complex numbers

II. Polar (trigonometric) form of complex numbers
1. Complex plane: Each complex number z = a + bi can be
represented by a point M(a, b) in the ( plane Oxy , where Ox is real
r = OM
axis and Oy is imaginary axis. Let −−→ .
φ = (Ox, OM)
Now z = a + bi = r (cos φ + i sin φ) is called the polar form of z,
where √
i) r = |z| = a2 + b 2 (Modulus of z)
ii) φ is called the Argument of z, denoted by Arg(z). Moreover,
a b
cos φ = √ and sin φ = √
a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2
√
Examples: Write the polar form of z1 = 3 + i, z2 = −2, z3 = 3i.
2. Operations of complex numbers in the polar form:
If z1 = r1 (cos φ1 + i sin φ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos φ2 + i sin φ2 , then 
• Multiplication: z1 z2 = r1 r2 cos(φ1 + φ2 ) + i sin(φ1 + φ2 )
z1 r1  
• Division: = cos(φ1 − φ2 ) + i sin(φ1 − φ2 )
z2 r2
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Lesson 5: Complex numbers

• Powers: If z = r (cos φ + i sin φ), then
z n = r n (cos nφ + i sin nφ) for any n ∈ N.
√
Examples: Calculate (1 + i 3)2023 .
• Roots: If z = r (cos φ + i sin φ), then
√ √
   
n n
φ + k2π φ + k2π
z= r cos + i sin : k = 0, n − 1 for any n ∈ N.
n n
p
2023
√
Examples: Calculate 1 + i 3.
Remark:
i) Each non-zero complex number has exactly n different nth roots by
replacing k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1.
ii) Especially, when n = 2 we should use the canonical form instead of
the polar form, i.e.
√
a + bi = x + yi ⇔ (x + yi)2 = a + bi
√
Examples: Compute 3 + 4i.
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The end

Thank you for your attention!

Tuan Anh Dao, SAMI-HUST ALGEBRA