'..,,".

CBIE M i l l e n n i u m Research No. 1 0

Crossborder Education: Programs and

Providers on the Move

By Dr. J a n e K n i g h t

Comparative, l n t e r n a t i o n a l and Development Education Centre

O n t a r i o lnstitute far Studies in Education, University of Toronto

1.0 INTRODUCTION • Three Canadian universities are formally working

with rhe Al-Ahram Organization (a large privare con­

Globalization is transfarming the world and internation­ glomerare) to establish the Al-Ahram Canadian

alization is changing the world o

f higher education University in Egypt.

• The Netherlands Business School (Universiteit

he Global Student Mobility 2025 Report (2002) pre­ Nijenrode) has recently opened a branch campus in

T pared by IDP Education Australia predicts that the Nigeria.

demand for international education will increase from • In 2002, Australian universities had over 97,000 stu­

1 . 8 million international students in 2000 to 7.2 million dents enrolled in 1 , 5 6 9 crossborder programs. (This is

international students in 2025. By all accounts these are in addition to foreign srudenrs at Australian-based

staggering figures and present enormous institutions),

challenges and opportunities. !t is nor

known whar proportion of the demand will

be met by student mobility but it is clear D U R I N G THE LAST FIVE YEARS THE MOVEMENT OF
thar rhere will be exponential growrh in the
EDUCATION PROGRAMS AND PROVIDERS ACROSS
movement of programs and instirutions,

and providers across national borders. New NATIONAL BOUNDARIES HAS BEEN A HOTBED OF
types of providers, new forms of delivery
ACTIVITY AND INNOVATION.
and new models of collaboration are being

developed in arder to take education pro-

grams to students in rheir home countries.

During the last five years che movement of education • The International Institute of Information

programs and providers across nacional boundaries has been Technology (India) is establishing a reaching centre in

a hotbed of activity and innovation. The following are Moscow to offer irs Master's and PhD programs.

examples of hundreds of new initiatives that have developed • Dubai has developed a "Knowledge Village" in rhe

since 2002. Dubai Technology and Media Free Zone and to date

• Phoenix Universiry has become che largest privare uni­ rhe London School of Economics, Indiás Manipal

versity in the US (owned and operated by the Apollo Academy of Higher Education and rhe University of

Group company) and is now present or delivering Wollongong (Australia) are offering courses through

courses in Puerto Rico, Netherlands, Mexico and franchising agreements and branch campuses.

Canada. Other Apollo companies are offering courses • Laureate Education (formerly Sylvan Learning

in Brazil, India and China. Systems) has purchased whole or part of prívate
 higher education institutions in Chile, Mexico, A fascinacing but very complex world of crossborder

Pana1na and Costa Rica and owns universities in education is emcrging. The purpose of rhis paper is to

Spain, Switzerland and France. delve into sorne of the trends, issues, challenges and

• The Universicy ofWescminster (UK) is rhe key for­ implications of rhese new developments. The objectives

eign academic partner in the new prívate Kingdom are: 1) to clarify the relationships between globalization,

University of Bahrain and plays a similar adviso­ internationalization, crossborder education and trade of

ry/provision role with new institutions in Nigeria, educational services; 2) to provide concrete examples of

Uzbekisran and Kazakhscan. che current types and models of program and provider

• As of ]une 2003, 858 degree-level programs from mobility; 3) to cry to develop a conceptual map of con­

1 1 different countries were operating in Hong ceprs, terms and issues related to crossborder education;

Kong, and Singapore had 522 degree-level and 4) to identify issues and implications rhat need to be

programs from 12 foreign countries. addressed at che system level, such as qualicy assurance of

• Harvard University is developing rwo branch cam­ providers and recognition of qualifications.

pus initiatives in Cyprus and Uniced Arab Emirates. Given che rapid and perhaps tumulruous expansion

• Jinan University will be rhe first Chinese university of internacional academic mobility, it is important to be

to open a branch campus outside China - in clear about che paramecers of chis paper. The primary

Thailand. focus is on che movement of education programs and

• Germany invested 14 million Euros in acadernic providers across borders, not che mobility of students,

year 2003/2004 to encourage German universities The emphasis is on higher education, however many of

to operate abroad and to increase foreign student che issues and challenges apply to ocher levels. le is

enrolment in Germany. important to recognize that in crossborder education

there are different perspec­

tives and issues depending

on wherher one is a receiv­

TRADITIONAL H I G H E R EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS ( H E l s ) ARE ing (hose) country or a

sending (source) country;

NO LONGER THE ONLV DELIVERERS OF ACADEMIC COURSES
this paper aims to address

AND PROGRAMS. INTERNATIONAL CONGLOMERATES, both perspectives. More

attention is given to fee­

MEDIA AND IT COMPANIES ARE INCREASINGLV ENGAGED
based and commercial

forms of crossborder edu-

cation, than to develop­

These examples involve higher education providers ment cooperation projects or academic exchange agree­

(including institutions and companies) delivering rheir ments. The paper concentrares on the provision of credit­

courses and progran1s to students in their home coun­ based courses and programs leading to

tries. Ir is convincing evidence that it is no longer just certificares/ degrees and does not address in any substan­

students who are moving across borders and that, even cial way che crossborder mobiliry of research and scholar­

though in colonial times there was significant mobiliry ly initiatives. The discussion of issues and challenges is

of institutions, we have now entered a new era of cross­ targeted to system level policies and responsibilities.

border education.

1 . 2 TERMINOLOGY

1.1 PURPOSE

he language of internarionalization is changing and

T
he knowledge society, lnformation and differs within and between countries. Even though

T
Communications Technologies (ICTs), and che one of the objeccives of chis paper is to make sense

market economy are increasing che demand for ter­ of the myriad of new terms rhat are emerging, it is

tiary and continuing education. This is leading to important to clarify how key concepts are interpreted

increased crossborder education provision involving new and used.

types of educacion providers, new modes of delivery, new Traditional higher educacion inscicucions (HE!s) are

programs and qualifications, new parrnerships and affilia­ no longer the only deliverers of academic courses and

rion models, new national regulations and in general, a programs. Internacional conglomerares, media and IT

shift from academic cooperarion and exchange to com­ companies, new partnerships of prívate and public bodies

mercial trade. are increasingly engaged in rhe provision of education

2
 THERE IS GREAT CONFUSION ABOUT THE M E A N I N G AND USE OF THE TERMS

'TRANSNATIONAL, C R O S S B O R D E R , AND BORDERLESS' EDUCATION. THE

PREFERRED TERM FOR THIS PAPER IS C R O S S B O R D E R EDUCATION AS IT IS

THE P R E S E N C E OF NATIONAL B O R D E R S WHICH IS KEY TO MANY OF THE

REGULATORY, OUALITY, ACADEMIC AND FINANCIAL ISSUES RELATED TO

THE NEW MOBILITY OF PROGRAMS AND PROVIDERS.

both domestically and internationally. The terrn educa­ tions in terms of che recognition of providers and rheir

tion provider is now becoming a more comrnon and qualifications, the quality assurance of the programs

inclusive terrn as it includes tradicional HEis as well as being dclivered, and the role of national, regional and

organizations and companies. This paper uses rhe term internacional regulatory fratneworks.

providers to mean ali types of entities that are offcring

education programs and services. There is sorne criticism

directed towards che use of che term 'providers' as ir

2.0 GLOBALIZATION,
seems to be buying inro che 'markerizarion and corporati­
I N T E R N A T I O N A L I Z A T I O N AND
zation' agenda. This is a sign of che times and every
C R O S S B O R D E R EDUCATION
attempt

is made not to adopt che rrade and commercial language

he purpose of chis section is ro discuss che realirics
of 'suppliers, consumption abroad, commercial presence',

T
of rhe environmenr in which higher education, and
etc. There is great confusion about che rucaning and use
especially che internacional ditnension of higher
of che terrns 'transnational, crossborder, and borderless'

education, is working. Secondly, it is irnporranr to clarify

education. This will be addressed in Secrion 2 . 3 . The

che connections among globalization, internationaliza­

preferred term for chis paper is crossborder education
tion, crossborder education and trade as these processes
as ir is the presence of nacional borders which is key to
are intertwined in a complicared and confusing way. The
many of rhe regulatory, qualiry, academic and financia!
following scctions artempt to shed sorne light on che evo­
issues relared to che new mobility of programs and
lution and relationship of these processes.
providers.

2.1 GLOBALIZATION CHANGES AND

1 . 3 OUTLINE
CHALLENGES

he outline of this paper is as follows. The second

here are many changes and new challenges in how
addresses che context and challengcs facing

T
section

T
che environment is impacring internationalizarion
che internacional dünension of education. An
and how growing internacional dimension of high­

analysis of rhe majar elernenrs of globalization and their

er education is an agent of change itself. Globalization
impacr on highcr education is provided. Most irnportant­
is probably rhe mosr pervasive and powcrful driver of
ly, che relationship of globalization, internationalization,
changes in today's environment. Globalization is a term
crossborder education and rrade in education services is
and a phenomenon which is on the minds of policy

explored. New developments in crossborder education

makers, academics and professionals/pracririoners from

around the world are highlighted in section threc and a

ali sectors and disciplines. Education is no exception.

comparison of che volume and types of crossborder activ­

The role of education-particularly postsecondary educa­

ities from Australia, UK and New Zcaland higher educa­

rion-as borh agen t and reactor to globalization is a

tion institutions is provided. In the fourth secrion, rhe

critica! area of debate and study, The discussion, in terms

plerhora of new terrns, concepts and issues related to of che nature, causes, elements, consequences and futurc

crossborder education is addressed and a conceptual map irnplications of globalization on education is prolific,

in the form of typologies is presenred to clarify sorne of rather controversia! and very important (Altbach, 2004;

che confusion and misunderstanding. The lasr secrion Breton and Lambert, 2003; Enders and Fulton, 2 003;

concentrares on the identification of issues and implica- Marginson, 2 0 0 1 ; Scorr, 2 000). However, for che

3
purposes of this discussion, a neutral or non-ideological tions relate to all aspects of internationalization-the

definition of globalization is purposely adopted, and sec­ curriculum and teaching process, student and acadernic

ondly, globalization is posirioned as a key cnvironmental mobility, crossborder delivery of education progra1ns,

factor that has multiple effects-both posirive and nega­ internacional devclopment projects, study of foreign lan­

tive-on education. guages, commercial trade, sraff developmenc, and others.

It is important to note rhat the discussion does not The chart includes three columns, which are purposely

centre on the 'globalization of education'-rather, global­ not alígned because the impact of globalizarían is not

ization is presented as a phenomcnon impacring interna­ linear. The elements of globalization lisred in the first

tionalization. In fact, substancial efforts have been made colurnn have implications for many different aspects

during this pase decade to maintain che focus on the of higher education and in turn rhe internacional

'internationalization of education' and to avoid using the dimension.

term 'globalizarían of education'. This has had mixed This chart attemprs to position globalization and

results, but sorne success has bccn achieved in ensuring internationalization as different but closely linked

thar these two terms are not seen as synonymous and are processes. It reinforces rhe notion rhat globalization is a

not used interchangeably. rather generic process which irnpacrs different sectors, of

Globalization is defined as "rhe flow of technology, which higher education is just one. Examples of how rhe

internacional dimension of educa-

tion is implicated are provided in

arder to show that international­

SUBSTANTIAL EFFORTS HAVE BEEN MADE DURING THIS
ization of higher education is seen

PAST DECADE TO MAINTAIN THE FOCUS ON THE as both a reaction to and an agent

of globalization.
'INTERNATIONALIZATION OF EDUCATION' AND TO AVOID
Why is internationalization

USING THE TERM 'GLOBALIZATION OF EDUCATION'. seen as being both a response to

and a catalyst for globalizarían?

The "response to" position is

based on rhe fact that highet edu­

economy, knowledge, people, values, and ideas . . . across cation needs to prepare students far living and working

borders. Globalization affects each country in a different in a more connecred, interdependent and globalized

way due to a nation's individual hisrory, traditions, cul­ world, and secondly, that research and scholarship need

ture and priorities. Globalization increases and reflects to contribute to nacional and internacional issues. On

the growing connectiviry and interdependence among rhe other hand, internationalization is seen as an agent of

nations" (Knight & de Wit, 1997, p. 6) . This definirían globalization, especially economic globalization or trade,

a cknowledges thar globalization is a multi-faceted process because the rnarket approach to higher education is

and can impact countries in vasrly different ways but ir becoming more active in rhe for-profit side of foreign

does nor take a position as to whether this i mpact has student recruitment and commercial crossborder delivery

positive and/or negative consequences. of education.

There are a number of factors that are seen as

fundamental aspects of globalization. These nclude

i he
c

knowledge society, information and communication 2.2 INTERNATIONALIZATION: EVOLUTION A N D

technologies, the market economy, trade liberalization EXPANSION

and changes in governance structures. Ir can be debared

whether these are catalysts far globalization or whether nly in the lasr two decades has the term interna­

they are consequences of globalization, for this tionalization bcen an important part of higher

O
bur

discussion they are presented as elements or f actors of education vocabulary. Prior to this time, interna­

globalization which have an enormous impacr on the cional development cooperation, internacional academic

education sector. affairs and foreign students were the key concepts used to

C hart One describes each of these fi ve elements of describe rhe kind of internacional activiries that post­

globalizarían and notes sorne of rhe key i mplications for secondary institurions engaged in. Beginning in the

postsecondary education in general and rhe internacional mid-eighties internationalization of higher education,

dimension in particular. Thís chart presents highlights interprered in rhe broadest sensc, starced to increase in

only, not a complete analysis. Its purpose is to illustrate importan ce, scope and vol ume. Evidence of rhis includes

severa! of the major environrnental changes that are shap­ • growing number of studenrs, professors, and

ing e responses and actions of

th nternationalization to
i researchers participating in academic mobiliry

globalization. It is importanr to note that these implica- schemes

4
 • increase in che n umber of courses, progra ms an d internacional, interculrural or global dimension into rhe

qualifications w hich focus on cornparative an d purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary educa­

internacional rhemes tion" (Knight 2003, p.2).

• incrcased crossborder delivery of academic This is intentionally a neutral definition of interna­

programs tionalization. Many would argue thar the process of inter­

• development of new intern acional networks a nd nationalization should be described in terrns of promoting

consortia cooperation, and solidarity a1nong nations, improving

• increase in cam pus bascd extra-curricular activities qualiry and relevance of highcr education or contriburing

w th i an international or multi-cultural co mponent to the advancement of research for internacional issues.

• irnperus given to recruitment of foreign st udents While these are noble inrentions and internationalization

• ris e in nurnber o f j oint or dou ble degrees can contribute to these goals, a definition needs to be

• e xpansion of partnerships, franchises , o ffshore objective enough chat ir can be used to describe a phe­

sa cellite ca mpuses no menon which is in fact uni versal but which has di ffer­

• establishment of ne w na cional organi zations ent purposes an d outcomes, d epending on rhe actor or

focused on in ternacional ed ucation sta keholder. The refore, ir is impo rtant to explain why s pe­

• ne w regional and na cional level govern ment poli­

cific ter ms and concepts ve
ha been carefully chosen for

cies and programs sup porting academic mo bilicy rhe proposed wor king definirion of internarionalizarion.

and orher inremationalization initiarives The te rm 'process' is deliberately used to conve y rhat

interna tionalization is an ongo ng i and contin uing ffort.

e

Ir is interesting to loo k a r che way in which definí­ 'Process' denotes an evolut onar i y or dev elopmental quali­

tions / meanings of terms need to evolve to re flect ne w ty to the concept. The concept of 'integration' is specifi-

de velopments and also to help shape

ne w policy and programs. Given che

chang es in acionales, providers, stake­

r
INTERNATIONALIZATION AT THE NATIONAL/SECTOR/
holders and acrivities of international­

i zacion, it is important to revi sit the INSTITUTIONAL LEVELS IS D E F I N E D AS THE

qu estion of definition an d ensure thar

PROCESS OF INTEGRATING AN INTERNATIONAL,
the mean n i g reflecrs the cornplex real ­

ities of today and is able to guide and INTERCULTURAL OR GLOBAL D I M E N S I O N INTO

b e rele vant to ne w developments . Ir is

THE PURPOSE, FUNCTIONS OR DELIVERY OF

increasingly cle ar that international­

izacion needs to be understood both POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION.

a r che na tional/system lev e! as well as

at the institucional level. Th erefore, a

new definition is proposed which ac knowledges both Iev­ cally use d ro denote che process.of inf using ar ernbed­

els and che need to address che rela tionship and coher­ ding rhe interna cional and interc ultural di mension into

ence be tween them, policies and programs in arder to ensure thar rhe interna­

T he c hallenging pare of develo ping a defini rion is r he cional dimens on i rema ns i central - not 1narginal - an d

n eed far r
i to be generic enoug h to ap ply to m any differ­ sustainable. The conce pts of 'purpose, function a nd

en t counrries, l
cu tures and education systems . While i r is
i
del very ' have been carefully chosen and are meant to be

not necessarily the intention to develop a uni versal de fi­ used toget her. Purpose refe sr to che overall role an d

nition, ir is imperarive rhat it be appropr at i e for use in a

j
ob ect ves i of hi gher education f ar a counrry or mission of

broad range of conrexts and for co mparative purposes an insritution. Funcrion refers to che primary elem ents or

across countries /regions of the world. With chis in mind, rasks chat charac terize a n acional post-second ary system

it is important to ensure that a de finition does not s peci­ or indivi dual institution, Usually these incl ude t eaching,

fy the ra cionales, benefits, outcomes , actors , activities, research an d service /outreach to socicry, Delivery is a nar­

and stakeholders of interna tionalization as the y vary ro wer conce pt and refers to che offering of education

enor mously across nations and also from stitution

in to
courses and programs either domesrically or in other

institution. What is critic a! is chat the interna cional co untries. This includes delive ry by tradicional higher

i
d mension relates to a li as pects of educ arion and che rol e education instituricns but al so by ne w providers uch
s as

thar ir pla ys in socie cy. T he fo llowing working de finition mulri-national companies who are afeen more interested

s proposed:
i
in che global deliver y of rheir prog rams and services than

Internationalization at che na tional/sector/institu­ the interna cional or in rercultural dimension of a campus

i
t onal levels is de fined as "che process of integrating an or research and ser vice f unctions.

5
 CHART ONE: IMPLICATIONS OF GLOBALIZATION FOR INTERNATIONALIZATION

Element of globalization lmpact on higher education lmplications for the international

dimension of higher education

Knowledge Society Growing emphasis on continuing New types of priva te and pub] ic providers

lncreasing irnportancc attached ro educacion, lifelong learning and continua! delivering education and rraining programs

che production and use of k..nowl- professional development crcating a across borders. For example. privare media

cdge as a wealth crearor for nations greater unmer demand for posrsecondary companies, nerworks of public/private insti-

educacion tutions, corporare universiries, multi-

nacional companies

Need to develop new skills and know-

ledge resulting in new types of programs Programs rnore responsive to market

and qualifications demand. Specialized training progra1ns

being <leveloped for niche marker and for

Role of univcrsities in research and professional development purposes and <lis-

knowledge production is changing and tributed on a wor!dwide basis

becoming more commcrcialized

ICTs New delivery mcthods used for domescic lncreased internacional mobiliry of stu-

New dcvclopments in information and crossborder education, especially on- dents, academics, education and craining

and communication cechnologies line and satellite based programs, research, providers and projects.

and systems Mobilicy is physical and virtual

Market Economy Greater commercializarion and commodi- lnnovative internacional delivery mcthods

Growch in number and influencc of ficacion of higher educacion and training such as e-learning, franchises, sacellice cam-

markct-based economies around che at domestic and internacional levels puses require more attcntion given to

world accreditation of programs/providcrs and

recognicion of qualifications

Trade Liberalization Import and export of cducational scrvices New concerns abouc appropriateness of cur-

New internacional and regional and produces increased as barriers riculum and teaching matcrials in different

trade agree1nents developed to removed cultures cnd countries and che potencial for

decrease barricrs to trade ho,nogenizacion as well as new opporcuni-

ties for hybridizacion

Governance The role of nacional Ievel education actors Increasing emphasis on comrnercially ori-

Creation of new internacional and boch government and non-governinent is ented expon and import of education pro-

regional governance structures and changing grams and diminished importancc to inter-

sy,<,te1ns nacional development projects

New regulacory and policy framcworks

being considered at all Ievels New internacional/regional frnmeworks

under consideracion to complement narion-

al and regional policies and practices espe-

cially in che areas of qualicy assurance,

accredication, credic cransfer, recognition of

qualifications, mobiliry of students

6
 Another interesting development in the intcrnation­ world where education providers are moving across bor­

alization vocabulary is rhe growing use of rwo new terms ders, this definition appears to be more applicable to pro­

which reflect two related but different streams or compo­ gram mobilicy than provider mobilicy. In fact, it is curi­

nents. of internationalization (Knighr 2003a). The first is ous to note the similarities thar now exist between this

'internationalization at home' (Nilsson, 1999) which first definition of transnational education and rhe current

refers to rhe internacional and intercultural dimension of deíinition rhat is being used to describe distance educa­

curriculum, rhe teaching/learning process, research, tion. Perhaps this is also reflecred in the fact thar GATE

extra-curricular activities, in fact a host of activiries is now managed by rhe US Distance Learning

which help students develop international understanding Associarion,

and intercultura] skills wirhour leaving the campus. The

UNESCO and rhe Council of Europe in their 'Code

second cotnponent is 'internationalization abroad' which of Practice on Transnational Education' have described

involves students, teachers, scholars, programs, courses, transnational education in a similar way. They define

curriculum and projects moving between countries and transnational education to mean 'ali types of higher edu­

cultures, in short, across borders.

cation study where the learners are locaced in a councry

different from the one where rhe awarding institution is

based' (UNESCO/Council ofEurope, 2 0 0 1 ) . Again, this

2.3 CROSSBORDER EDUCATION: INNOVATION definicion is useful for sorne crossborder movement of

ANO COMPLEXITIES programs bur may have limired application far the

growth in provider mobility. Por instance, there are pri­

rossborder ed ucation is a terrn that refers to the vare companies which are establishing independenr or

e movement of education across nacional jurisdic­

tional or geographic borders. In

the past decade, rhe in terest and growth

stand alone higher educarion institurions which are not

in international academic mobiliry has

exploded. This increased mobilicy is

CROSSBORDER EDUCATION IS A TERM THAT REFERS TO
reflecred in the introduction of new ter­

minology to try to describe or character­

THE MOVEMENT OF EDUCATION ACROSS NATIONAL
ize this delivery of education internation­

ally. Crossborder is a term that is ofren

J U R I S D I C T I O N A L OR G E O G R A P H I C BORDERS.

used interchangeably with other terms

such as transnational, offshore, and bor-

derless education,

Australians were among rhe first to use rhe term attached to a "home" university bur instead are attached

'cransnational education' as they wanted to differentiate to a "home" company. Would one describe this situarían

between the recruitment of internacional studencs to as rhe learner being located in a different country chan

Australian campuses and those who were studying for the awarding insritution?

Australian degrees offshore. Hence the term transnational

Another, more complex example is rhe Royal

education became used to simply describe offshore inrer­ Melbourne Institute ofTechnology (RMIT) from

national student enrolments regardless of delivery

Australia. le has established a full institution in Vietnam,

method,
which offers a wide selection of programs complete with

The Global Alliance far Transnational Education rhe physical facilities and the necessary adminiscrative,

(GATE) which was established a s a n independent organi­ academic, technological, socio-cultural serviccs. Is ir

zation in 1996 has, over the years, changed in terms of appropriate to describe chis situacion as che 'learners

governance and ownership bur has remained dedicated to

being locared in a country different from che one where

disseminacing good pracrices in transnational ed ucation rhe awarding institution is based? In technical terms, the

and offering certification services. The definicion created answer may be yes, because RMIT Vietnam still has its

by GATE is "Transnational education . . . . denotes any degree conferring power from Australia, even though ic

teaching or learning activiry in which the studenrs are in may deliver progran1s in Vietnam thar are not offered in

a different country (the hosr country) to that in which Australia. Yet, the student at RMIT Vietnam is studying

rhe institution providing rhe education is based (the in a foil Viernam-based RMIT campus. These same

home country). This siruation requires chat nacional questions will apply to the ncw campus rhat rhe

boundaries be crossed by information about the educa­

Universicy of South Wales (Australia) will establish in

tion, and by staff and/or education materials." In today's

Singapore. Another example, when Laureare Education

7
 for crossborder mobiliry of pro­
ANOTHER REASON THAT A NEW FRAMEWORK IS
grams and providers and has provi­

PROPOSED IS TO OFFER AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE sionally called ir

the Code of Conduce of

TRADE FRAMEWORK OF THE GENERAL
Crossborder/Transnational Higher

Education Programs,
AGREEMENT IN TRADE OF SERVICES ( G A T S ) .
signaling the similarities between

the terms but confusion as to

purchascs and operares a domestic instirution in far

which one to use.

instance Chile, are the learners Iocared in a different

This discussion on the different meanings of transna­

country than rhe awarding institurion? The answer is no.

tional education is meant to illustrate how difficult ir is to

The provider has moved across nacional borders to pur­

understand how different countries use the term. This has

chase a local universiry which continues to confer che

significant implications for how data is collected and how

awards. These examples serve to raise questions about che

regulatory frarneworks are created. In order to avoid the

'grey zone' in terms of power to award qualificarions

minefield of differing and sometimes contradictory termi­

when providers moving across borders. The GATE and

nology, a framework has been introduced to provide sorne

UNESCO/Council of Europe definitions of transnation­

clarity and hopefully common understanding about chis

al education are oriented and applicable to situations

phenomenon of education crossing borders.

where che programs moves across a border or where che

Another reason that a new framework is proposed is to

program or provider are virtual and delivering by dis­ offer an alternative to the ttade framework that the General

tance. It is unclear as to whether they cover che new

Agreement in Trade of Services (GATS) has introduced

modes of providers moving across borders.

into the higher education sector. The GATS is a worldwide

The term borderless education first appeared in an agreement managed by the World Trade Organization to

Australian repon by Cunningham et al (2000) and was íurther liberalize trade in services. Educarion is categorized

followed by a similar type of study in che United as a service, in the same way that transportation, communi­

Kingdom. Basically che terrn borderless education refers cation, health and culture sectors are. The GATS has iden­

to 'the blurring of conceptual, disciplinary and geograph­ tified four modes of trade or supply of services. They are as

ic borders traditionally inherent to higher education' follows:

(Council ofVice-Chancellors and Principals 2000). An

important development following rhe publication of Mode 1: Crossborder supply focuses on the service

these reports was rhe establishment of the Observatory of crossing the border, which does not require the con­

Borderless Higher Educacion (OBHE) in the UK. sumer to physically move. Examples in higher educa­

tion include distance educarion and e-learning.

It is interesting to juxtapose the concepts of border­

less education and crossborder education. The former

Mode 2: Consumption Abroad refers to che consumer

term acknowledges the disappearance of borders while the

moving to che country of the supplier which in educa­

Íatter term actually emphasizes the existence of borders.

tion means students taking ali or part of their educa­

Both approaches reílecr the reality of today. In rhis period

tion in another country.

of unprecedented growth in distance and e-learning edu­

cation, geographic borders seem to be of Iirtle conse­

Mode 3: Commercial Presence involves a service

quence. Yet, on rhe other hand, we can detect a growing

provider establishing a commercial faciliry in another

imporrance of borders when the focus turns to regulatory

counny to provide a service. Examples in higher edu­

responsibiliry, especially related to qualiry assurance, fund­

cation include branch campuses or franchising arrange­

ing and accreditation. The OBHE uses both bordedess

menrs.
and transnational educarion in their reports. A close look

at.how OBHE applies these terrns shows that ir often uses

Mode 4: Presence of Natural Persons means persons

che cerms interchangeably and secondly, transnational

traveling to another country on a temporary basis to

education often includes the mobility of international stu­

provide scrvicc. In the education sector, chis would

dents (in addition to programs and providers). Thus the

include professors or researchers.

OBHE use of rhe term differs from the Australian and

the European approaches. This is yec another example of

In short, Mode 1 deals with the service rnoving,

the varied uses of the terrn transnational education and

Mode 2 deals with the consumer moving, Mode 3 deals

the potenrial for conf�sion.

with the provider and investment moving and Mode 4

South Africa has recendy developed a code of conduce
deals wirh human capital moving. There is no criticisrn

8
 implied regarding the central features of rhe four modes semester/year abroad program, etc. The funding for

for trade services. On che contrary, ir is quite an accorn­ such crossborder education can be through exchange

plishment to develop a generic framework ro apply to the

agreements, scholarships from govern111ent, public or

supply of cornrnercial services for che 12 major service privare sources and self-funding. Professors, scholars

sectors and 160 subsecrors included in GATS.

and experts can be involved in teaching and research

The concern abour these four trade modes focuses acriviries, technical assistance and consulting assign­

on the fact thar they are now beginning to be seen as rhe rnents, sabbaricals, seminars and other professional

four primary elements and methods of crossborder edu­ acrivities. These types of initiarives can be self or

cation and as such, they do not capture or reílect rhe institution funded, based on exchange agreements,

fullness of crossborder education activiry, As more attcn­

involve contracts and fee for service, or supported by

tion is given to the analysis of tnajor actors, stakeholders, public and privare funding.

racionales, benefirs, and as one examines the implications

for q u al i ty assurance, credential recognition, accredita­ Programs

rion, funding, access, ir is important that these matters The prograrn, not the student, moves in this catego­

are addressed for the largcr picture of crossborder educa­ ry. The delivery of the program is often done

tion. Using a trade framework to categorize crossborder

through a partnership arrange1nent between interna­

activity is one approach, bur, given rhese new develop­ tional/foreign and domestic providers or can be an

rncnrs and the emerging issues, it is argued that a rrade

independent initiative by a foreign provider. The

framework is too limited andan education framework is programs can be delivered by distance, face-to-face,

needed. The next section focuscs on rhe process of devel­

or mixed mode. Franchising, twinning and new

oping a conceptual framework to address che scope of forms of arriculation and validation arrangemenrs are

crossborder higher education.

rnost common. In sorne cases, the progra1n and qual­

ification awarded is provided by thc source country

institution/provider bur the teaching and support is

2.4 C R O S S B O R D E R EDUCATION FRAMEWORK

done in part or totally by a local institution/provider.

In orher cases, rhc foreign provider rakes complete

hat are rhe defining facrors/principles for a

responsibility for the delivcry of the academic pro­

W conceptual framework of crossborder educa­

tion? Many come to mind: what elements of

gra1n bue 111ay have a local business partner investing

in rhe opcration. Distance delivery of a program

educarion move? How does rhe movement occur? Why involves yet another set of circurnstances.

does education move? Where is

ir happening? Who is funding

ir' Who is awarding the qualifi­

GIVEN THE C H A N G I N G NATURE OF THE RATIONALES

carion? Who is regulating ir?

DRIVING C R O S S B O R D E R EDUCATION, THE WORLDWIDE
Given the changing nature of

the rationales driving crossbor­

SCOPE OF DELIVERV AND THE NEW M O D E S OF PROVISION,

der education, the worldwide

THE 'WHV, HOW AND WHERE' ARE ELIMINATED AS THE
scope of delivery and rhe new

modes of provision, the 'why, D E F I N I N G FACTORS.

how and where' are eliminated

as rhe defining facrors.

Emphasis is placed on 'what' moves across borders and

four different caregories are suggested: people, programs, Providers

providers and projects/service. The four categories used

The key factor in this category is rhar rhe institu­

to classify "who/whar" moves across borders are described tion/provider rnoves to have physical or virtual pres­

below:
ence in che receiving/host country. Ir is not the stu­

dent who rnoves, rhe provider rnoves to serve the

People
student, The movernent of a provider can involve a

The firsr category covers che movement of people more substancial range of programs and

whether they are studcnts or professors/

acadetnic/administrative support services moving. A

scholars/cxperts. Students are mobile in a number of provider can establish a sarellite ca1npus or establish

ways. They can rake whole degrees in another coun­ a full institution, In other scenarios thc provider

try, participare in a study abroad exchange program,

moves by purchasing/merging wirh a local instiru­

undertake field work or an internship, register for a tion. Virtual universities are yet another example of

9
 the provider moving across borders through distance ment cooperarion/aid education projects, 2) academic

delivery of a selection of programs. The providers exchanges and linkages, and 3) commcrcial trade iniria­

can include privare and public, for-profit or non­ tives. (In contrast, the GATS framework only covers

profir, educational institutions, organizations and commercial trade types of acrivities.)

companies, Both recognized bona fide Chart 1Wo presents a framework for crossborder

institutions/providers and non-recognized "rogue" education based on two elements: what moves - people,

providers are included in rhis category. providers, programs, and projects and under what

conditions - development cooperation projects,

Projects/services academic exchange and linkage agreements, and

There are a wide range of education related projects comrnercial/profit-orien red initiatives.

and services which need to be considered when ana­ This chart can also be used to illustrare significant

lyzing crossborder education. Such acriviries could trends or shifrs in crossborder education, and perhaps for

include a diversity of initiatives such as joint curricu­ internationalization in general. The first trend is rhc

lum development, research, benchmarking, technical focus of this paper - the vertical shifr downwards from

assistance, e-learning plarforms, professional develop­ student mo b ili ty to program and provider mobility. Ir is

ment and other capacity-building initiatives especial­ important to note that the number of students seeking

ly in the intormation technology area. The projects education in foreign countries is still increasing.

and services could be undertaken as part of develop­ However, there is currently new emphasis being placed

ment aid projects, academic linkages, and comrner­ on taking foreign academic courses and programs to stu­

cial contracts. dents in their home country. Thus the desirability of a

foreign education and qualification remains high, but

A sccond set of kcy factors relate to the fact that students do no t have to leave home to get it.

crossborder education occurs under different kinds of The second shifr is from lefr to right signifying sub­

arrangements. Therefore, rhree different sets of condi­ stantial change in orien tarion from development cooper­

tions far crossborder delivery are proposed: 1) develop- ation to competitive commcrce or, in other words, from

CHART TWO: FRAMEWORK FOR CROSSBORDER EDUCATION

Category Means Conditions of Crossborder Activity

• Students

People • Professors/Scholars

• Researchers/

• Experrs/consultanrs

l
.

• Stand Alone

• Twinning

Programs • Franchised Development __. Exchanges/ Commercial/

• Articulated/Validared Cooperation Linkages __. Profit orientated

• Joint/Double Award

• Online/Distance
t
• Branch Campus

Providers • Virtual University

• Merger/ Acquisition

T
• Capacity Building

Projects • Research

• Curriculum Devc:lopment

• Educacional services

10
aid to trade. However, ir would be an oversight not to 3.1 INNOVATIVE N E W INITIATIVES

recognize che substantial arnou nt of crossborder activity

that is happening under rhe academic exchange and l ink­ his section tries to illustrare the scope of new devel­

age category by HEis. The next sectiori will provide a

T
opments in program and provider mobility. The

number of concrete examples of this growing phenome­ examples have been taken from rhe breaking news

non of crossborder program and provider mobility. service of the Observatory on Borderless Higher

Educarion which tracks and reports on the iatest devel­

opment.'i and trends in borderless education. Only those

3.0 DEVELOPMENTS IN iniriatives ann oun c e d or established in rhe last two years

are listed. There are more examples from conventional

PROGRAM AND PROVIDER
higher education institurions rhan from commercial
M O B I L I T Y AROUND THE
company providers or from corporate universities,

WORLD however, the increase frotn these 'new' types of providers

should not be underestimated in terms of volurne,

he growth and changes in crossborder progratn and innovation and impact.

T
provider mobility are remarkable. This section aims
Examples are from the Observarory of Borderless

to provide a glimpse of these changes by identify­ Higher Education (OBHE) unless otherwise nored.

ing sorne of rhe new and interesting developmenrs in

crossborder educarion provision around rhe world. Ir is Middle East

important to point out rhat this infonnation rerlects the

Tbe diversity of new developments in che Middle Easr

mobility of progran1s and providers across borders, but

makes ir a very interesting region to study. For example,

does not include any of the innovative activities oriented

Poland has been approved to establish a new privare

to increasing student mobiliry or research/scholarship ini­

medical insrirure in Israel where students will study for

tiatives, The fose pare provides highlights of new cross­

three years befare moving to the Medical University in

border activiry by region of che world.

Therc is a serious lack of ...olid data

on the volurne and type of crossborder

program and provider mobility. INSTITUTIONS AND NATIONAL EDUCATION

lnstitutions and nacional education sys­
SVSTEMS HAVE INVESTED A LOT OF EFFORT TO
tems have invested a loe of effort to gath­

er reliable data on srudenr mobility, bue GATHER RELIABLE DATA ON STUDENT MOBILITV,
it is only in che last five years that coun­
BUT IT IS ONLV IN THE LAST FIVE VEARS
tries and internacional organizations are

starting to track program and provider THAT COUNTRIES AND INTERNATIONAL

mobility. There are huge challenges in
ORGANIZATIONS ARE STARTING TO TRACK
rhis data collection due to a lack of a

common set of rerrns, and different sys­

PROGRAM AND PROVIDER MOBILITV.
rems of gathering data. Howcver,

Australia, New Zealand and more recent-

ly the UK have been garhering sraristics

frorn the recognized HEis on rhe exren t of their cross­

Gdansk far rhrec more years of clinical study and then

border education provision. A tentarive analysis of cross­

retum to Israel for an internship (November 2003).

border activity in rhese three countries is included in this

Saudi Arabia is in che process of establishing new privare

part of the paper. Ir is described as rentative as any

universiries with the involvemenr of foreign institutions

analysis is only as good as the data, and rhere is no assur­

and investors. For instance, the Prince Sultan Privare

anee rhar comparable aspects of crossborder deiivery are

University is being established in cooperariori with the

being examined; nonetheless, ir certainly provides inrcr­

University of Arizona and UNESCO. In addition che

esting trend data. These three counrries, which are

Dar-Al-Faisal University is being founded in cooperation

prirnarily provider counrries, are rhe leaders in trying to

with che Stevens Institure ofTechnology (US) and with

systematically gather quantitative data. Orher countries,

financia! investment frotn che Boeing Company and rhe

notably in Europe, are collecting descriptive data on

French defence firm Thales (june 200 3) . lt is also

crossborder provision prirnarily focused on intra­

noreworrhy rhat Harvard is planning to set up a branch

European mobility.
campus in che United Arab Emirates (Iune 200 4).

11
 In Bahrain, a new Euro University is being planned focus to industry training only, Troy State University has

in affiliation with rhe University of Hanover (Germany). a teaching site in Bangkok for its MBA progcam and stu­

Egypt is home to the American Universiry established dents can transfer to the US depending on funds and

more than 80 years ago, bur in rhe last rhree years the visa requircmcnts. Other institurions operating in

Ger1nan Universiry in Cairo and rhe Université trancaise Thailand i nclude the Thai-German Graduare School of

d'Égypte have been established and a new Bri tish Engineering as well as 13 Australian and nine UK uni­

Universiry is under development. The partnership mod­ versities (March 2004).

els bctween local and foreign partners are slightly diffcr­ In Singapore, che University ofNew South Wales

ent thereby illustrating the creativity and diversity of new (Australia) will establish the first 100% forcign owned

forms of collaboration. An interesting example of rhis is higher education institution. lt plans to offer undergrad­

rhe franchise agreement where the distance MBA pro­ uare and graduare leve! programs and to develop a strong

gram of Heriot-Watt University from the UK is being research capacity, Other respected foreign institutions

offered through the American University in Egypt offering education programs and training in Singapore

(March 2004). The Al-Ahram Canadian University has rhrough joint ventures, exchanges and branch can1pus

already been cited (section 1 . 0 ) . models include the Chicago University Graduare School

in Business, Shanghai Jiao Tong

Universiry, Stanford University,

THE SPEED OF CHANGE AND INNOVATION IN INDIA'S Johns Hopkins University, rhe

German Technische Universitat

H I G H E R EDUCATION SECTOR IS UNPRECEDENTED
Munchen and Tcchnische

AND INCLUDES BOTH THE IMPORT AND EXPORT OF Universiteit Eindhoven from the

Netherlands (April 2004).

PROGRAMS AND SERVICES.
It is also interesting to note

rhe exporting activities of

Singapore institutions. Por

example, the National University

Asia Pacific of Singapore has developed a joint MBA with Fudan

Vietnam is an emerging hotbed of activity with the Universiry aimed at both Chinese and Singapore sru­

developrnenr of 100% foreign owned branch campus of dents. Ir is also embarking on a new graduare school ini­

RMIT from Australia. The lnternational College of IT tiative for Chinesc students to be located in Suzhou

and Management, established by Troy State University Graduare Town which is part of the Suzhou Industrial

(US) is another example of a foreign branch campus. The Park (Seprernber 2003).

University of Huc in Vietnam recenrly developed a fran­ Raffles LaSalle Limited from Singapore is a publicly

chised/joint degree bachelor's program in tourism with traded company very active in providing programs in

che University of Hawaii, and Hanoi University of fashion and design in many Asian countries. Ir has a

Teclrnology is current!y offering master's and bachelor's number of innovative partnership arrange1nents and

degrees wirh higher education institutions from Belgium spans many countries. OBHE (December 2003)

( ! ) , France (8), Germany ( ] ) Singapore (2) and the US describes i t a s "a remarkable instance of international

(1). The Vietnamese government recently announced the partnership, combining a Singapore firm wirh branches

development of the "Internacional University in Vietnam in Australia, China, Malaysia and Thailand, accreditation

"as another initiative to increase nacional capaciry for from an Australian state and a Canadian province,

higher education. lt is expected that half the university degrees from an Australian a n d a UK university, and a

teaching staff will be Vietnamese and che orher half from number of in-county university and college partners."

foreign universities, The involvement of foreign institu­ The speed of change and innovation in lndia's higher

cions will build on and expand from the current links of education sector is unprecedcnted and includes both che

Ho Chi Minh City National University (january 2004). import and export of programs and services. One of the

Thailand is another country of increasing impor­ more interesting initiatives is che partnership between rhe

tance for crossborder education and is an appealing desti­ Capare Croup, a UK firm with intereses in steel, engi­

nation for institutions and providers from Egypt, China, neering and hotels and Carnegie Mellan University (US)

Australia, and the US. Far example, che Egyptian Al­ to set u p a new campus in India Quly 2003).

Azhar University and Jinan University from China both

plan to open a branch campus in 2005. Swinburne Africa

Univetsity ofTechnology (Australia) has been operating a The Universiteit Nijenrode (Netherlands Business

branch campus since 1998, although ir is changing its School), a priva te instirution, has recently established a

12
 new branch campus in
MAURITIUS IS TAKING S O M E BOLO NEW STEPS AS IT TRIES
Nigeria in partnership

wi rh the African TO ESTABLISH ITSELF AS A "CYBER ISLAND" BY

Lcadership Forum (AFL)
ATTRACTING FOREIGN IT FIRMS FROM THE WEST ANO
which is a non-profit

organization founded in FROM INDIA.

1 9 8 8 . This is one of che

first such initiatives out-

side of South Africa (April 2004). In Sourh Africa, in che Internacional Slavonic Institute and the Moscow Stare

last few years, there have only been a handfu] of foreign University of Industry, are operaring progra1ns abroad,

institurions with branch campuses including Monash and such as in Bulgaria. However, Russia is not only a send­

Bond from Australia, De Montfort (UK), and che ing country it is also a receiving country of progra1ns

Netherlands Business School. As a result of the recent through joint/double degrees, twinning, and franchise

review of ali MBA programs offered in South Africa, arrangements. For instan ce, the Higher School of

thrce of the foreign institurions are leaving because of Economics has a double degree program with rhe

accreditation relared issues. Monash will remain (it does London School of Economics. The Stockholm School of

not offer an MBA program) as well as che UK-based Economics is operating in Sr. Perersburg and the

Henley Management College which is primarily a dis­ University of Oslo's Centre for Medica! Srudies is in

tance provider (June 20 04). South Africa is an example Moscow. The UK Open University is active through

of a country where there has been a decrease in the num­ 80 business training centres across che country. The

ber of foreign programs being offered, !argel y due to gov­ University of Southern Queensland is partnering with

cmmenr regulacions and accrediration processes. Kenya is rhe Far Eastern Nacional University in Vladivostok for

home to rwo privare non-profit universities. The Aga program delivery (October 2003) . The Pune-based

Khan Universiry frorn Pakiscan opened a branch universi­ Internacional Insriture of Infonnarion 1tchnology plans

ty ca1npus in Kenya in 2002 which specializes in nursing to offer its Master's and PhD courses through che newly

education and Alliant lnternational University from established Russian-lndian Centre for Advanced

the US provides educacion in social sciences and the Compurcr Research in Moscow.

humanities (January 2004).

In Greece, rhc University of Jndianapolis has been

Mauritius is taking sorne bold new steps as it tries to active for more rhan a decade, first rhrough an articula-

establish itself as a

"cyber island" by

attracting foreign IT

firms from the west A REVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS REGIONAL SECTIONS SHOWS

and from India. A

THAT AMERICAN HEls ANO PRIVATE COMPANIES ARE
'knowledge centre',

described as a world­ PROBABLY THE MOST ACTIVE ANO INNOVATIVE IN PROGRAM

class integraced educa­
ANO PROVIDER MOBILITY AROUND THE WORLD.
tion and rraining

complex, is a key

aspect of its plans. To

date, there are already more than 50 foreign universities rion program whereby srudenrs would start their studies

and professional bodies offering programs locally. Thesc in Athens and then go to rhe US for cornpletion of che

progratns tend to be at rhe diploma or certificare leve! progran1. This model has now evolved into a campus

and in specialized fields (October 200 3 ) . The concept of in Greece called che University of Indianapolis Athens

attracting foreign educacion providcrs to support che (June 20 0 4) .

education and training needs of thc new 'cyber island'

In terms of activities by privare companics, Laureare

1nay have posirive consequences in terms of stemming Educacion owns a pare or ali of che Universidad Europa

brain drain or even stimulating brain gain, but che

de Madrid in Spain, Les Roches and Gilion Hotel School

impact on local education institutions is not yet known. in Swirzerland and che Ecole supérieure du Commerce

cxtérieur de Paris in France. Apollo International is offer­

Euro pe
ing its courses in che Netherlands, and Raffies La Salle

Russia is an example of a country undergoing majar eco­ from Singapore has recendy signed an agreement with

nomic refonn with major implicarions for rhe higher Middlesex University to offer rheir Bachelor's and Master's

education sector. Many HEls, for example the Moscow programs in fashion and design (December 2003).

13
North America Apollo Group, DeVry, Career Education Corporation

To report on US crossborder activities is a challenge and Laureare Education. Kaplan owns 57 colleges in che

because of the volumc, diversity of providers and types of US bue now owns che Dublin Business School - Ireland's

partnerships. A review of the previous regional sections largest privare undergraduate insri tution. This is likely to

shows that US HE!s and privare companies are probably be the first of many futurc purchases of foreign institu­

che rnost active and innovative in program a nd provider tions (December 2003). The Apollo Group owns

mobili ty around the world. One of rhe more interesting Phoenix University, which is the largest American privare

recent developmenrs is rhat George Washington university and is aggressively seeking to broaden its for­

University is one of che firsr HEis planning to open a eign investments and holdings. Since 1 9 9 5 , Apollo has

branch in Sourh Korea in 2006, now thar the govern­ also owned Western lnternational University (WIU)

ment of South Korea has changed irs regulatory system which runs a branch campus called Madi Apollo

to permi t foreign providers. There are severa! examples of Internacional Institute in New Delhi through a partner­

US program mobiliry into Korea c hrough partnerships ship with rhe KK Madi Croup, an Indian industrial con­

wich local institurions and companies. Por instance, glomerare. WIU has an agreement with rhe Canadian

Syracuse University, in conjunction wirh Sej ong lnstitute of Business and Technology (CIBT) whereby

University in Seoul, offers a spccially designed MBA CIBT offcrs WIU programs chrough its rhree business

schools in Beijing (Octobcr

2003). Orher smaller bue

nonerheless interesting initia­

O N E OF THE MORE INTERESTING RECENT
tives include the establishment

DEVELOPMENTS IS THAT GEORGE WASHINGTON ofNorchface University by

Northface Learning Inc. which

UNIVERSITV IS O N E OF THE FIRST H E I S PLANNING TO
offers degree programs in IT

and business and has che back­

OPEN A BRANCH IN SOUTH KOREA IN 2006, NOW THAT
ing of IBM and Microsoft. This

THE GOVERNMENT OF SOUTH KOREA HAS CHANGED ITS will be a company to watch in

rerrns of future internarional

REGULATORV SVSTEM TO PERMIT FOREIGN PROVIDERS.
expansion (August 2004). The

Universicy of Northern Virginia

is another small privare univer­

progratn for Korean students. Dukc and Purdue siry offcring programs in business and TT; it has recently

Universities are also offering MBAs in Korea, and opened a branch campus in rhe Czech Republic and has

Stanford University is delivering online graduare and delivery partnerships in China and India (August 2004).

postgraduate courses and uses alumni as local tutors These are only a few examples of the hundreds of new

(August 2004). These types of crossborder activities from initiatives and partnerships that US HEis and companics

US HEis can be found in many Asian counrries, for are underraking to deliver education courses and pro­

example, China, Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia, gra1ns to other coun tries of che world.

Singapore, Philippines and more rcccndy India as well as In terms of Canada, che first note to be made about

che Middle East. The University of Missouri at St. Louis provider and progran1 crossborder activity is the lack of

has been in volved in rhe establishment of che first prívate any systernatic data on ir frorn universities, colleges and

university in Kuwait, rhe Gulf University of Science and school boards. Australia, New Zealand and now rhe

Technology and has a similar relationship with the United Kingdom are making significant efforts to collect

Modern College of Business and Science in Ornan annual sraristics 011 crossborder program and provider

(February 2004). 1nobility. Canada has yet to undertake this important

A.t1 importan e fearure of rhc US crossborder acrivity task but needs to give serious consideration to doing so.

is rhe activity by privare and publicly traded companies. Tt is assumed that there are many successful and innova­

The Global Education lndex (GE[), dcveloped by che cive examples ofHEI crossborder mobility bur to date

OBHE, is a system of classifying many of the largest and little information is available. This gives che irnprcssion,

more active publicly traded companies providing educa­ inrernationally and dornesrically, thar Canada is priinarily

tion programs and services. A sean of more than 50 corn­ interested in internacional student recruinnent to

panies (Garett, 2003) shows rhar the US is home to the Canadian-based programs and is not active in che deliv­

majority of these companies. Sorne of the better-known ery of education programs abroad. There is not enough

ones include Kaplan (owned by the Washington Post), reliable or up-ro-dare data to confirm or reject this

14
 hyporhesis, The following infor­ THE AL-AHRAM CANADIAN UNIVERSITV IN EGVPT IS
marion is therefore incomplete
CANADA'S FIRST AND TO DATE ONLY EXAMPLE OF
but illustrates sorne of che cur­

rent developments. CANADIAN UNIVERSITIES DIRECTLV S U P P O R T I N G THE

Intercstingly, more information
ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW FOREIGN UNIVERSITV.
is available about che activities

of privare cornmercial compa-

nies operating in Canada as

importers or exporters than The Serebra Learning Corporation is a publicly trad­

about public inscitutions. ed Canadian company offcring generic and bespoke soft­

In early 2004, the Canadian Internarional ware plus more than 1 , 8 0 0 courses mainly in IT. Serebra

Management Insritute, a privare post-secondary institu­ is working with the Consortium for Global Education -

� tion that represents che recruiting intereses of 10 a group of 45 Baprisr higher education institutions in the

Canadian universities and colleges, signcd a memoran­ US to provide quality assured IT training in the develop­
1
1

dum of understanding with the Chinese Scholarship ing world. Serebra also played a key role in the creation

Council to offer a foundation and credit transfer program of rhe Pakistan Virtual University (November 2003).

to students in China wanting to gain Canadian University Anorher for-profit Canadian company is

degrees. Ir is a five-ycar program during which students LearningWise located in Victoria, Brirish Columbia. Ir.

will be based in China for foundation studies, cultural was incorporated in 1999 and was established to serve as

adjustment and language training for the first three years. an intermediary between Canadian tertiary institutions

If students rneet grade requircmcnts rhey can continue and the Asian market. Currently ir offers English as a

the i r studies either in Canada or China for rhe final rwo Second Language Training on line and is promoting

years. The China-based partner for this initiative is che nursing programs for the University ofVictoria. A 2003

Shougang Institute ofTechnology, which is a municipally change in legislation in BC now allows public out of

managed higher education insrirute specializing in manu­ province and privare institutions to apply for universiry

facturing, business and services disciplines Qune 2004). title and/or degree awarding powers. LearningWise has

The College of the North Arlantic-Qarar opened in applied for permission to grant mixed mode MBA

2 0 0 3 . The Canadian Bureau for International Education degrees (February 2004). While it claims it will serve rhe

(CBIE) developed and negotiated the establishment of local system, it would not be a surprise to see it go ovcr­

Canada's largest educational cooperation project to date. seas given its previous work in international education.

This initiative represents Qatar's first major educational Severa! school boards in British Colombia are under­

partnership with Ca.nada. The 10-ycar agreement pro­ taking sorne interesting new crossborder initiatives in

vides for a rurn-key operation rhat i ncl udcs ali of rhe China. To date the only approved and operational public

infrastructure necessary to operare a full service Canadian school offering the BC currículum is rhe Dalian Maple

college, inclmling Canadian programs and degrees, diplo­ Leaf International School in China. In 2004, 1 , 3 0 0 stu­

mas and certificares in as many as 32 fields dents were enrolled and there are claims that lOOo/o of its

of study. graduares have been offcred places at foreign universicies.

In partnership with an Egyptian investor, CBIE The Dalian school has a direct relationship with the BC

established the Canadian International School of Egypt Ministry of Education but thcre are currently six BC

(CISE) in 2002. The Cairo-based CISE is currcntly public school boards plus more than 1 O priva te entrepre­

operaring as an elementary and secondary school cover­ neurs rhat are planning to operare more than 2 1 for­

ing ki ndergarten through to G rade 10 but will expand profit schools in China. While China is the immediate

to offer a ful! secondary program. W ith 200 students destination, there are proposals being prepared for

from more han 20

c counrries in its second year of opera­ approval by BC Minisrry of Education for schools in

t ion , CISE uses rhe O nrario curriculum. Egypt and Jordan. Ir is acknowledged that the rationale

The Al -Ahram Canadian U niversity in Egypt is driving these new developrnenrs is to generare alrernative

Canada's rst
fi nd to date only exam ple
a of Canadian uni­ sources of income for public schools, and secondly, to

versities directly supporting rhe establishment of a new attract and facilitare rhe transfer of foreign students into

foreign university. The Al-Ahram O rganization is a large BC universities, It is assumed that graduares of these

company thar owns the Egyptian daily newspaper. Ir is approved schools will avo id many of rhe university

coopcratin g with McMaster U niversity, Ecole en trance and English proficiency exams, bur not the

P olytechnique de Montréal and the Université u

d
higher fees (January 2004).

Q uébec in Montreal to establish a new privare university In tcrms of privare providers esrablishing a presence

thar is expected to enrol srudents as of September 2004. and offering progran1s in Canada, there are so1ne inter-

15
esting developments. To date, Phoenix Universiry has a inforrnation on program mobility creates an undesirable

program operaring in Brirish C olumbia, De Vry has environment of spcculation, confusion and ofien misinfor­

esrablished a degree granring insriturion in Alberra and mation, This can have negative consequences in terms of

Lansbridge is delivering disrance degree programs in New confidence in rhe qualiry and dependabiliry of crossborder

Brunswick. There are other foreign providers operating education provision and impedes the analysis needed to

in Canada or delivering crossborder program at the sub­ underpin salid policy and regulatory frameworks.

degree level, but systematic information on what types Australia is rhe leader in terms of having up-to-date

and level of programs, in which provinces and in whar and fairly cornprehensive data from universities on rhe

kind of parrnerships is just not available. volume, types, award leve], and discipline of crossborder

program delivery. The Australian Vice-Chancellors

Sourh America Association, as well as Department of Education, Science

In Mexico, rhe University of rhe lncarnate Word (UIW), and Technology collect, analyze and publish this data on

a privare US insticution from Texas opened a new campus an annual basis. In New Zealand, che International

in 2003. Other American institutions with Mexican cam­ Policy and Dcvelopment Unir of rhe Minisrry of

puses include Endicott College and Allianr lnrernational Educarion undertook in 2 0 0 1 , a major survey of cross­

Universiry, and Texas A&M which has a 'university cen­ border delivery in all terriary institutions but this is not

tre' in Mexico City (September 2 00 3) . In 2000, Laureare an annual data garhering exercise yet. The UK Higher

Education purchased rhe Universidad del Valle de Mexico Education Statistics Agency has collecred information for

and is currendy planning to open a new Branch in rhe 2002/03 academic year on UK education programs

Guadalajara. It also owns Universidad Interamericana, a offered abroad. This is the first rime ir has gathered this

privare university with campuses in Costa Rica and data and published its findings. This is definitely a step

Panama (November 2003) and parr of rhree privare uni­ forward, and rhere is news thar OECD is also trying ro

versities in Chile (Iune 2003). Bologna University (lraly) develop a set of indicators to assist wirh the collection of

program and provider move­

ment in OECD countries in

che future.

THE UK H I G H E R EDUCATION STATISTICS AGENCY HAS An examination of che

information from Australia,

COLLECTED INFORMATION FOR THE 2002/03 ACADEMIC
New Zealand and UK reveals

YEAR ON UK EDUCATION PROGRAMS OFFERED ABROAD. differences in approach ro data

collecting and intcrprcration. To

T H I S IS THE FIRST TIME IT HAS GATHERED THIS DATA
che extent possible, a compara­

AND PUBLISHED ITS F I N D I N G S . tive analysis was done in arder

to see if chere were noteworthy

similarities and differences. In

is one of the few foreign instirutions with a branch cam­ arder ro manage a degree of cornparabiliry, sorne of rhe

pus in Argenrina. In terms of exporting, rhe Technical raw quantitative data was converted inro percentages. It

lnstitute of Monterrey (ITESM) in Mexico is well known is emphasized rhat the information presented in Chart

for its on line education programs, especially rhe MBA, Three is for illustrative purposes only. It is also noted

delivered to many countries in Larin America. that these three reports provide data on rhe export of

These new initiatives illusrrare rhe diversity of educa­ programs and do not provide inforrnation on any cross­

tion activiries by conventional higher education insritu­ border educarion co m ing into rheir j ur isd ic ti on.

tions and new commercial providers. They demonstrate However, ir is probably fair ro say that rhe number of

rhe range of counrries and types of parmerships being crossborder programs and providers being imporred into

formed to promote, exchange, link and predominanrly rhese three countries is insignificant cornpared to the

sell higher education across borders. nurnber of outgoing programs and providers.

Ir is not surprising rhat che crossborder activity of these

Comparative analysis of Australia, UK and New three countries is mainly concentrated in che Asia Paciíic

Zealand HEis crossborder program acrivity region. This is due to reasons of geographical proximiry,

As already pointed out, one of che glaring challenges in historical and linguisric ries, and most imporrantly che fact

trying ro analyze che implications of crossborder delivery that many Asian countries do not have the capacity to rneet

of education programs is the lack of clara. While rhere is the increasing local demand for tertiary level education,

more reliable information and informed analysis on the Asia is certainly che region to watch for new develop­

movement of srudenrs across borders, the paucity of ments. As this analysis shows, Malaysia, Singapore,

16
 CHART THREE: COMPARATIVE DATA ON PROGRAMS OFFERED ACROSS BORDERS

United Kine:dom Australia New Zealand

Year data collected 2002/03 1999/2000 2003 2001

Percent of HEis 88o/o of universities 47% of ali (38) public

delivering cross- HE Is

border programs (88o/o of universities)

Number of students 101,645 34,905 97,751 2,200

in crossborder (increase from 380 in

programs 1997)

Number of cross- 1,569 63 programs

border programs (increase from 6 in

1997)

Primary locations Hong Kong Hong Kong China, Malaysia 230/o

Malaysia Hong Kong, Singapore China 9°/o

Singapore Malaysia Australia 9o/o

Represent 70o/o of Hong Kong 6o/o

crossborder delivery Singapore 6o/o

Level of degrees Undergrad 56% Sub-degree 34%

Graduare 44°/o Undergrad 39%

Post grad 27%

Primary disciplines Business 44°/o Business Bus/Cornmerce 15°/o

Joint Degrees 21 o/
o Administrarion Special Medicine l 5o/o

Law 1 3 % Economics Computer Science 14°/o

IT 8 . 5 % Management 130/o

Spread of activity 1 O institutions 3 insritutions account

among HEis account for 81 º

/ o of for 55% of all cross-

crossborder enrolments border program delivery

Mode of Delivery 42º/o through campus

based teaching

32º/o rhrough distance

only

26°/o used combination

Source of Data HESA 2002/03 OEST AVCC Offshore Minisrry of Education

London Exremal Overseas Student Programs of Australian 2002

2002/03 - As reponed Statistics 2000 Universities 2003

byOBHE

July 2004

17
China and to a lesser extenr Thailand, India and opportunities for commercial delivery of education pro­

Vietnam have been che most popular desrinarion coun­ grams in other countrics. The majority of these are bona

tries during the last five to ten ycars. During chis period, fidc institutions rhat cornply with domestic and foreign

maelstrorns of new types of partncrships have developed regularions (where they exist), bur there is also an

through franchising, twinning and articularion programs increasc in rogue or low quality providers not recognized

between fnreign HE!s ami local HE!s and privare compa­ by bona fide accrcditation/licensing bodies. In addirion,

nies. These receiving counrries have learned a grear deal rhere is a worrisome in crease in che number of "degree

from thcir foreign partners and are currently being more milis" operating around thc world. These are often no

proacrive and strategic in exporting rheir own programs more rhan web based companies rhat are sclling certifi­

and providers to neighbouring counrries in Asia and che cares based on 'life experiences' and are not delivering

Middle Eastern counrries. This includes a substancial education programs ar all.

number of privare commercial cornpanies such as Raffies The expansion in numbers and types of entities

LaSallc, lnformatics and Hartford in Singapore, Aptech thar are providing education courscs and programs

and NIIT from India and SEG and Stamford College in across borders is causing sorne confusion and chaos.

Malaysia. Given that Asia will rcpresent approximately This also applies to the mcdes of crossborder progran1

70% of che global demand in 2025 (IDP 2002), this part rnobility and provider mobility. This general stare of flux

of the world will be che region to carcfully warch for new may well indicare progress and innovation bue ir also

trends and developments. begs for sorne kind of classification system or typology

in order to make sense of che new 'playing field' of

crossborder education.

The following sections presenta first atre1npt ar

4 . 0 TOWARDS A T Y P O L O G Y
developing rhree disrincr typologies for the different
F O R NEW CROSSBORDER
types of providers, rhe different means of program mohil­
P R O V I D E R S AND DELIVERY
ity and the various ways that providers are moving across

MODES borders. A key factor underlying these typologies is that

the type of provider is purposely separated from the

t is exciting, confusing and slighdy overwhelming to mode of mobility. To date, much of rhe discussion about

track new developments in the movemenr of programs program and provider mobility has consciously or

I and providers across borders. The number of new unconsciously linked che type of provider wi th a certain

actors involved in the promorion, provision and regula­ mode of dclivery. This is one of rhe reasons for the state

tion of crossborder education is increasing exponentially. of confusion and thcrefore, a generic classification system

Whether one is supporrive or critica! of rhe change, the for crossborder providers is proposed. A second typology

realiry is that the education sector in 1nany countries is on che different modes of program mobility is presented.

becoming a cornperirive and dynamic market place for It is important to ernphasize rhat che different forms of

both local and foreign providers. program mobility can apply to any or ali of the

Given rhe increase in demand for higher education, providers. A rhird typology focuses on rhe ways that

there are new providers, new delivery mcthods and new providers move across borders. This typology rests on the

typcs of programs. These new providers includc media assumption rhat che movement of (individual or a set of

companies such as Pearson (UK), Thomson (Canada), progran1s' needs to be differentiated fro1n che movement

multinacional companics such as Apollo (USA), and presence of 'providers'. Again the third typology is

lnformatics (Singapore) and Aptech (India), corporate applicable ro che ful! range of providers.

universities such as those run by Motorola and Toyota,

and networks of universities, profcssional associations

and organizations. Generally, these new commercial 4.1 TYPOLOGY OF P R O V I D E R S

providers are mainly occupied with teaching/training ar

providing services and do not focus on research pcr se. his typology is a work in progress. As already men­

They can complement, cooperare, compete or simply tioned, rhe tern1 provider is used as a generic term

coexist with che tradicional public and privare highcr T to include all types of higher education institutions

education institutions whose mandare is rradirionally the as well as co1npanies and networks involved in crossbor­

rrinity of teaching, research and scrvice. However, as der educarion. lt is an atte1npt to conceptually map the

Section 3 illusrrates, it is not just for-profit companics diversiry of actors and to separare the type of provider

that are becoming increasingly interestcd in commercial from the form of crossbordcr delivery. The key factors

crossborder initiatives. Conventional higher cducation used to describe cach catcgory of provider and to distin­

institutions, both privare and public, are also seeking guish one category from another are the following:

18
 CHART FOUR: TVPOLOGY OF CROSSBORDER/INTERNATIONAL PROVIDERS

Category Status Orientation Notes

Recognized Can be public, privare or religious institutions Can be non-profir or Known as tradicional cype of

HEIs profit oricnted HEI focusing on teaching,

Usually pare of home nacional education system research and service

and recognized by nacional bona fide

licensing/accrediring body

Non-recognized Usually privare and not fonnally pare of nacional Usually profit 'Diploma rnills' sell degrees

HEls education system oricntcd bue do noc provide progran1s

of study and are related to

lncludes HETs chac provide a course of study bue are crossborder educarían bue are

not recognized by nacional bona fide liccnsing/ not true providers

accreditation body

'Roguc providers' are often

lf che non-rccognized HEls are of low qualicy they accredircd by agencies thac

are often rcfcrrcd to as 'rogue' providers are selling accreditations

{accreditation mills) or by

self-accrcditing groups or

compan1cs

Commercial Can be publicly traded company (see Global Profir oricnced Known as rype of "new
,,

Company HEis Educarion Index of OBHE) or privately owned provider

Includcs: Can include variecy of com-

l. Companies chac establish HEL, thar m a y a r 1nay panies (i.c. media, l'l� pub-

not be 'recognized' by bona fide liccnsing/ accred- Iishing) thar provide educa-

icing bodies tion progra1ns and support

2. Companies thar focus more on che provision of serviccs. Can complement,

scrvrces cooperare, compete o r c o -

exist with more tradicional

Usually nor pare of 'home' nacional cducation sysre1n HE Is

Profit oriented Known as typc of "new provider "

Corporate HEis Not pare of home nacional cducarion syscem Not relevant Known as cype of "new

providcr

Usually part of major internacional corporation and

ourside of nacional education sysrem. Noc usually Often collaborate with tradi-

recognized by nacional bona fide licensing/ accredita- tiona\ HETs especially for

tion body degrce awarding power

Affiliations/ Can be combination of public/public or public/pri- Usually profit Known as type of "new

Networks vate or privare/privare organizations and H.EI,., oriented provider

Virtual HEis The affiliations/nctworks 1nay or may not be part of Usually profir ori- Difficult far receiving nation-

home nacional cducation system: and they may or en red if delivering al cducation system to moni-

1nay not be rccognized by nacional bona fide Iiccns- crossborder tor or regulare internacional

ing/accreditation body. However sorne of the indi- virtual HEis due to distance

vidual partners may be delivery merhods

lncludes HE Is char are 100°/o virtual

NOTE: Home cottntry rneans country o

f origin or sendingl

source country. Host country means receiving country

19
 • Public, privare or religious of a comprehensive HE!, thus the crossborder profile of

• Non-profit or far-profit an institution/provider may be different from the home

• Recognized by a bona fide national profile, On rhe other hand, program mobili ty can also

licensing/ accrediting body involve the only program or course offered by a provider.

• Part of the national 'home' higher Franchising, twinning, double/joint and other articula­

education sysre1n rion models are thc more popular rnethods of crossborder

program mobility,

The proposed typology is purposely generic and <loes lt is clear that a key factor in program m obility is

not provide specific details on the characteristics of each 'who' awards the course credits or ultimare credential far

category of provider. The typology is oriented to interna­ the program. A s rhe m ovement of programs p roliferares,

tional academic provision but may have sorne relevance there will undoubtedly be Iurther changes to national,

far domestic delivery as well. There is a flow of regional and even international regulatory frameworks.

announcements about new providers and new forms of The question of 'who granrs the credirs/awards' will be

parrnerships berwcen providers. !t is an cvolving field augmcnred by 'who recognizes rhe provider' and whether

that needs to be monitored and this is why the typology or not the progran1 has been 'accredired or qualiry

is a work in progress. assured' by a ona fide body. Of critical importance is

b

The description and classification of the different w hether the qualification is recognized far employment

types of new crossborder providers is challenging. The or further study in rhe receiving country and in orher

tendency is to use factors inherent to traditional HEls countries as well. The perceived egitimacy, recognition
l

and apply them to new providers. This may change and u ltimare mobiliry of rhe qualificarion are fundamen­

over time. tal issues yet to be resolved.

One of the central issues is who recognizes and gives Given that severa! modes far program mobiliry

the provider the power to award the qualifications in rhe involve partnerships rhere are questions about who

'home ar sending country' and/or in the host ar

' receiv­ owns the intellectual property righrs to course design

ing counrry'. However, as previously pointed out sorne of and materials. What are the legal and moral roles and

the 'new providers' are not part of, or are not recognized responsibilities of the participating partners in terms

by, a home' nacional education system. This

' question of academic, staffing, recruitment, evaluation, financia!,

wiJI be addrcssed in Section 5 on "Issues and and administrative matters. While the movement of pro­

Implications". A norher challenge in developing a typ olo­ grams across borders has been taking place for many

gy is that the terms 'public, privare and religious' are years, it is clear that the new types of providers, partner­

interpreted and used in different ways among countries ships, awards and delivery modes are chaJlenging national

(and somerimes within countries as well). The emergence and international policies and regulatory frameworks.

of new trade regulations applying to education services

u sually means thar all commercial crossborder providers

are considered to be privare by the host/receiving country 4.3 TYPOLOGY OF P R O V I D E R MOBILITY

regardless of their status at home. This adds yet another rossborder m obility of provider can be described

complicating dimension ro

definition

among countries.
of the terms profit and

Ir
the task. F urthermore,

non-profit

is interesting to follow
also varies

the changes
rhe

e as 'the physical or virtual movement of an educa­

tion provider across a national border to establish

a presence to provide education/training programs

in national regulatory systems far crossborder education and/or services to students and other clients.' The differ­

(especially in China, I ndia, M alaysia, J apan and South ence between program and provider rnobility is one of

Af rica) in terms of these issues, and especially how scope and volume in terms of programs/services offered

profit and non-profit educarion entities and services and the local presence (and investment) by the foreign

are defined. provider. redits and qualifications are awarded by the

C

foreign provider (through foreign, local or self-accredita­

tion merhcds) or by an affiliated dornestic partner or

4 . 2 TYPOLOGY OF P R O G R A M MOBILITY joindy. Forms of crossborder provider mobiliry include

rossborder mobility of programs can be described branch campuses, mergers with or acquisitions of domes­

e as 'the m ovement of individual education/training

courses and programs across national borders

through face-to-face, distance o r a cotnbination of these

tic providers, independent institutions, study and sup­

port centres plus other types of innovative affiliations. A

distinguishing feature between program and provider

modes. C redits towards a qualification can be awarded by m obility is rhat with provider mobiliry thc learner is not

the sending fareign country provider or by an affiliated necessarily located in a different country than rhe award­

domestic partner or jointly.' Program mobiliry can ing institution.

involve the delivery of individual courses and programs

@)���������
 CHART FIVE: TYPOLOGY OF CROSSBORDER PROGRAM MOBILITY MODES

Catezorv Description Examnles

Franchise An arrangement whereby a provider in the source country A Arrangements far teaching, manage-

authorizes a provider in anorher country B to deliver their mene, assessment, profit-sharing, award-

course/program/service in councry B or other countries. The ing of credic/qualification, etc. are cus-

qualification is awarded by provider in country A. tomized far each franchise operation.

Twinning A sicuarion whereby a provider in source country A collaborates Arrangements far twinning programs

with a provider locared in country B ro develop an arciculacion and awarding of degree usually comply

system allowing scudents to cake course credits in country B with nacional regulations of the providcr

and/or source country A. Only one qualification is awarded by in rhe source country A.

provider in source country A.

Double/Joint Degree An arrangement whereby providers in different countries Arrangements for program provision

collaborate to offer a progra.in for which a student receives and criteria for awarding che qualifica-

a qualification from each provider or a joint award from che tions are customized for each collabora-

collaborating providers. tive initiative in accordance with nation-

al regularions.

.Articulation Various types of articulation arrange1nents between providers in Allows scudenrs to gain credit far work

different countries permir students to gain credit for courses/ done with a provider orher than the

programs offered/delivered by collaborating providers. provider awarding che qualification.

Validation Validation arrangetnents between providers in different countries In sorne cases che source country

which allow provider B in receiving country to award che provider 1nay not offer thesc courscs or

qualification of provider A in source country. awards rhemselves.

Virtual/Distance Arrangements where providers deliver courses/prograr» to stu-

dents in different countries through distance and on line modes.

May include sorne face to face support far students chrough

domestic study or support centres.

CHART SIX: TVPOLOGV OF CROSSBORDER PROVIDER MOBILITY MODES

Categorv Description Examples

Branch Campus Provider in country A establishes a sarellire campus in country B Monash University from Australia has

to deliver courses and programs to students in country B. (may established branch ca.1npu�es in Malaysia

also include country A students taking a semestcr/courses abroad). and South Africa. University of Indianapolis

The qualification awarded is from provider in country A. has a branch campus in Athens.

lndependent Foreign provider A (a tradicional universicy, a commercial compa- The German University in Cairo, Phoenix

Institution ny or alliance/network) establishes a stand alone HEI in country B Universities in Canada and Puerto Rico

to offer courses /programs and awards. (Apollo Group).

Acquisition/ Foreign provider A purchases a pare of or 1 OOo/o of local HEI in Laureare has merged with and/or purchased

Merger country B. local HEis in Chile, Mexico and orher

LA countries.

Study Centre/ Foreign provider A establishes study centres in country B to sup- Texas A&M has 'university centre' in

Teaching Site port students taking rheir courses/programs. Study centres can be Mexico City. Troy University (US) has MBA

independent or in collaboracion wich local providers in country B. teaching sire in Bangkok.

Affiliation/ Different types of 'public and privare', 'tradicional and new ' Parrnership between che Capara Group and

Networks providers from various counrries collaborate rhrough innovative Carnegie Mellan Universicy to establish cam-

types of partnerships to establish nerworks/institutions to deliver pus in India. Netherlands Business School

courses and programs in local and foreign counrries through dis- branch can1pus in Nigeria in parcnership

tance or face-ro-face modes. with African Leadership Forum (NGO).

Virtual University Provider that delivers credir courses and degree progran1s to students Internacional Virtual University, Hibernia

in different countries through distance education modes and thac College, Arab Open University.

generally does not have face to face support services far studcnts.

21
5.0 I S S U E S AND IMPLICATIONS provided. The fifth issue focuses on the challenge and

need far a review of rhe policy and regulatory

he typologies of crossborder providers and the dif­ environments in which program and provider mobiliry

is operating.

T
ferent means and arrangements for providing edu­

cation across nacional boundaries illuscrace che

diversity of actors, types of provision, delivery methods

and racionales, driving che whole enrerprise of crossbor­ 5.1 R E G I S T R A T I O N A N D L I C E N S I N G OF

der educarion. Ir is easy to become overwhelmed wirh FOREIGN PROVIDERS

che number, variety and complex relationships among

the issues and challenges. This section focuses primarily fundamental quesrion is whether rhe instirutions,

A
on issues rhat relace to recognition of providers, programs companies and nerworks that are delivering award­

and credits/qualificarions ar nacional and internacional based programs are registered, licensed or recog­

levels. This <loes nor diminish che importance of acadern­ nized by che receiving country. The answer to chis ques­

ic and administrative implicacions far individual tion varies. There are many countries rhar do not have the

providers and especially traditional higher education regulatory sysrems in place ro regiscer out of country

institutions. These are naced bue not elaborared on in providers. Several reasons account for rhis, including lack

Section 5.6. of capaciry or polirical will. If providers are noc registered

Ar che current time, chcre are five macro issues rhat or recognized ir is difficult to monitor their performance.

are receiving che mase arrenrion and which have different Tt is usual pracrise, that if an instirurion/provider is nor

dimensions and consequences far the various types of registered as pare of a national system, rhen regulatory

providers. These issues are interrelated and ali are inllu­ frameworks for quality assurance or accreditarion do not

enced by regulations of the sending and rhe receiving apply. This is che situation in many counrries in che world

country. The first issue is the licensing or registering and hence foreign providers (bona fide and rogue) do not

of instirurions/providers that are delivering across borders have to cornply with nacional regulations.

The quescions and facrors ar

play in che registration or licens­

ing of foreign providers are

THE TYPOLOGIES OF CROSSBORDER PROVIDERS AND
many. For instance, are rhere dif­

THE DIFFERENT MEANS AND ARRANGEMENTS ferent criteria or condirions

applicable to those providers

FOR PROVIDING EDUCATION ACROSS NATIONAL
who are part of and recognized

by a nacional educarion sysrem

BOUNDARIES ILLUSTRATE THE DIVERSITY OF ACTORS,
in rheir home councry than far

TYPES OF PROVISION, DELIVERY METHODS rhose providers who are nor?

Does it make a difference if rhe

AND RATIONALES, DRIVING THE WHOLE
provider is for-profic or non­

ENTERPRISE OF CROSSBORDER EDUCATION. profir, privare or public, an insri-

tution o r a company? Whar con­

ditions apply if in fact che

courses/programs and hence qualificarions, Are chey provider is a company that has

recognized and part of the home national system and no home based presence and only establishes institutions

also recognized/licensed in che receiving country? The in foreign councries? How <loes one track ali che types of

second issue focuses on the qualiry of the courses/pro­ partnerships berween local domestic insriturions/

grams being offered and che quality of che academic cornpanies and foreign ones? Is it even possible ro regisrer

experience of the student. The rhird issue follows on rhe a completely virtual provider? Clearly, there are challenges

saine rheme and focuses on che role of accreditation and and difficulties involved in trying to establish appropriare

che more recent rrends of internarionalizarion and and effective nacional or regional regularory sysrerns.

cornrnercializarion of accreditation far worldwide status Often there are bilateral cultural/academic agree­

and profile, rarher rhan far srandards. The fourth issue menrs in place ro facilitare and monitor the foreign pres­

addresses che recognition of che actual award or qualifica­ ence of educacion providers. However, che facr rhar edu­

tion being offered far purposes of employment and cation services are now pare of bilateral and multilateral

further scudy. This poinr relates direcdy to rhe impor­ trade agreements introduces new regulations and chal­

tance of smdent/employer and public being aware of lenges. The existence of trade agreements that aim to lib­

the quality and validiry of the programs and awards eralize and promete trade in educarion services is a rela-
tivcly recent factor to be considered. Trade agreemcnts border providers and programs have developed regulatoty

can help to provide new opporruniries, but also present systems to register and monitor rhe quality of foreign

new dilemmas. A key question facing national govern­ provision. The United Kingdorn and Australia are exam­

ments, as well as intemational organizarions, is to what ples of sending countries thar have introduced qualiry

extent will the introduction of new national regulations assurance for exported crossborder provision by their rec­

to license or recognize out of counrry providers be inrer­ ognized HETs. The question now facing rhe sector is how

prcted as barriers for trade and therefore need to be mod­ does one deal with che increase in crossborder educarion

ified to comply with trade policies. by public/private institutions, and in particular by the

All and all, rhe issue of regulating and licensing new privare commercial companies and providers who

providers rhar deliver education across borders needs are nor part of, or recognized by nationally based quality

further attention. Consideration of what national, assurance schemes.

regional and international policies and frameworks are It is probable that sectors, in addition ro education,

necessary and feasible in light of new trade regulations will be interested in developing internacional quality

merits study by the education sector. This is a complex standards and procedures for education. ISO standards,

and urgent issue. or orher industry-based mechanisms such as the

Baldridge Awards are examples of quality systems that

might be applied or modelled for crossborder education.

5.2 ASSESSING AND E N S U R I N G OUALITY The education sector has mixed views on che appropri­

ASSURANCE ateness of quality standards being established for educa­

tion by rhose outside rhe sector. At the same time, there

f we thought questions related to registration and are divergent opinions on che desirability and value of

licensing were complex, ir beco mes even more com pli­ any internacional standards or crireria for qualiry assur­

I ca red when one looks at accrediration and quality ancc as chis 1nigh t jeopardize the sovereignty of national

assurance of providers and iinported/exported education level systems or contribute to standardization - not

programs. The terrns accreditation and quality assurance necessarily qualiry standards. This issue is complex and

have different meaning and significance depending on rhere are many different actors and stakeholders involved.

the country, actor or stakeholdcr using che tcrm. However, given the realities of today's growth in che

Terminology related to qualiry is a minefield and the number and types of crossborder education providers

cause of much debate and confusion ar che internacional therc is a sense of urgency to the question of how to

leve!. Far the purposes of this discussion, quality recogni­ ensure the quality of imported and exported education

tion and assurance is used in a general sense and includes providers and programs.

quality audit, evaluation, accrediration and other review

processes and elements. This generic approach is not

meant to diminish che differcnccs in meaning and 5 . 3 ACCREDITATION - C O M M E R C I A L I Z A T l O N

approach used by various countries. Howcvcr, a macro AND I N T E R N A T I O N A L I Z A T I O N ?

interpretation of quality recognition and assurance of

crossborder education is needed to attract che attention arket forces are making che profile and reputa­

rhat chis issue deserves. tion of an institution/providcr and their

Firstly, ir must be noted thar increased importance M courses more and more important. Major

has ccrtainly been given to quality assurance at rhe insti­ invesrrnenrs are being made in marketing and branding

tutional leve! and at rhe national leve! in the pasr dccadc. carnpaigns in order to get name recognition and to

Quality assurance mechanisrns and nacional organiza­ increase enrolments. The possession of sorne type of

tions have been developed in over 60 countries. New accrcditation is pare of che campaign and assures

regional quality networks have also becn established. The prospecrive students thar che programs/awards are of

primary task of these groups has been to assess and assure high standing. This is introducing an interriationaliza­

quality of domestic higher educarían provision of public tion and even commercialization dimension to accredi­

and privare higher education institurions. However, the ration practices. However, it is very imporrant not to

increase in crossborder education by institurions and confuse commercial bona fide accreditation agencies

commercial companies has introduced a new challenge to with 'accreditation m i l i s ' .

the field of quality assurance. Historically, national quali­ le is interesting to note the increase in rhe number of

ty assurance agencies have generally not focussed their bona fide nacional and internacional accreditation agen­

efforts on assessing the qualiry of imponed and exponed cies now working in over 50 countries. For instance,

programs, with sorne notable exceprions. Hong Kong, che US national and regional accrediting bodies are

Malaysia, Sourh Africa and Israel, as receivers of cross- providing/selling their services in over 65 countries. The

23
same trend is discernible for accreditation bodies of the how rhese UNESCO conventions can be used as instru­

professions such as ABET (Engineering) from che US ments ro assure students, employers and the public that

and EQUIS (Business) from Europe. rhere are systems in place to recognize academic and pro­

At che same time, there are networks of institutions fcssional qualificarions, Given che growth in academic

and new organizations that are self-appointed and engage mobiliry and rhe increased mobiliry of che labour force

in accreditation of their members, These are positive there is a clear and urgent need thar this issue be

developmencs when seen chrough che lens of crying to addcessed. Questions are also being raised as to whecher

improve che qualicy of che academic offer. However, rhese UNESCO convenrions can be strengthened or

there is sorne concern thar they are not totally objective whether alternative regional or international agreements

in their assessments and 1nay be more interested in con­ should be developed.

tributing to the race for more and more accreditation The credibilicy of higher education programs

'stars' chan to improving qualicy. Anorher relaced and and qualifications is exrremely important for students,

more worrisome development is che growth in accredita­ employers, che public ar large and for che academic

tion mills. These organizacions are not recognized or communicy irself. Additional efforts are needed ar

legitimare bodies and they more or less 'sell' accreditation institucional, nacional and international levels to keep

status without any independenr assessment. They are che different stakeholders cognizant of new opportunities

similar to degree mills chat sel! certificares and degrees for education and professional mobilicy but also new risks

wirh no or minimal course work. Different education such as rogue providers, and diploma and accreditarion

stakeholders, especially studencs, employers and che mills and the more subtle issues related to new providers

public, need to be aware of these accreditation (and and new qualificacions. The larger and perhaps most criti­

degree) mi!ls which are afeen no more chan a web address cal issue is assurance that the education and the qualifica­

and are therefore out of the jurisdiction of national regu­ tion awarded are legitimare and will be recognized for

latory systems. employmenr purposes or for further studies either at

home or abroad. This is a majar challenge facing che

national and international higher educarían sector at

5 . 4 R E C O G N I T I O N OF O U A L I F I C A T I O N S the present time.

he need to have mechanisms rhat recognize aca­

demic and professional qualificacions gained 5 . 5 NATIONAL, R E G I O N A L AND

T chrough dornestic or inrernational delivery of edu­ INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORKS

cation is another important consequence of increased

crossborder activity. The key questions are who awards f current interese and debate, is whether nacional

O
the qualification, especially in privare company providers Ievel accreditation and quality assurance systems

and networks, is che provider recognized, if so by what (where they exisc) are able to attend to rhe corn­

kind of accredicing/licensing body and in wbat councry is plicating factors of education mobilicy across ccunrries,

that body locaced? Given che importance of boch scudenc cultures and jurisdiccional systems. A fundamental ques­

mobilicy and professional labour mobiliry, wichin and tion is whether countries have the capacicy to esrablish

between countries, rhe mechanisms for qualification and monitor qualicy systems for both incoming and out­

recognition have to be national, regional and or interna­ going educarion programs given che diversity of providers

tional in nature and applicacion. and delivery merhods. Should nacional qualiry/accredita­

UNESCO has long acknowledged che requirement tion systems be complemented and augmented by

of an internacional systen1 to facilitare and ensure recog­ regional or internacional frameworks? Is it advisable and

nition of academic and professional qualifications, feasible to develop mutual recognition systems between

Regional UNESCO convencions on che Recognicion of and an1ong countries? Would an lnternational Code of

Qualifications were established more rhan 25 years ago Good Practice be appropriarc or strong enough to moni­

and have been rarified by over 100 Member Sra res in tor quality? These are key questions for rhe education

Africa, Asia and che Pacific, che Arab Srares, Europe and sector to address.

Larin Arnerica. They are unique legally binding instru­ Both UNESCO and OECD have identified che

ments dealing with crossborder mutual recognition of acceleraced growch and increasing importance of cross­

qualifications. There is limired awareness of rhese instru­ border educacion as a priority area for the higher educa­

ments except for the European regional convention, tion sector. Together they are working on two new inicia­

which in 1997 was updated joinrly by UNESCO and the tives. The firsr is che "UNESCO/OECD Guidelines far

Council of Europe in che form of rhe Lisbon Qualiry Provision in Crossborder Higher Education."

Convention. At rhe present time, rhere is discussion on The purpose of che joint guidelines is to 'ensure thar the

24
qualiry of crossborder provision of higher education is Provisions - UK Quality Assurance Agency:

managed appropriately to limit low quality provision and www.qaa.ac.uk/public/COP/cprovis/contents.htm

rogue providers and to cncourage those forms of cross­ • Code of Ethical Practice in the Offshore Provision

border delivery of higher education rhat providc new of Education and rhe Educational Services by

opportunities, wide access and increase the possibilities of Higher Australian Higher Education lnstitutions -

improving the ski lis of individual students' (UNESCO/ Australian Vice-Chancellors Committee:

OECD 2004). The Joint Guidelines are based on the www.avcc.edu.au/news/whars_new/wnarch.htm

principle of mutual trust and respect among countries • Principies of Good Practice for Educational

and recognize the importance of nacional authority and Programs far Non-US Nationals:

activity in education policy making. The guidelines make www.neasc.org/ cihe/ overseas_programs.PD F

recommendarions far six key stakeholder groups: nation­ • Code of Good Practice in che Provision of

al governmenrs, higher education insriturions/providers, Transnational Education - UNESCO/CEPES

srudent groups, quality assurance and accreditation agen­ and the Council of Europe:

cies, credencial and qualification evaluation groups and www. ce pes. ro/hed/ recogn/ groups/ transnat/

professional bodies. As guidelines, they are wirhout any code.htm

regulatory power, but they are critica! to ensuring thar • Code of Conduct for Crossborder/Transnational

crossborder educarion provision is a priority issue and Delivery of Higher Education Programs - South

receives attention and action by key stakeholders. A sec­ African Ministry of Educarion

ond joint activity is the development of "An Information • Code of Practice far Overseas Education

Too! on Rccognized Higher Education lnstitutions". This Instirurions Operating in Mauritius - Tertiary

is an irnporranr adjunct to che guidelines and will pro­ Education Commission:

vide concrete information about higher education insti­ tec. in tent.m u/ distanceEdu. h tm

rurions thar are recognized by a competent body in par­

ticipating countries.

As the discussion moves forward it will be of strategic 5.7 I M P L I C A T I O N S FOR H E l s

and substantive importance to recognize che roles and

responsibiliries of ali the players involved in quality assur­ t would be wrong if one were left with che impression

ance including individual institurions/providers, nacional that these issues do .not have implications far individ­

quality assurance systems, non-government and independ­ I ual providers and especially higher educarion institu­

ent accreditation bodies, and regional/internacional organi­ tions. Quality assurance starts wirh che provider who is

zations. Ir will be irnportant to work in a collaborative and delivering the program - domestically or internacionally.

complementary fashion to build a system rhat ensures the Mase HEis have adequate quality assurance processes in

quality and integrity of crossborder education and rnain­ place for domesric delivery, bur these processes do not

tains the confidence of sociery in higher education. cover ali che aspects of delivering abroad. The challenges

inherent in working cross-culturally, in a foreign regula­

tory environment and potentially with a parrner raise

5 . 6 C O D E S OF C O N D U C T new issues. These include academic entry requirements,

student examination and assessment procedures, work

ocles of conduce far crossborder/transnational load, delivery modes, adaptation of rhe curriculum, qual­

e education have been developed by several national

university associations, quality agencies and gov­

ernment dcpartments. They are usually a set of principles

ity assurance of teaching, academic and socio-cultural

support for students, title and leve! of award and others,

Quality issues must be balanced with the financial invest­

to guide che practice of delivering programs across borders ment and return to rhe source provider. Inrellectual

and for establishing partnerships with foreign providers. property ownership, choice of partners, división of

They are intended for public and privare higher education responsibilities, academic and business risk assessments,

institutions but have relevance, bue no imperative, far interna! and externa! approval processes are only sorne of

orher providers as well. The codes differ in substance and the issues rhe HE!s need to be dear about.

perspective bue rhey are similar in spirit and purpose

which is to assure quality in crossborder acadernic provi­

sion regardless of mode of delivery and partnership

model, and maintain che integrity of che academic credir

and qualification. Examples of these codes include:

• Quality Assurance Code of Pracrice: Collaborative

 6.0 CONCLUSION REFERENCES AND

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lenges, and new qualifications/awards are being con­
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increased access, and to promotc innovation and respon­

siveness of higher educarion, but ir also brings new chal­ Davis, D, et al (eds) (2000) Transnational Education:

lenges and unexpected consequences. There are the reali­ Providers, Partners and Policy. A research study. !DI'

ties that unrecognized and rogue crossborder providers Brisbane, Australia

are active; rhat much of rhe latest crossborder education

ESIB (2002) European Student Handbook on
provision is being drivcn by commercial intercsts and
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gain; and rhat mechanisms to recognize qualifications
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and ensure quality of the acadernic course/program are
Garrett, R. and L. Verbik (2004) "Transnational Delivery
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27
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 . 0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 GLOBALIZATION, INTERNATIONALIZATION AND

CROSSBORDER EDUCATION: REALITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS 3

3.0 DEVELOPMENTS IN PROGRAM AND PROVIDER MOBILITY AROUND THE WORLD 11

4.0 TOWARDS A TYPOLOGY FOR NEW CROSSBORDER PROVIDERS AND DELIVERY MODES 18

5.0 ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS 22

6.0 CONCLUSION 26

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 26

CEJE acknowledges the contribution o

f the Canadian International Development Agenry

to the publication o
f this research paper

Crossborder Education:

Programs and Providers on the Move

CBIE Research M i l l e n n i u m Series No. 1 O

Series Editor: Mary Kane

© CANADIAN BUREAU FOR INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION, 2005

Également disponible en francais ISSN: 1183-4404

ISBN: 1-894129-55-5

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