Chapter 1

Temperature, Heat, and the

First Law of Thermodynamics
18.2 Temperature
18.3: The Zeroth aw of Thermodynamics

If bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a

third body T, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
18.4 Measuring Temperature
18.4 Measuring Temperature, The Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
A constant volume gas thermometer consists of a gas-
filled bulb connected by a tube to a mercury manometer.

By raising and lowering reservoir R, the mercury level

in the left arm of the U-tube can be brought to the zero
of the scale to keep the gas volume constant (variations
in the gas volume can affect temperature
measurements).

The temperature of any body in thermal contact with the

triple-cell bulb is :

(p3 is the pressure exerted by the gas and C is a

constant).

If the atmospheric pressure is po, for any pressure p,

Therefore,

Finally, for very small amounts of gas,

18.4 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales

In the Celsius scale (or the centigrade scale),

temperatures are measured in degrees. The Celsius
degree has the same size as the kelvin. The zero of the
Celsius scale is shifted to a more convenient value than
absolute zero.
18.5 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
Example, Conversion Between Temperature Scales
18.6: Thermal Expansion
When the temperature of an object is raised, the body usually exhibit “thermal expansion”. With the
added thermal energy, the atoms can move a bit farther from one another than usual, against the spring-
like interatomic forces that hold every solid together.)

The atoms in the metal move farther apart than those in the glass, which makes a metal object expand
more than a glass object.
18.6: Thermal Expansion, Linear Expansion

If the temperature of a metal rod of length L is raised by an amount T, its length

is found to increase by an amount

in which a is a constant called the coefficient of linear expansion.

18.6: Thermal Expansion, Volume Expansion

If all dimensions of a solid expand with temperature,

the volume of that solid must also expand. For
liquids, volume expansion is the only meaningful
expansion parameter.

If the temperature of a solid or liquid whose volume

is V is increased by an amount DT, the increase in
volume is found to be

where b is the coefficient of volume expansion of

the solid or liquid. The coefficients of volume
expansion and linear expansion for a solid are related
by
18.6: Thermal Expansion, Anomalous Expansion of Water

The most common liquid, water, does not

behave like other liquids. Above about
4°C, water expands as the temperature
rises, as we would expect.

Between 0 and about 4°C, however, water

contracts with increasing temperature.
Thus, at about 4°C, the density of water
passes through a maximum.

At all other temperatures, the density of

water is less than this maximum value.

Thus the surface of a pond freezes while

the lower water is still liquid.
Example, Thermal Expansion of Volume:
18.7: Temperature and Heat

Heat is the energy

transferred between a
system and its environment
because of a temperature
difference that exists
between them.
18.7: Temperature and Heat: Units

The calorie (cal) was defined as the amount of heat that would raise
the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.

In the British system, the corresponding unit of heat was the British
thermal unit (Btu), defined as the amount of heat that would raise
the temperature of 1 lb of water from 63°F to 64°F.

Presently, the SI unit for heat is the joule.

The calorie is now defined to be 4.1868 J.

1 cal =3.968 x10-3 Btu = 4.1868 J.

18.8: The Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids

The heat capacity C of an object is the proportionality constant

between the heat Q that the object absorbs or loses and the
resulting temperature change T of the object

in which Ti and Tf are the initial and final temperatures of the

object.

Heat capacity C has the unit of energy per degree or energy per
kelvin.
18.8: The Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids:
Specific Heat

The specific heat, c, is the heat

capacity per unit mass”

It refers not to an object but to a unit

mass of the material of which the
object is made.

When quantities are expressed in

moles, specific heats must also involve
moles (rather than a mass unit); they
are then called molar specific heats.
18.8: The Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids:
Heat of Transformation
The amount of energy per unit mass that must be transferred as heat when a sample
completely undergoes a phase change is called the heat of transformation L. When a sample
of mass m completely undergoes a phase change, the total energy transferred is:

When the phase change is between When the phase change is between solid
liquid to gas, the heat of transformation to liquid, the heat of transformation is
is called the heat of vaporization LV. called the heat of fusion LF.
Example, Hot Slug in Water:
Example, Heat to Change Temperature:
Example, Heat to Change Temperature, cont.:
18.9: A Closer Look at Heat and Work
18.10: The First Law of Thermodynamics

(Q is the heat and W is the work done by the system).

The quantity (Q –W) is the same for all processes. It depends only on the
initial and final states of the system and does not depend at all on how the
system gets from one to the other.

All other combinations of Q and W, including Q alone, W alone, Q +W,

and Q -2W, are path dependent; only the quantity (Q –W) is not.
18.11: Some Specific Cases of the First Law of Thermodynamics
1. Adiabatic processes. An adiabatic process is one that occurs so rapidly or
occurs in a system that is so well insulated that no transfer of thermal
energy occurs between the system and its environment. Putting Q=0 in
the first law,

2. Constant-volume processes. If the volume of a system (such as a gas) is

held constant, so that system can do no work. Putting W=0 in the first
law,

3. Cyclical processes. There are processes in which, after certain

interchanges of heat and work, the system is restored to its initial state.
No intrinsic property of the system—including its internal energy—can
possibly change. Putting Eint = 0 in the first law

4. Free expansions. These are adiabatic processes in which no heat transfer

occurs between the system and its environment and no work is done on or
by the system. Thus, Q =W =0, and the first law requires that
18.11: Some Specific Cases of the First Law of Thermodynamics
Example, First Law of Thermodynamics:
Example,
First Law of Thermodynamics,
cont.:
18.12: Heat Transfer Mechanisms: Conduction
A slab of face area A and thickness L, have faces
maintained at temperatures TH and TC by a hot
reservoir and a cold reservoir. If Q be the energy
that is transferred as heat through the slab, from
its hot face to its cold face, in time t, then the
conduction rate Pcond (the amount of energy
transferred per unit time) is

Here k, called the thermal conductivity, is a

constant that depends on the material of which
the slab is made.

The thermal resistance R, or the R-value of a

slab of thickness L is defined as:
18.12: Heat Transfer Mechanisms: Conduction
18.12: Heat Transfer Mechanisms: Conduction
Fig. 18-19 Heat is transferred at a steady rate
through a composite slab made up of two
different materials with different thicknesses and
Letting TX be the temperature of different thermal conductivities.
the interface between the two The steady-state temperature at the interface of
materials, we have: the two materials is TX.

For n materials making up the slab,

18.12: Heat Transfer Mechanisms: Convection

In convection, energy transfer occurs when a fluid, such as air or

water, comes in contact with an object whose temperature is higher
than that of the fluid.

The temperature of the part of the fluid that is in contact with the hot
object increases, and (in most cases) that fluid expands and thus
becomes less dense.

The expanded fluid is now lighter than the surrounding cooler fluid,
and the buoyant forces cause it to rise.

Some of the surrounding cooler fluid then flows so as to take the place
of the rising warmer fluid, and the process can then continue.
18.12: Heat Transfer Mechanisms: Radiation

In radiation, an object and its environment can exchange energy as heat via electromagnetic
waves. Energy transferred in this way is called thermal radiation.

The rate Prad at which an object emits energy via electromagnetic radiation depends on the
object’s surface area A and the temperature T of that area in K, and is given by:

Here s =5.6704 x10-8 W/m2 K4 is called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, and e is the emissivity.

If the rate at which an object absorbs energy via thermal radiation from its environment is Pabs,
then the object’s net rate Pnet of energy exchange due to thermal radiation is:
Example, Thermal Conduction Through a Layered Wall: