PRESENTATION ON bridge ENGINEERING

1
 So… What is a Bridge?
Bridge:-

A bridge is a structure carrying a road, path, railroad, or canal across

a river, ravine, road, railroad or other obstacle.
 So… What is (also) a Bridge?
bridge:

A bridge can also be a time, place, or means of connection or

transition.
 So…What is Engineering?
engineering :

The branch of science and technology concerned with

the design, building, and use of engines, machines, and
structures.
• The work done by, or the occupation of, an engineer.
• The action of working artfully and professionally to bring
something about.

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 What is Bridge Engineering?
The field of science and technology applied to the design and
construction of a structure carrying a road, path, railroad,
or canal across a river, ravine, road, railroad or other obstacle.
 What is Bridge Engineering?

If a bridge can also simply be a means of connection, then bridge

engineering is also a recognition of the history of human
civilization as a story of travel and transportation.
 So…What is (also) Bridge Engineering?

The building of crossings in the form of bridges has always been a

measure of technological development of a people.
 So…How do Bridges and Bridge Engineering Work?

1. Need
2. Location
3. Material
4. Analysis / Design
5. Construction

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 Need
The need could be driven by many different sources.

• New demands: development or planned development of

an area or migration of people and goods which require
transportation

• Changing demands: existing conditions good for

yesterday no longer meet what is necessary today or
tomorrow.

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 Need

Map of Rock Island, IL

2016 (Bing)

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Map of Rock Island, IL, 1889 (H. Wellge)
 Location
The location could be driven by many different sources.

• Population density
• Favorable site conditions for the structure
• Vicinity of other alternate routes

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Location

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 Material
In our application of science and technology, we use many
different kinds of materials.

We need to understand the behavior of everything that

goes into the completed structure.
Material

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 Material
• Concrete
• Steel
• Timber
• Steel Wire / Cable
• Connections
– High-strength Bolts
– Rivets
– Welding
• Exotic materials
– Bearings
– Collision protection

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 Material

Huey P. Long Bridge Widening

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 Material

“...Concrete...”

“...and even both together.”

Huey P. Long Bridge Widening
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 Analysis and Design
“...We deal with people.”

“...but also have

homework to do.”

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 Construction
“Do you understand how things go together...

...In complex ways?”

Huey P. Long Bridge Widening
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 Bridge Engineering (also) is...
About Solutions
Whatever structure we design and will get built needs to
take into account the diverse elements which will
impose demands on it.

• Vulnerability to earthquakes
• Vessel collisions
• Scour
• High Winds...

• ...and unfortunately, acts of terrorism...

• ...or other problems...

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 Bridge Engineering (also) is...
Part of Larger Civil Engineering Field

We apply the practice of several specific fields of

engineering including:
• Structual Engineering
• Geotechnical Engineering
• Traffic and Transportation Engineering
Along with...
• Economics
• Law
• Public Policy
• Culture/Aesthetics

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Dragon Bridge (Vietnamese: Cầu Rồng) is a bridge over
the River Han at Da Nang, Vietnam

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 Why Civil Engineering?
“Civil engineers make civilization possible.”

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Why Would You Choose Bridge
Engineering?

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 So What’s the Bottom Line?
Stability: When things are good, people build. When times are tough, the
public looks to “shovel ready” and other large-scale public works projects.

Job Security: The interstate highway system began construction in 1956.

Much of our nation’s infrastructure is approaching its original design life.
There is a need to extend what we have, and build or rebuild new.

ASCE’s 2013 Infrastucture Report Card received a “D+” average! There is a

need and it’s growing.
Personal Satisfaction: If you want to help build great things that everyone
sees, helps entire communities, cities, regions, states, or even countries, then
this is your profession.

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We need more engineers...
You can be next.

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Selection Criteria For Bridge Site
Selection Criteria For Bridge Site
1.The choice of the right site is a crucial
decision in the planning and designing
of a bridge.
2.It may not be possible always to have a
wide choice of sites for a bridge.
3.This is particularly so in case
of bridges in urban areas and flyovers.
4.For river bridges in rural areas, usually a
wider choice may be available.

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 Components and Parts of Bridge

Main components of the modern bridges are:

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Abutment – Endpoints of the bridge. They are
reinforced so that they can endure intense lateral
pressures.
Pile (also known as beam, footing, and pier) –
Reinforced concrete post that is driven into the ground
to serve as the leg or support for the bridge. The
distance between piles is calculated so that is can
support the rest of the structure that will be laid on
top of them.
Cap – Cap sits on top of the pile beam, providing
additional support and dispersing the load to the piles
below. The combination of Pile and Cap elements is
called Bent.

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Girder or Span – One of the main components of the
bridge that connects all the Piles beams. It can consist
from multiple simple spans, a single continuous span that
is supported by multiple beams, cantilever spans and
cantilever spans with the suspended span between them.
They are usually made from metal or reinforced concrete
and also can be made in the form of haunches girded that
can carry more load. Girder sections are typically not
made from a simple block of material but are made from
truss network (or Orthotropic beams) that increases their
resistance to load. Girders can also be used as a part of
rigid frame network where they are fully connected with
frame legs (which can be inclined or in V shape).

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Superstructure truss network – Truss network that
supports travel surface can be made in three basic
ways – Deck truss where traffic flows on top of truss
network, Pony truss where truss network flows
between two parallel walls of trusses, and Through
truss that adds additional cross-braced truss
network above and below the traffic.

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Arch – Arches on the bridges are distinguished by the number of
hinges they have (usually between zero or three) which determine
how much stress and load they can safely carry, and the type of
material they are constructed (solid material, truss system). Arches
below the bridge are called spandrel-braced (cantilever) or Trussed
deck arch. Arch bridges can also use suspension bridges where the
arch is made from truss system (tied arch, or bowstring bridge).

Spandrel – Spandrels are the almost triangular space between the

main pillar of the bridge and decking. Stone bridges use filled
“closed” spandrels deck arches, while modern bridges made from
metal use open spandrel deck arch configurations.

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Truss – Framework made by connecting triangles and
other forms that share load and stress forces across its
entire structure. They are commonly separated into
several categories such as simple truss (King and Queen
posts), covered bridge truss (multiple kingpost
truss, Howe truss, long truss, Burr arch truss, town
lattice truss, Haupt, Smith, Partridge and Child
truss), Pratt truss (and it’s many variations), Whipple
truss, Warren truss variations, Howe truss, Lenticular
truss, Fink truss, multiple Cantilever truss variations, and
suspension truss arches.

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Permanent Bridge

These bridges are constructed for long

term use and maintained at high level.
Steel or R.C.C bridges are come under this
category.

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Temporary Bridges
Temporary Bridges are pre-engineered, modular
structures that can be used to cross anything from
drainage ditches, streams, and trenches to railway
lines, or utility pipes that are buried close to the
surface

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 Bridge Inspection & Maintenance

Bridge inspections (non-structural) are carried out by

qualified staff and reports are prepared that identify
minor routine maintenance and repair items to be
rectified. In addition, the local area surrounding the
bridge is inspected for erosion problems, obstructions
to water flow and other general defects. Aside from
an annual inspection program, bridges may be
inspected following damage caused by accidents,
severe weather conditions, flooding and ice jams, or
where a known problem exists that requires regular
monitoring.
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Bridge maintenance services provided by:-

1. Bridge cleaning and washing

2. Bridge deck sweeping
3. Bridge deck repairs (asphalt, concrete, and
timber deck surfaces)
4. Expansion joint maintenance and repair
(including bearings and bearing seats)
5. Erosion control
6. Obstruction removal for water flow

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Thank You

39
PRESENTATION ON tunnel ENGINEERING

1
 INTRODUCTION
 Tunnels are underground passages used for
transportation. They could be used for carrying
freights and passengers, water, sewage, etc.
 The methods involved are underground operations
known as tunnel driving and the surface is not
disturbed
 It is understood that first tunnel was constructed by
Egyptians and Babylonians about 4000 years ago. It
was built to connect two buildings in Babylon. The
length, width, and height of this tunnel were 910
m, 360 cm, 450 cm respectively.
THAMES TUNNEL(LONDON)
 Tunnels are more economical than open cuts beyond
certain depths
 Tunnels avoid disturbing or interfering with surface life
and traffic during construction
 Tunnels prove to be cheaper than bridges or open cuts to
carry public utility services like water, sewer and gas
 if tunnels are provided with easy gradients, the cost of
hauling is decreased
 In case of aerial warfare and bombing of cities, the
tunnels would grant better protection as compared to
bridges
 In general it depends on relative cost of open tunnel
vs tunelling some aspects are given below.
 Nature of soil, particularly in deep cutting, with the
consequent side slopes and volume of excavation
 If the soil is hard rock, the open cut could be of steep
slope, involving much less volume of excavation and
may prove cheaper
 The requirements of fill in the neighborhood also
largely influence the choice. If a large amount of
material is needed for the nearby fill, an open cut
may be justified
 Alignment restraints: Underground space is a
heterogeneous mass and in addition, problems like
water table, position of fractured rocks etc. are to be
tackled. A through detailed inspection and evaluation
of the existing alignment restraints of underground
space should therefore be made & correlated with the
tunneling technology to be adopted for the project

 Environmental considerations: The site of tunnel

should be selected in such a way that the least
difficulty is experienced for various environmental
factors such as disposal of exhaust
gas, groundwater, muck, etc.
 Full face method: The full face method is adopted only
for small tunnels whose dimensions do not exceed
about 3 m. The vertical columns are fixed at suitable
height. A series of drillholes about 10 mm to 40 mm
diameter are drilled at about 1200 mm centres.
 Heading & bench system: This is the method usually
adopted for all railway tunnels. The heading is the top
portion which will be 3700 mm to 4600 mm ahead of
the bottom portion known as bench.
 Cantilever car dump method: This arrangement
consists of two plate girders about 23 m long and fixed
at 1800 mm centres. A belt conveyor fitted with a
number of jacks is running on these plate girders, the
ends of which project beyond full face of the bench.
 Drift system: In this system, a drift is first
driven of appropriate size, usually of 3000 mm
by 3000 mm. The drillholes are provided all
round the drift in entire cross section of tunnel.
 Pilot tunnel method: The pilot tunnel which is
first driven to full size is connected to the
centre-line of the main tunnel, can be started
from a number of holes. The pilot tunnel also
helps in removal of muck and the lighting and
ventilation of the main tunnel
 Forepoling method: In this method, a frame in the
shape A is prepared and placed near the face of the
tunnel covered with suitable planks. The poles are then
inserted at top and continued to a depth upto which
they can be easily taken up. The forepoling is an old
method and it can be used successfully for carrying out
tunnelling operations through ground

 Needle beam method : This method is useful when the

soil is hard enough to stand for few minutes. A small
drift is prepared for inserting a needle beam consisting
of two I-girders and bolted together with a wooden
block in the centre.
 METHODS OF TUNNELLING
THROUGH SUB-AQUEOUS STRATA
 Shield tunnelling: A shield is a movable frame and it
is used to support the face of the tunnel. The
excavation & lining of tunnel can be carried out under
protection of shield
 Plenum process or compressed air tunnelling: In this
process, the use is made of compressed air to prevent
the collapse of sides and the top of the tunnel.
Theoretically 0.003 N/mm² air pressure is equivalent
to 305 mm of head of water. But practically 0.0035
N/mm² pressure will be required.
 DRAINAGE OF TUNNELS
 Sumps & pumps: The sumps connected by a pipe line
are provided at a distance of about 300 m & water is
pumped from one sump to another until it is thrown
out of tunnel opening
 Grouting: The above method cannot be used, if water
is percolating from the top of the tunnel. In such
cases, the grouting is adopted to make the seams
water-tight.
 Pilot tunnel: In cases where pilot tunnel at a lower
level than the main tunnel is constructed parallel to it
for drainage of water
 LIGHTING OF TUNNELS
 The situations which demand adequate light can be
obstructions in tunnel, drilling & mucking
zones, bottoms of shaft, storage points, pumping
stations, underground repair shops
 The spacing of lights will depend on various factors
such as tunnel dimensions, size of light source, nature
of rock surface
 The common types of lights used in tunnelling work
are acetylene gas lighting, electric lighting & lanterns
 SHAFTS & MUCKING
 Shafts: The shafts are used for ventilation after
the construction of tunnel. They are also useful
to accommodate the pipes of fans during
construction work

 Mucking: In case of tunnelling through

rocks, the blasted rock or earth has to be
removed from the tunnel. This process is
known as mucking
 VENTILATION OF TUNNELS
 Blow-in method: In this method fresh air is
forced by a fan through a pipe & is supplied
near face. This method has the advantage that
a positive supply of fresh air is guaranteed
where it is required.

 Exhaust method: In this method the foul air is

pulled out through a pipe & is exhausted by a
fan. This sets up a current of fresh air to enter
the tunnel. This method has the advantage that
the foul air is kept out from working place.
INSIDE OF A TUNNEL
 LINING OF TUNNELS
 The lining will be required in practically all
the tunnels to give a finishing touch to the
tunnel cross-section. Most common materials
used as lining are stones, bricks, cement
concrete, rubber & pre-cast pipes.
 In rocky ground, the lining can be carried out
in any one of following ways:
 Invert first and then sides & top
 Side walls first and then arch section and
then invert
 Full section in one operation
 SHAPE & SIZE OF TUNNELS
 The size of the tunnel is determined by its utility. For
irrigation purpose, the tunnel is generally designed to
run full & if lining is of concrete, the velocity is taken
as 366 cm/sec. In case of road tunnels, it will depend
no. of traffic lanes & in case of railway tunnels, it
will depend on the no. of lines & type of gauge.

 The shape of tunnel is determined by the material of

which the cross-section is built & material through
which the tunnel is bored.
MAINTENANCE OF RAILWAY
TUNNELS
 The slopes of portals at entry & exit should be
checked.
 It should be seen whether the masonry has
crushed, cracked or deteriorated.
 The track through the tunnel should be in line and
level.
 The dimensions of tunnel should conform to original
dimensions.
 The lining of tunnel should be examined & checked if
it is in a satisfactory condition.
PRESENTATION ON RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Railways were first introduced to India in 1853.
By 1947, the year of India's independence, there
were forty-two rail systems. In 1951 the systems
were nationalised as one unit, becoming one of
the largest networks in the world. Indian
Railways operates both long distance and
suburban rail systems.
• It is a branch of civil engineering concerned with the design,
construction, maintenance, and operation of railways.
• Railway engineering includes elements of civil, mechanical,
 industrial, and electrical engineering.
• Railway engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of railroads
and mass transit systems that use a fixed guideway (such as light rail or even
monorails).
• Typical tasks would include determining horizontal and vertical alignment
design, station location and design, construction cost estimating, and
establishment of signaling & controlling system.
• Railroad engineers can also move into the specialized field of train
dispatching which focuses on train movement control.
The gauge of a railway track is defined as the
clear minimum perpendicular distance between
the inner faces of the two rails.
1. Broad Gauge(BG) 1676mm(5’6”)

2. Standard Gauge(SG) 1435mm

3. Metre Gauge(MG) 1000mm

4. Narrow Gauge(NG) 762mm(2’6”)

5. Light Gauge 610mm

• Coning of wheels – The distance between the inside edges of
wheel flanges is generally kept less than the gauge. Gap is
about 38 mm on Either side. Normally the tyre is absolutely
ahead centre on the head of the rail, as the wheel is coned to
keep it in this central position automatically. These wheel are
coned at a slope

• Theory of coning:- On a level track, as soon as the axle moves

towards one rail, the diameter of the wheel tread over the rail
increases, while It decreases over the other rail. This prevents
to further movement And axle retreats back to its original
position (with equal dia or both rails and equal pressure on
both rails).
Coning of Wheel on Level-track
 The high carbon rolled steel sections, which are laid
end-to-end, in two parallel lines over sleepers to
provide continuous and leveled surface for the trains
to move and for carrying axle loads of the rolling
stock are called rails.
`
Functions of the rails:

To provide continuous and level surface for the

movement of trains with minimum friction with
steel wheels of the rolling stock;
Provide strength, durability and lateral guidance
to the track;
Transmit the axle loads to sleepers which transfer
the same load to the underlying ballast and
formation;
Bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical
loads, breaking forces and temperature variance.
Types of rails:
1. Double Headed Rails (DH Rails)
2. Bull Headed Rails (BH Rails)
3. Flat-footed Rails (FF Rails)
On Indian Railways the standard lengths are the following:

Length = 12.80 m. (42 ft.) for BG (say 13 m) and

Length = 11.89 m. (39 ft.) for MG (say 12 m)
In certain places, head of rails are found to be
corrugated rather than smooth and straight,
when the vehicles pass over such rails, a roaring
sound is created which is intense enough to be
unpleasant.
Due to battering action of wheels over the end of the rails, the
rails get bent down and get deflected at the ends. These rails are
called hogged rails.

Measures taken to rectify the hogged rails are:

1. Cropping
2. Replacing
3. Welding
4. Dehogging
Measures taken to rectify kinks in rails:
1. By correcting alignment at joints and at curved locations.
2. Proper packing of joints.
3. Proper maintenance of the track periodically in repect of
cross levels, gauge, alignment, welding of worn out portions
etc.
 Damaged Rails
These are the rails which should be removed on
account of their becoming unsafe for a railway
track.
• Crushed Heads
• Square or Angular Break
• Split Heads
• Split Web
• Horizontal Fissures
• Transverse Fissures
• Flowing Metal in Heads
• Horizontal Cracks
• Supported Rail Joint
• Suspended Rail Joint
• Bridge Joint
• Base Joint
• Welded Rail Joint
• Staggered or Broken Joint
• Square or Even Joint
• Compromise Joint
• Insulated Joint
• Expansion Joint`
(i) Sleepers move out of position thereby the rail gauge.

(ii) Position of points and crossings are disturbed.

(iii)Interlocking mechanism gets

disturbed.
• Pulling back of rails
• Provision of Anchors or Anticreepers.
• Use of steel sleepers.

Anticreeper
 Sleepers
Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to
support the rails. They transmit wheel load from
the rails to the ballast.
(i) Wooden sleeper
Cast iron sleeper
(ii) Metal sleeper
Steel sleeper

Reinforced concrete
(iii) Concrete sleeper Sleeper (R.C.C)
Prestressed Concrete
Sleeper .
• Hard wood such as, sal and teak
• Soft wood such as, chir and deodar
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers Per
rail length. It is specified as (M+x) or (N+x),
where M or N is the length of the rail in meters
and x is a number that varies according to
factors such as axle load, speed, type & section
of the rail etc.

It varies in India from M+4 to M+7 for main

tracks.
• Fish plates • Bolts
• Spikes – Dog or Hook bolt
– Fish bolt
– Dog spikes
– Rag bolt
– Screw spikes – Fang nut and bolt
– Round spikes
– Standard spikes • Keys
– Elastic spikes – Wooden key for C.I. Chair
– M.S. key and steel trough
• Chairs sleepers
– Cast steel chairs – Stuart’s key
– Mild steel and Cast Iron – Morgan key
Slide Chairs – Cotter and tie bars
• Blocks
– Heel blocks
– Distance blocks
– Crossing blocks
– Check blocks
• Plates
– Bearing Plates
– Saddle Plates
Ballast in railroad terminology is durable granular material placed between
the crosstie and the sub ballast to hold the track in line and grade.

The primary purposes of ballast are:

To provide structural support for

the track, holding it in good line
and surface

To distribute the load evenly to the

subballast and subgrade and thus
help to provide stability

Provide for drainage

SUBBALLAST SUBGRADE

BALLAST SECTION
• Broken Stone
• Gravel or River Pebbles or Shingle
• Ashes or Cinders
• Sand
• Mooram
• Kankar
• Brick Ballast
• Blast Furnace Slag
• Selected Earth
• For wooden sleepers = 5.1 cm
• For steel sleepers = 3.8 cm
• For under switches & crossings = 2.54 cm
• Points and crossings provide flexibility of
movement by connecting one line to another
according to requirements.
• They also help for imposing restrictions over
turnouts which necessarily retard the
movements.
• From safety aspect, it is also important as points
and crossings are weak kinks or points in the
track and vehicles are susceptible to derailments
at these places.
• It’s the simplest combination of points and crossings which
enables one track either a branch line or a siding, to take
off from another track.

• Parts of a turnout:
– A pair of points or switches
– A pair of stockrails
– A Vee crossing
– Two check rails
– Four lead rails
– Switch tie plate
– Studs or stops
– Bearing plates, slide chairs, stretcher bars etc.
– For operating the points – rods, cranks, levers etc.
– For locking system – locking box, lock bar, plunger bar etc.
 Crossings
A crossing or a frog is a device which provides two flangeways
through which the wheels of the flanges may move, when two
rails intersect each other at an angle.
• Turnouts
• Symmetrical split
• Three throw switch
• Double turnout or Tandem
• Diamond crossing
• Cross overs
• Single slip and double slip
• Gauntlet track and ladder tracks
• Temporary diversion
• Triangle
• Double junctions