PHYSICS 105 LECTURE NOTES

Chapter 1 | Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics

1.1 Physics: An Introduction

 Science and the Realm of Physics
 Applications of Physics
 Models, Theories, and Laws; The Role of Experimentation
 The Evolution of Natural Philosophy into Modern Physics

1.2 Physical Quantities and Units

SI Units: Fundamental and Derived Units

Table 1.1 Fundamental SI Units

Length Mass Time Electric Current
Meter (m) Kilogram (kg) Second (s) Ampere (A)

Metric Prefixes
Table 1.2 Metric Prefixes for Powers of 10 and their Symbols
Prefix tera giga mega kilo hecto deka deci centi milli micro nano pico femto
Symbol T G M k h da d c m µ n p f
12 9 6 3 2 1 -1
Value 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15

Unit Conversion and Dimensional Analysis 1.1 Unit Conversions: A Short Drive
Example 1.1 Unit conversion
Suppose that you drive the 10.0 km from your university to home in 20.0 min. Calculate your average
speed (a) in kilometers per hour (km/h) and (b) in meters per second (m/s).

Example 1.2 Dimensional analysis

Check the following equations for possible corrections.
1
a) s=¿ v o t 2 +vt
2
2 r 2 gd
b) v 1=¿ where v 1 is raindrop steady speed (m/s), r is radius of rain drop (m), g is
9π η
acceleration due to gravity (m/s2), d is density (kg/m3), and η is coefficient of viscosity (kg/m∙ s).

1.3 Accuracy, Precision, Uncertainty, and Significant Figures

Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the correct value for that measurement. The precision of a
measurement system refers to how close the agreement is between repeated measurements (which are
repeated under the same conditions).

Uncertainties in Calculations

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The uncertainty in a measurement, A , is often denoted as δA (“delta A ”), so the measurement result
would be recorded as A ± δA . For example, the length of the paper could be expressed as 11 in. ± 0.2.
The factors contributing to uncertainty in a measurement include:
1. Limitations of the measuring device,
2. The skill of the person making the measurement,
3. Irregularities in the object being measured,
4. Any other factors that affect the outcome (highly dependent on the situation).
There is an uncertainty in anything calculated from measured quantities. If the measurements going into
the calculation have small uncertainties (a few percent or less), then the method of adding percents can
be used for multiplication or division. This method says that the percent uncertainty in a quantity
calculated by multiplication or division is the sum of the percent uncertainties in the items used to make
the calculation. For example, if a floor has a length of 4.00 m and a width of 3.00 m , with uncertainties
of 2% and 1% , respectively, then the area of the floor is 12.0 m2 and has an uncertainty of 3% .

Significant Figures
Special consideration is given to zeros when counting significant figures. The zeros in 0.053 are not
significant, because they are only placekeepers that locate the decimal point. There are two significant
figures in 0.053. The zeros in 10.053 are not placekeepers but are significant—this number has five
significant figures. The zeros in 1300 may or may not be significant depending on the style of writing
numbers. They could mean the number is known to the last digit, or they could be placekeepers. So
1300 could have two, three, or four significant figures. (To avoid this ambiguity, write 1300 in scientific
notation.) Zeros are significant except when they serve only as placekeepers.
Example 1.3 Significant figures
Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements:
a. 0.0009
b. 15,450.0
c. 6×103
d. 87.990
e. 30.42

Significant Figures in Calculations

1. For multiplication and division: The result should have the same number of significant figures as the
quantity having the least significant figures entering into the calculation.
A = πr2 = (3.1415927...)×(1.2 m)2 = 4.5238934 m2 = 4.5 m2
2. For addition and subtraction: The answer can contain no more decimal places than the least precise
measurement.
7.56 kg
- 6.052 kg
+13.7 kg
15.208 kg = 15.2 kg
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Assignment # 1, due Friday, October 4
Questions: 2, 4,7 ; Problems: 5, 12, 15, 23, 27; found on pages 28 and 29 of the textbook.
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Chapter 2 | Kinematics

2.1 Displacement
Displacement is the change in position of an object:
∆ x=x f −x 0 (2.1)
where ∆ x is displacement, x f is the final position, and x 0 is the initial position.
Distance is defined to be the magnitude or size of displacement between two positions. Note that the
distance between two positions is not the same as the distance traveled between them. Distance
traveled is the total length of the path traveled between two positions.

2.2 Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems

A vector is any quantity with both magnitude and direction. A scalar is any quantity that has a
magnitude, but no direction.

2.3 Time, Velocity, and Speed

Average velocity is displacement (change in position) divided by the time of travel,
∆ x x f −x 0
v=¿ = (2.2)
∆t t f −t 0
where v is the average (indicated by the bar over the v ) velocity, ∆ x is the change in position (or
displacement), and x f and x 0 are the final and beginning positions at times t f and t 0 , respectively. If the
starting time t 0 is taken to be zero, then the average velocity is simply
∆x
v=¿ (2.3)
t
Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity. Average speed is the distance traveled
divided by elapsed time.

2.4 Acceleration
Average Acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes,
∆ v v f −v 0
a=¿ ¿ (2.4)
∆t t f −t 0
where a is average acceleration, v is velocity, and t is time.
Acceleration is a vector in the same direction as the change in velocity, ∆ v . Since velocity is a vector, it
can change either in magnitude or in direction. Acceleration is therefore a change in either speed or
direction, or both. Keep in mind that although acceleration is in the direction of the change in velocity, it
is not always in the direction of motion.
When an object slows down, its acceleration is opposite to the direction of its motion. This is known as
deceleration. Deceleration always refers to acceleration in the direction opposite to the direction of the
velocity. Deceleration always reduces speed. Negative acceleration, however, is acceleration in the

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negative direction in the chosen coordinate system. Instantaneous acceleration a , is the acceleration at
a specific instant in time.
Example 2.1
If you drive to a store and return home in half an hour, and your car’s odometer shows the total distance
traveled was 6 km, then your average speed was 12 km/h. (a) What is your average velocity? Plot the
(b) position vs. time graph, (c) velocity vs. time graph, and (d) speed vs. time graph.

Fig. 2.1 Position vs. time, velocity vs.

time, and speed vs. time on a trip.

Deriving kinematic equations with constant acceleration

To get our first two new equations, we start with the definition of average velocity given by Eq. 2.2:
∆x
v=¿ (2.5)
∆t
Substituting the simplified notation for Δx and Δt yields
x−x 0
v=¿ (2.6)
t
Solving for x yields
x=x 0 + v t (2.7)
where the average velocity is
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 v0+ v
v=¿ (constant a) (2.8)
2
We can derive another useful equation by manipulating the definition of acceleration.
∆v
a=¿
∆t
Substituting the simplified notation for Δv and Δt gives us
v−v 0
a=¿ (constant a) (2.9)
t
Solving for v yields
v=v 0 + at (constant a) (2.10)
Substituting this into Eq. 2.8 for v, we have for the average velocity
v 0 + v v 0 + ( v 0 +at )
v=¿ ¿ or
2 2
1
v=v 0 +¿ at (2.11)
2
Now we substitute this expression for v into Eq. 2.7, x=x 0 + v t , we get
1
x=x 0 + v 0 t +¿ at (constant a) (2.12)
2
v−v 0
Solving for t in Eq. 2.10 gives t=¿ .
a
v +v
Substituting this and Eq. 2.8, v=¿ 0 , into Eq. 2.7, x=x 0 + v t , yields
2

( )(
v0 + v v −v 0
) ( )
2 2
v −v 0
x=x 0 + v t=x 0 +¿ ¿ x 0 +¿
2 a 2a
which when simplified gives
2 2
v =v 0 +2 a ( x−x 0 ) (constant a) (2.13)

Summary of Kinematic Equations (constant a )

x=x 0 + v t (2.7)
v0+ v
v=¿ (2.8)
2
v=v 0 + at (2.10)
1
x=x 0 + v 0 t +¿ at (2.12)
2
2 2
v =v 0 +2 a ( x−x 0 ) (2.13)

Example 2.2 Calculating time

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Suppose a car merges into freeway traffic on a 200-m-long ramp. If its initial velocity is 10.0 m/s and it
accelerates at 2.00 m/s2 , how long does it take to travel the 200 m up the ramp?

2.6 Falling Objects

Kinematic Equations for Objects in Free-Fall where Acceleration = - g
v=v 0 −¿ (2.14)
1 2
y= y 0+ v 0 t−¿ gt (2.15)
2
2 2
v =v 0 −2 g ( y − y 0 ) (2.16)
Example 2.3 A rock thrown upward
A person standing on the edge of a high cliff throws a rock straight up with an initial velocity of 13.0 m/s.
The rock misses the edge of the cliff as it falls back to earth. Calculate the position and velocity of the
rock 1.00 s, 2.00 s, and 3.00 s after it is thrown, neglecting the effects of air resistance.
Example 2.4 A rock thrown downward
What happens if the person on the cliff throws the rock straight down, instead of straight up? To explore
this question, calculate the velocity of the rock when it is 5.10 m below the starting point, and has been
thrown downward with an initial speed of 13.0 m/s.
2.7 Graphical Analysis of One-Dimensional Motion
If we call the horizontal axis the x -axis and the vertical axis the y -axis, as in Fig. 2.2, a straight-line graph
has the general form
y = mx + b. (2.17)
Here m is the slope, defined to be the rise divided by the run (as seen in the figure) of the straight line.
The letter b is used for the y-intercept, which is the point at which the line crosses the vertical axis.

Fig. 2.2 A straight-line graph.

Graph of Displacement vs. Time (a = 0, so v is constant)

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 Fig. 2.3 Graph of displacement versus time

Graphs of Motion when a is constant but a ≠ 0

The graphs in Fig. 2.4 below represent the motion of the jet-powered car as it accelerates toward its top
speed, but only during the time when its acceleration is constant. Time starts at zero for this motion (as
if measured with a stopwatch), and the displacement and velocity are initially 200 m and 15 m/s,
respectively.

Fig. 2.4 Graphs of motion of a jet-powered

car during the time span when its
acceleration is constant.

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Assignment #2
Questions: 16, 21, 26 (found on pages 79 & 80);
Problems: 38, 46, 51, 65, 66 (found on pages 84-86)
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Chapter 3 | Two-Dimensional Kinematics

3.1 Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction
 Two-Dimensional Motion
 The Independence of Perpendicular Motions
3.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Graphical Methods
Vector Addition: Head-to-Tail Method
Step 1. Draw an arrow to represent the first vector (9 blocks to the east) using a ruler and protractor.
Step 2. Now draw an arrow to represent the second vector (5 blocks to the north). Place the tail of the
second vector at the head of the first vector.
Step 3. If there are more than two vectors, continue this process for each vector to be added. Note that in
our example, we have only two vectors, so we have finished placing arrows tip to tail.
Step 4. Draw an arrow from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector. This is the resultant,
or the sum, of the other vectors.
Step 5. To get the magnitude of the resultant, measure its length with a ruler. (Note that in most
calculations, we will use the Pythagorean theorem to determine this length.)
Step 6. To get the direction of the resultant, measure the angle it makes with the reference frame using
a protractor. (Note that in most calculations, we will use trigonometric relationships to determine
this angle.)

Example 3.1 Adding vectors graphically using head-to-tail method

Use the graphical technique for adding vectors to find the total displacement of a person who walks the
following three paths (displacements) on a flat field. First, she walks 25.0 m in a direction 49.0o north of
east. Then, she walks 23.0 m heading 15.0o north of east. Finally, she turns and walks 32.0 m in a
direction 68.0o south of east.
Vector Subtraction

Figure 3.1 The negative of a vector is just another vector of

the same magnitude but pointing in the opposite direction.

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 A – B = A + (–B). (3.1)
Example 3.2 Subtracting vectors graphically.
A woman sailing a boat at night is following directions to a dock. The instructions read to first sail 27.5 m
in a direction 66.0o north of east from her current location, and then travel 30.0 m in a direction 112o
north of east (or 22.0o west of north). If the woman makes a mistake and travels in the opposite
direction for the second leg of the trip, where will she end up? Compare this location with the location
of the dock.
3.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Analytical Methods
Analytical methods of vector addition and subtraction employ geometry and simple trigonometry rather
than the ruler and protractor of graphical methods.
Resolving a Vector into Perpendicular Components

Figure 3.2 The vector A , with its tail at the origin of an x, y-coordinate system, is shown together with its
x- and y-components, Ax and Ay .
Ax + Ay = A. (3.2)

To find Ax and Ay , its x and y-components, we use the following relationships for a right triangle.
Ax = A cos θ (3.3)
Ay = A sin θ . (3.4)
It is not true that the sum of the magnitudes of the vectors is also equal: Ax + Ay ≠ A.
Calculating a Resultant Vector
To find the magnitude A and direction θ of a vector from its perpendicular components Ax and Ay , we
use the following relationships:
A=√ A 2x + A2y (3.5)
−1
θ=tan ( A y / A x ) (3.6)

Adding Vectors Using Analytical Methods

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To see how to add vectors using perpendicular components, consider Figure 3.3, in which the vectors A
and B are added to produce the resultant R . The angles that vectors A and B make with the x-axis are θ A
and θ B ,

Figure 3.3 Vectors A and B are two legs of a walk, and R is the resultant or total displacement.

R x =A x + B x (3.7)
R y =A y + B y (3.8)
R=√ R + R
2
x
2
y (3.9)
−1
θ=tan ( R y /R x ) (3.10)

Example 3.3 Adding vectors using analytical method

Add the vector A to the vector B shown, using perpendicular components along the x- and y-axes. The x
and y-axes are along the east–west and north–south directions, respectively. Vector A represents the
o
first leg of a walk in which a person walks 53.0 m in a direction 20.0 north of east. Vector B represents
o
the second leg, a displacement of 34.0 m in a direction 63.0 north of east.

3.4 Projectile Motion

Projectile motion is the motion of an object thrown or projected into the air, subject to only the
acceleration of gravity. The object is called a projectile, and its path is called its trajectory.

The kinematic equations for horizontal and vertical motion take the following forms:
Horizontal Motion(a x = 0) (3.11)
x=x 0 + v x t (3.12)
v x =v ox =v x =¿ velocity is a constant. (3.13
Vertical Motion(assuming positive is up a y =−g=−9.8 m/s 2 (3.14)
1
y= y 0+ ¿ (v +v )t
2 0y y
(3.15)

v y =v oy−¿ (3.16)
1 2
y= y 0+ v oy t−¿ gt (3.17)
2
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 2 2
v y =v 0 y −2 g ( y − y 0 ) (3.18)

Total displacement and velocity

s= √ x 2 + y 2 (3.19)
−1
θ=tan ( y / x ) (3.20)
v=√ v 2x + v 2y (3.21)
−1
θ v =tan ( v y /v x ) (3.22)

Figure 3.4 We analyze two-dimensional

projectile motion by breaking it into
two independent one-dimensional
motions along the vertical and
horizontal axes.

Example 3.4
o
During a fireworks display, a shell is shot into the air with an initial speed of 70.0 m/s at an angle of 75.0
above the horizontal, as illustrated in Figure 3.5. The fuse is timed to ignite the shell just as it reaches its
highest point above the ground. (a) Calculate the height at which the shell explodes. (b) How much time
passed between the launch of the shell and the explosion? (c) What is the horizontal displacement of
the shell when it explodes?

Figure 3.5 The trajectory of a fireworks shell.

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Example 3.5
Kilauea in Hawaii is the world’s most continuously active volcano. Very active volcanoes
characteristically eject red-hot rocks and lava rather than smoke and ash. Suppose a large rock is ejected
o
from the volcano with a speed of 25.0 m/s and at an angle 35.0 above the horizontal, as shown in
Figure 3.6. The rock strikes the side of the volcano at an altitude 20.0 m lower than its starting point. (a)
Calculate the time it takes the rock to follow this path. (b) What are the magnitude and direction of the
rock’s velocity at impact?

Figure 3.6 The trajectory of a rock ejected from the Kilauea volcano.

On level ground, we define range to be the horizontal distance R traveled by a projectile.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.7 Trajectories of projectiles on level ground. (a) The greater the initial speed v 0 , the greater the
range for a given initial angle. (b) The effect of initial angle θ0 on the range of a projectile with a given
initial speed.

For a fixed initial speed, such as might be produced by a cannon, the maximum range is obtained with
θ0 =¿ 45o . This is true only for conditions neglecting air resistance. If air resistance is considered, the
o o
maximum angle is approximately 38 . Interestingly, for every initial angle except 45 , there are two
o
angles that give the same range—the sum of those angles is 90 . The range R of a projectile on level
ground for which air resistance is negligible is given by

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 2
v 0 sin 2θ 0
R=¿ (3.23)
g
where v 0 is the initial speed and θ0 is the initial angle relative to the horizontal.

3.5 Addition of Velocities

 Relative Velocity

Example 3.6 Adding Velocities: A Boat on a River

A boat attempts to travel straight across a river at a speed, v boat =¿ 0.75 m/s. The current in the river,
however, flows at a speed of v river =¿ 1.20 m/s to the right. What is the total displacement of the boat
relative to the shore?

Figure 3.8

Example 3.7 Calculating Velocity: Wind Velocity Causes an Airplane to Drift

Calculate the wind velocity for the situation shown in Figure 3.9. The plane is known to be moving at
45.0 m/s due north relative to the air mass, while its velocity relative to the ground (its total velocity) is
o
38.0 m/s in a direction 20.0 west of north.

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 Figure 3.9

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Assignment #3
Conceptual questions: 6, 14 (found on pages 123 & 124)
Problems and exercises: 23, 27, 30, 42, 53, 58 (found on pages 127 to 129)
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Chapter 4 | Dynamics: Force and Newton's Laws of Motion

4.1 Development of Force Concept
Dynamics is the study of the forces that cause objects and systems to move.

4.2 Newton’s First Law of Motion: Inertia

Newton’s First Law of Motion
A body at rest remains at rest, or, if in motion, remains in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on
by a net external force.
Mass
The property of a body to remain at rest or to remain in motion with constant velocity is called inertia.
Newton’s first law is often called the law of inertia. The inertia of an object is measured by its mass.
Roughly speaking, mass is a measure of the amount of “stuff” (or matter) in something.

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4.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Concept of a System

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The acceleration of a system is directly proportional to and in the same direction as the net external
force acting on the system, and inversely proportional to its mass. In equation form, Newton’s second
law of motion is
F
a=¿ net (4.1)
m
This is often written in the more familiar form
Fnet = ma. (4. 2)
When only the magnitude of force and acceleration are considered, this equation is simply
Fnet = ma. (4.3)
Units of Force
The SI unit of force is called the newton (abbreviated N) and is the force needed to accelerate a 1-kg
system at the rate of 1m/s2 . That is, since Fnet = ma,
2
1 N = 1 kg ∙ m/s . (4.4)
While almost the entire world uses the newton for the unit of force, in the United States the most
familiar unit of force is the pound (lb), where 1 N = 0.225 lb.
Weight and the Gravitational Force
If air resistance is negligible, the net force on a falling object is the gravitational force, commonly
called its weight w .
Weight
This is the equation for weight—the gravitational force on a mass m :
w = mg. (4.5)

4.4 Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Symmetry in Forces

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the first body experiences a force that is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that it exerts.

4.5 Normal, Tension, and Other Examples of Forces

Normal Force
The word normal means perpendicular to a surface. The normal force can be less than the object’s
weight if the object is on an incline.

Resolving Weight into Components

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 Figure 4.1 An object rests on an incline that makes an angle θ with the horizontal

Example 4.1 Weight on an Incline, a Two-Dimensional Problem

Consider the skier on a slope shown in Figure 4.2. Her mass including equipment is 60.0 kg. (a) What is
her acceleration if friction is negligible? (b) What is her acceleration if friction is known to be 45.0 N?

Figure 4.2

Tension
A tension is a force along the length of a medium, especially a force carried by a flexible medium, such
as a rope or cable.

Example 4.2 What Is the Tension in a Tightrope?

Calculate the tension in the wire supporting the 70.0-kg tightrope walker shown in Figure 4.3.

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 Figure 4.3 The weight of a tightrope walker causes a wire to sag by 5.0 degrees.

4.7 Further Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion

Example 4.3 Different Tensions at Different Angles

Consider the traffic light (mass 15.0 kg) suspended from two wires as shown in Figure 4.4. Find the
tension in each wire, neglecting the masses of the wires.

Figure 4.4 A traffic light is suspended

from two wires.

Example 4.4 What Does the Bathroom Scale Read in an Elevator?

Figure 4.5 shows a 75.0-kg man (weight of about 165 lb) standing on a bathroom scale in an elevator.
2
Calculate the scale reading: (a) if the elevator accelerates upward at a rate of 1.20 m/s , and (b) if the
elevator moves upward at a constant speed of 1 m/s.

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 Figure 4.5 (b) The free-body diagram
shows only the external forces acting on
the designated system of interest—the
person.

Example 4.5
A cord connecting objects of mass 10 kg and 6 kg passes over a light, frictionless pulley (Figure 4.6). (a)
What is the acceleration of the system? (b) What is the tension in the cord?

Figure 4.5

Example 4.6
A tractor of mass 1000 kg is attached by means of a horizontal, massless chain to a log whose mass is
400 kg (Figure 4.6). The tension in the chain is 2000 N, and the backward force of friction exerted by the
ground on the log is 800 N. How far will the log move in 2 s, starting from rest.

Figure 4.6

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4.8 Extended Topic: The Four Basic Forces—An Introduction
One of the most remarkable simplifications in physics is that only four distinct forces account for all
known phenomena. In fact, nearly all of the forces we experience directly are due to only one basic
force, called the electromagnetic force. (The gravitational force is the only force we experience directly
that is not electromagnetic.) The four basic forces are the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force,
the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force.

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Assignment #4
Conceptual questions: 12 (found on page 166)
Problems and exercises: 9, 22, 28, 35, 42, 45 (found on pages 168 to 172)
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Chapter 5 | Further Applications of Newton's Laws: Friction, Drag, and Elasticity

5.1 Friction
Friction is a force that opposes relative motion between systems in contact. If two systems are in contact
and moving relative to one another, then the friction between them is called kinetic friction.
When there is no motion between the objects, the magnitude of static friction fs is
fs ≤ μsN, (5.1)
where μs is the coefficient of static friction and N is the magnitude of the normal force (the force
perpendicular to the surface).
Once an object is moving, the magnitude of kinetic friction fk is given by
fk = μkN, (5.2)
where μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Example 5.1 Skiing Exercise

o
A skier with a mass of 62 kg is sliding down a snowy slope inclined at 25 above the horizontal. Find the
coefficient of kinetic friction for the skier if friction is known to be 45.0 N.

5.2 Drag Forces

Another interesting force in everyday life is the force of drag on an object when it is moving in a fluid
(either a gas or a liquid). Like friction, the drag force always opposes the motion of an object. Unlike
simple friction, the drag force is proportional to some function of the velocity of the object in that fluid.
This functionality is complicated and depends upon the shape of the object, its size, its velocity,
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and the fluid it is in. For most large objects such as bicyclists, cars, and baseballs not moving too slowly,
the magnitude of the drag force FD is found to be proportional to the square of the speed of the object.
We can write this relationship mathematically as F D ∝ v 2 . When taking into account other factors, this
relationship becomes
1
F D =¿ CρA v
2
(5.3)
2
where C is the drag coefficient, A is the area of the object facing the fluid, and ρ is the density of the
2
fluid. This equation can also be written in a more generalized fashion as F D = bv , where b is a constant
equivalent to 0.5CρA .
The downward force of gravity remains constant regardless of the velocity at which the person is
moving. However, as the person’s velocity increases, the magnitude of the drag force increases until the
magnitude of the drag force is equal to the gravitational force, thus producing a net force of zero. A zero
net force means that there is no acceleration, as given by Newton’s second law. At this point, the
person’s velocity remains constant and we say that the person has reached his terminal velocity (vt).
Since F D is proportional to the speed, a heavier skydiver must go faster for F D to equal his weight. Let’s
see how this works out more quantitatively. At the terminal velocity,
F net=mg−F D =ma=0
Thus,
mg=F D. (5.4)
Using the equation for drag force, we have
1 2
mg=¿ CρA v (5.5)
2
Solving for the velocity, we obtain

√
v=¿ 2mg
ρCA
(5.6)

The above quadratic dependence of air drag upon velocity does not hold if the object is very small, is
going very slow, or is in a denser medium than air. Then we find that the drag force is proportional just
to the velocity. This relationship is given by Stokes’ law, which states that
F s=6 πrηv (5.7)
where r is the radius of the object, η is the viscosity of the fluid, and v is the object’s velocity.

5.3 Elasticity: Stress and Strain

A change in shape due to the application of a force is a deformation. For small deformations, two
important characteristics are observed. First, the object returns to its original shape when the force is
removed—that is, the deformation is elastic for small deformations. Second, the size of the deformation
is proportional to the force—that is, for small deformations, Hooke’s law is obeyed. In equation form,
Hooke’s law is given by
F=k ∆ L (5.8)

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where ∆ L is the amount of deformation (the change in length, for example) produced by the force F ,
and k is a proportionality constant that depends on the shape and composition of the object and the
direction of the force.
Tensile strength is the breaking stress that will cause permanent deformation or fracture of a material.

Changes in Length—Tension and Compression: Elastic Modulus

A change in length ΔL is produced when a force is applied to a wire or rod parallel to its length L0 , either
stretching it (a tension) or compressing it. (See Figure 5.1.) The change in length ( ΔL ) is proportional to
the force F and depends on the substance from which the object is made. Additionally, the change in
length is proportional to the original length L0 and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of
the wire or rod. We can combine all these factors into one equation for ΔL :
1 F
∆ L=¿ L (5.9)
Y A 0

where ΔL is the change in length, F the applied force, Y is a factor, called the elastic modulus or Young’s
modulus, that depends on the substance, A is the cross-sectional area, and L0 is the original length.

Figure 5.1 (a) Tension. (b) Compression.

Example 5.4 Calculating Deformation: How Much Does Your Leg Shorten When You Stand on It?
Calculate the change in length of the upper leg bone (the femur) when a 70.0 kg man supports 62.0 kg of
his mass on it, assuming the bone to be equivalent to a uniform rod that is 40.0 cm long and 2.00 cm in
9 2
radius. The Young's modulus for bone is 9 x 10 N/m .

The equation for change in length is traditionally rearranged and written in the following form:

F ∆L (5.10)
¿Y
A L0
The ratio of force to area, F/A , is defined as stress (measured in
2
N/m ), and the ratio of the change in length to length, ΔL/L0 , is
defined as strain (a unitless quantity). In other words,
stress=Y × strain.
In this form, the equation is analogous to Hooke’s law, with stress
analogous to force and strain analogous to deformation. If we again
rearrange this equation to the form
∆L
F=YA (5.11)
L0
we see that it is the same as Hooke’s law with a proportionality
constant
YA
k =¿ (5.12)
L0

Sideways Stress: Shear Modulus

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Figure 5.18 illustrates what is meant by a sideways stress or a shearing force. Here the deformation is
called Δx and it is perpendicular to L0 , rather than parallel as with tension and compression. Shear
deformation behaves similarly to tension and compression and can be described with similar equations.
The expression for shear deformation is
1 F
∆ x=¿ L (5.13)
S A 0
where S is the shear modulus and F is the force applied perpendicular to L0 and parallel to the cross-
sectional area A .

Figure 5.2 Shearing forces are applied perpendicular to the length

L0 and parallel to the area A, producing a deformation Δx .

Shear moduli are less than Young’s moduli for most materials. Bone is a remarkable exception. Its shear
modulus is not only greater than its Young’s modulus, but it is as large as that of steel. This is why bones
are so rigid.
Because the spine is not vertical, the weight of the upper body exerts some of both Young's and shear
moduli. Pregnant women and people that are overweight (with large abdomens) need to move their
shoulders back to maintain balance, thereby increasing the curvature in their spine and so increasing the
shear component of the stress.
The shear moduli for concrete and brick are very small; they are too highly variable to be listed.
Concrete used in buildings can withstand compression, as in pillars and arches, but is very poor against
shear, as might be encountered in heavily loaded floors or during earthquakes. Modern structures were
made possible by the use of steel and steel-reinforced concrete. Almost by definition, liquids and gases
have shear moduli near zero, because they flow in response to shearing forces.

Example 5.5 Calculating Force Required to Deform: That Nail Does Not Bend Much Under a Load
Find the mass of the picture hanging from a steel nail as shown in Figure 5.3, given that the nail bends
9 2
only 1.80 μm . The shear modulus for steel is S = 80 × 10 N/m .

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 Figure 5.3 Side view of a nail with a picture hung from it.

Changes in Volume: Bulk Modulus

An object will be compressed in all directions if inward forces are applied evenly on all its surfaces as in
Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4 An inward force on all surfaces compresses this cube.

The deformation produced is a change in volume ΔV , which is found to behave very similarly to the
shear, tension, and compression previously discussed. The relationship of the change in volume to other
physical quantities is given by
1 F
∆ V =¿ V (5.14)
B A 0
where B is the bulk modulus, V0 is the original volume, and F/A is the force per unit area applied
uniformly inward on all surfaces.

Example 5.6 Calculating Change in Volume with Deformation: How Much Is Water Compressed at Great
Ocean Depths?

Calculate the fractional decrease in volume ( ΔV/V0) for seawater at 5.00 km depth, where the force per
7 9 2
unit area is 5.00 × 10 N/m2 . The bulk modulus for sea water is 2.2 x 10 N/m .

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_____________________________________________________________________________________

Assignment #5
Conceptual Questions: 6,13,14 (found on page 194)
Problems & Exercises: 8, 11,18,21,32,34, 41 (found on pages 195 to 197)

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Chapter 6 | Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation

This chapter deals with the simplest form of curved motion, uniform circular motion, motion in a
circular path at constant speed.

6.1 Rotation Angle and Angular Velocity

In Kinematics, we studied motion along a straight line and introduced such concepts as displacement,
velocity, and acceleration. Two-Dimensional Kinematics dealt with motion in two dimensions. In this
chapter, we consider situations where the object does not land but moves in a curve. We begin the
study of uniform circular motion by defining two angular quantities needed to describe rotational
motion.

Rotation Angle
When objects rotate about some axis—for example, when the CD (compact disc) rotates about its center
—each point in the object follows a circular arc. The rotation angle is the amount of rotation and is
analogous to linear distance. We define the rotation angle ∆ θ to be the ratio of the arc length to the
radius of curvature:
∆s
∆ θ=¿ (6.1)
r

Figure 6.1 The radius of a circle is

rotated through an angle ∆ θ .

The arc length Δs is the distance traveled along a circular path as shown in Figure 6.1 Note that r is the
radius of curvature of the circular path.
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The circumference of a circle is 2πr . Thus for one complete revolution the rotation angle is
2 πr
∆ θ=¿ ¿2π (6.2)
r
This result is the basis for defining the units used to measure rotation angles, ∆ θ to be radians (rad),
defined so that
2π rad = 1 revolution. (6.3)
0
2 π rad =360 (6.4)
so that
0
360 0
1 rad=¿ ≈ 57.3 (6.5)
2π
Angular Velocity
How fast is an object rotating? We define angular velocity ω as the rate of change of an angle. In
symbols, this is
∆θ
ω=¿ (6.6)
∆t
where an angular rotation ∆ θ takes place in a time Δt .
Angular velocity ω is analogous to linear velocity v . To get the precise relationship between angular and
linear velocity, we consider a particle on a rotating CD. This particle moves an arc length Δs in a time Δt ,
and so it has a linear velocity
∆s
v=¿ (6.7)
∆t
From ∆ θ = Δs/r we see that Δs = r∆ θ . Substituting this into the expression for v gives
r∆θ
v=¿ ¿ rω (6.8)
∆t
We write this relationship in two different ways and gain two different insights:
v
v=rω or ω=¿ (6.9)
r
6.2 Centripetal Acceleration
Figure 6.2 shows an object moving in a circular path at constant speed. The direction of the
instantaneous velocity is shown at two points along the path. Acceleration is in the direction of the
change in velocity, which points directly toward the center of rotation We call the acceleration of
an object moving in uniform circular motion the centripetal acceleration( ac ); centripetal means
“toward the center” or “center seeking.”

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 Figure 6.2 The directions of the velocity of an object at two
different points are shown, and the change in velocity Δv is
seen to point directly toward the center of curvature.

The two equal sides of the velocity vector triangle are the speeds v1 = v2 = v . Using the properties of two
similar triangles, we obtain
∆v ∆ s
¿ (6.10)
v r
Acceleration is Δv /Δt , and so we first solve this expression for Δv :
v
∆ v=¿ ∆s (6.11)
r
Then we divide this by Δt , yielding
∆v v ∆ s
¿ × (6.12)
∆t r ∆t
Finally, noting that Δv /Δt = ac and that Δs /Δt = v , the linear or tangential speed, we see that the
magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is
2
a C =¿ v (6.13)
r
which is the acceleration of an object in a circle of radius r at a speed v .
It is also useful to express ac in terms of angular velocity. Substituting v = rω into the above expression,
2 2
we find ac = (rω) /r = rω . We can express the magnitude of centripetal acceleration using either of two
equations:
2
a C =¿ v ; a C =r ω2 (6.14)
r
A centrifuge is a rotating device used to separate specimens of different densities. Centrifuges are used
in a variety of applications in science and medicine, including the separation of single cell suspensions
such as bacteria, viruses, and blood cells from a liquid medium and the separation of macromolecules,
such as DNA and protein, from a solution. Centrifuges are often rated in terms of their centripetal
acceleration relative to acceleration due to gravity (g).

Example 6.1 How Big Is the Centripetal Acceleration in an Ultracentrifuge?

Calculate the centripetal acceleration of a point 7.50 cm from the axis of an ultracentrifuge spinning at
4
7.5 × 10 rev/min. Determine the ratio of this acceleration to that due to gravity.

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6.3 Centripetal Force
Any net force causing uniform circular motion is called a centripetal force. The direction of a centripetal
force is toward the center of curvature, the same as the direction of centripetal acceleration. The
magnitude of centripetal force F c is
F C =m ac (6.15)
2 2
By using the expressions for centripetal acceleration ac from ac = v /r ; ac = rω , we get two expressions
for the centripetal force Fc in terms of mass, velocity, angular velocity, and radius of curvature:
2
F c =m v ; F c =mr ω
2
(6.16)
r
Example 6.2 What Coefficient of Friction Do Car Tires Need on a Flat Curve?
(a) Calculate the centripetal force exerted on a 900 kg car that negotiates a 500 m radius curve at 25.0
m/s. (b) Assuming an unbanked curve, find the minimum static coefficient of friction, between the tires
and the road, static friction being the reason that keeps the car from slipping.

Let us now consider banked curves, where the slope of the road helps you negotiate the curve. See
Figure 6.3. The greater the angle θ , the faster you can take the curve. Race tracks for bikes as well as
cars, for example, often have steeply banked curves. In an “ideally banked curve,” the angle θ is such
that you can negotiate the curve at a certain speed without the aid of friction between the tires and the
road. We will derive an expression for θ for an ideally banked curve and consider an example
related to it.
For ideal banking, the net external force equals the horizontal centripetal force in the absence of
friction. The components of the normal force N in the horizontal and vertical directions must equal the
centripetal force and the weight of the car, respectively.

Figure 6.3 The car on this banked curve is moving away and turning to the left.

Only the normal force has a horizontal component, and so this must equal the centripetal force—that is,
2
v
Nsin θ=m (6.17)
r
From the figure, we see that the vertical component of the normal force is Ncos θ , and the only other
vertical force is the car’s weight.
Ncos θ=mg (6.18)

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Dividing the previous equation (6.17) by the last equation (6.18) gives
2
v
tanθ=¿ (6.19)
rg
Taking the inverse tangent gives

( )
2
−1 v
θ=tan (ideally banked curve, no friction). (6.20)
rg

6.4 Fictitious Forces and Non-inertial Frames: The Coriolis Force

What do taking off in a jet airplane, turning a corner in a car, riding a merry-go-round, and the circular
motion of a tropical cyclone have in common? Each exhibits fictitious forces—unreal forces that arise
from motion and may seem real, because the observer’s frame of reference is accelerating or rotating.
 Frame of reference, inertia and non-inertia frames, Coriolis force

6.5 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

Stated in modern language, Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that every particle in the
universe attracts every other particle with a force along a line joining them. The force is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
For two bodies having masses m and M with a distance r between their centers of mass, the equation
for Newton’s universal law of gravitation is

GmM
F=¿ 2 (6.21)
r
where F is the magnitude of the gravitational force and G is a proportionality factor called the
gravitational constant. G is a universal gravitational constant—that is, it is thought to be the same
everywhere in the universe. It has been measured experimentally to be
−11 2 2
G = 6.674×10 Nm /kg (6.22)
The weight of an object mg is the gravitational force between it and Earth. Substituting mg for F in
Newton’s universal law of gravitation gives
GmM
mg=¿ 2 (6.23)
r
where m is the mass of the object, M is the mass of Earth, and r is the distance to the center of Earth
(the distance between the centers of mass of the object and Earth). The mass m of the object cancels,
leaving an equation for g :
GM
g=¿ 2 (6.24)
r
 Tides
 ”Weightlessness” and Microgravity

6.6 Satellites and Kepler’s Laws: An Argument for Simplicity

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Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
Kepler’s First Law: The orbit of each planet about the Sun is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus.

Figure 6.4 For any closed gravitational orbit, m follows an elliptical path with
M at one focus. Kepler’s first law states this fact for planets orbiting the Sun.

Kepler’s Second Law: Each planet moves so that an imaginary line drawn from the Sun to the planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal times (see Figure 6.5).

Kepler’s Third Law: The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets about the Sun is equal to
the ratio of the cubes of their average distances from the Sun. In equation form, this is
2 3
T1 r1
2 ¿ 3 (6.25)
T2 r2

where T is the period (time for one orbit) and r is the average radius. This equation is valid only for
comparing two small masses orbiting the same large one.

Figure 6.5 The shaded regions have equal areas. It takes equal times for m to
go from A to B, from C to D, and from E to F. The mass m moves fastest when it
is closest to M . Kepler’s second law was originally devised for planets orbiting
the Sun, but it has broader validity.

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Note again that while, for historical reasons, Kepler’s laws are stated for planets orbiting the Sun, they
are actually valid for all bodies satisfying the two previously stated conditions.

Example 6.3 Find the Time for One Orbit of an Earth Satellite
8
Given that the Moon orbits Earth each 27.3 d and that it is an average distance of 3.84×10 m from the
center of Earth, calculate the period of an artificial satellite orbiting at an average altitude of 1500 km
above Earth’s surface.
 Derivation of Kepler’s Third Law for Circular Orbits
The definition of planet set in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) states that in the solar
system, a planet is a celestial body that:
1. is in orbit around the Sun,
2. has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium and
3. has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit.
A non-satellite body fulfilling only the first two of the above criteria is classified as “dwarf planet.”
In 2006, Pluto was demoted to a ‘dwarf planet’ after scientists revised their definition of what
constitutes a “true” planet.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Assignment #6
Questions: 14 (found on page 231);
Problems: 13, 19, 20, 27, 34, 43 (found on pages 233 to 236)

Tutorial #6
Questions: 7, 21 (found on pages 230 to 232);
Problems: 1, 7, 30, 46 (found on pages 233 to 236)

_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Chapter 7 | Work, Energy, and Energy Resources

7.1 Work: The Scientific Definition

Formally, the work done on a system by a constant force is defined to be the product of the component
of the force in the direction of motion times the distance through which the force acts. For one-way
motion in one dimension, this is expressed in equation form as

W = ∣ F ∣ (cos θ) ∣ d ∣ (7.1)

where W is work, d is the displacement of the system, and θ is the angle between the force vector F and
the displacement vector d , as in Figure 7.1. We can also write this as

W = Fd cos θ. (7.2)

Work and energy have the same units. From the definition of work, we see that those units are force

given the special name joule (J), and 1 J = 1 N ⋅ m = 1 kg ⋅ m2/s2 . One joule is not a large amount of
times distance. Thus, in SI units, work and energy are measured in newton-meters. A newton-meter is

energy; it would lift a small 100-gram apple a distance of about 1 meter.

7.2 Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem

Work Transfers Energy What happens to the work done on a system? Energy is transferred into the
system, but in what form? Does it remain in the system or move on? The answers depend on the
situation. Work done on a system will transfer energy into the system in a form (a) that causes the
system to change its speed or (b) is stored in the system.

Net Work and the Work-Energy Theorem

Net work is defined to be the sum of work done by all external forces—that is, net work is the work
done by the net external force Fnet . In equation form, this is Wnet = Fnetd cos θ where θ is the angle
between the force vector and the displacement vector.

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