Lesson-1-Endocrine-System
Endocrine System Overview
• Composed of glands that secrete hormones affecting almost every cell, organ, and function in the body.
• Essential for regulating growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood.
Major Endocrine Glands
• Pineal Gland: Regulates sleep.
• Pituitary Gland: Known as the "master gland," controls other endocrine glands, stimulates growth.
• Hypothalamus: Links endocrine system and nervous system, controls hormone release from the pituitary.
• Thyroid Gland: Controls metabolism, burns fuel from food, regulates calcium storage in bones.
• Parathyroid Glands: Regulates calcium levels in the blood.
• Adrenal Glands: Prepares body for action during emergencies (controls heart rate and breathing).
• Pancreas: Produces insulin to regulate blood sugar levels.
• Thymus: Helps produce T-cells for the immune system.
• Reproductive Glands: Control maturation, male characteristics, female traits, and reproductive functions.
Glands Defined
• Gland: An organ whose cells secrete materials, sometimes via ducts.
• Endocrine Glands: Ductless and secrete hormones directly into bloodstream.
• Exocrine Glands: Deliver substances through ducts to specific body locations.
Hormones and Their Functions
• Hormones are special protein substances that trigger functions in the body.
• External factors and age can affect hormone secretion.
• Distinction from enzymes:
• Enzymes: Catalysts that accelerate reactions, can be reused, regulated by external factors.
• Hormones: Messengers, change chemically after use, secreted by endocrine glands, act at different sites.
Lesson-2-Hormones
Hormones Overview
• Hormones: Chemical messengers that carry instructions to cells, changing their activities.
• Most hormones are slow-acting and longer-lived.
Endocrine System Function
• Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream, targeting specific cells with receptors.
• Secreting Cell (gland) → Hormone → Blood Vessel → Target Cell (receptor)
Key Glands and Their Functions
Hypothalamus
• Small brain region connecting to pituitary gland.
• Regulates pituitary gland hormones.
• Central regulator of the hypo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis which manages stress.
• Controls hormone production related to growth, metabolism, and reproductive functions.
Pituitary Gland
• Consists of anterior and posterior lobes; regulates various hormonal functions.
Anterior Pituitary Functions:
• Produces hormones stimulating adrenal glands (ACTH), growth of bones (GH), melanin production (MSH), and sex hormone production
(FSH, LH).
• Stimulates milk production (Prolactin).
Posterior Pituitary Functions:
• Controls water retention (ADH) and stimulates milk production/uterine contraction (Oxytocin).
Pineal Gland
• Located beneath the corpus callosum, regulates body rhythms and sleep patterns.
• Produces Melatonin, which synchronizes daily rhythms.
Thyroid Gland
• Controls metabolism speed and influences mental/physical growth.
• Produces Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3).
• Calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels.
Parathyroid Gland
• Regulates blood calcium levels: raises calcium by releasing Parathormone (PTH).
Adrenal Gland
• Located above the kidneys; consists of adrenal cortex and medulla.
Medulla:
• Produces adrenaline (epinephrine) for stress response and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) to increase heart rate and energy.
Cortex:
• Produces hormones (Androgens, Estrogens, Cortisol) influencing blood pressure, stress responses, and sexual characteristics.
Pancreas
• Functions as both an endocrine and exocrine gland.
• Produces Insulin to lower blood sugar and Glucagon to raise blood sugar.
Gonads
• Ovaries in females and testes in males.
• Produce sex hormones:
• Testosterone regulates male development.
• Estrogen and Progesterone regulate female development and reproductive processes.
Lesson-3-Diseases-and-Disorders
What is Endocrinology?
• Endocrinology studies hormones that are crucial for survival, controlling temperature, sleep, mood, stress, and growth.
• An endocrinologist treats hormone-related diseases.
• Hormones are chemical messengers traveling through the bloodstream, secreted by endocrine glands (e.g. pituitary, thyroid, adrenal). Sweat
and lymph glands are not endocrine.
Diabetes Mellitus
• Definition: A group of metabolic disorders causing high blood glucose due to inadequate insulin production or cell resistance to insulin.
• Types:
• Type 1 Diabetes: Body does not produce insulin; requires lifetime insulin injections, blood tests, and diet management.
• Type 2 Diabetes: Body produces minimal insulin or cells resist insulin.
• Gestational Diabetes: Occurs during pregnancy due to hormonal changes impacting insulin usage.
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)
• Definition: GDM occurs when hormones from the placenta hinder insulin effectiveness, causing glucose to accumulate in the blood.
• Outcome for Unborn Baby: Untreated GDM can lead to macrosomia, a condition where the baby grows excessively large.
Genetic Factors in Diabetes
• Family history increases risk: Having relatives with diabetes raises your likelihood of developing it, including prediabetes.
• Both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes have genetic and environmental triggers; genes alone are not sufficient.
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Thyroid Disorders
• Overview: Involves abnormal thyroid hormone production (both excessive and insufficient).
• Hyperthyroidism: Commonly known as Graves’ disease, characterized by a goiter and symptoms like rapid heartbeat, fatigue, and thinning
hair.
• Treatment methods include medication (anti-thyroid drugs, beta-blockers) or surgical intervention (thyroidectomy).
Hyperthyroidism Symptoms
• Common symptoms: Goiter, rapid heartbeat, trembling, warm skin, weight loss, nervousness, irritability, etc.
Hypothyroidism
• Definition: Insufficient thyroid hormone production leading to low metabolism.
• Symptoms can be gradual and include fatigue, weight gain, feeling cold, constipation, hair loss, slow heart rate, etc.
Growth Hormone Disorders
• Pituitary Dwarfism: Insufficient growth hormone leading to short stature.
• Gigantism: Excess growth hormone in children/adolescents often due to pituitary tumors, causing abnormal height growth.
Congenital Athymia
• A rare disorder with no thymus, affecting T-cell production crucial for immune response.
Melatonin Deficiency
• Common Symptoms: Insomnia, depression, weight gain linked to disrupted sleep patterns.
Lesson-7-Nervous-System
Nervous System Overview
• Definition: Connects body parts, transmits signals; regulates responses to stimuli.
Main Divisions of the Nervous System
• Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Main processing center; command center for body.
• Processes information, sends instructions.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Connects CNS to organs and limbs; includes nerves.
• Gathers and delivers information to/from CNS.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain
• Organ in the skull; organizes and distributes information.
• Wrapped in three layers:
• Pia Mater - Inner, delicate layer.
• Arachnoid - Middle, web-like, filled with fluid.
• Dura Mater - Tough outer layer.
• Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Protects and cushions the brain and spine.
• Brain Appearance:
• Gray matter: Cell bodies of ~100 billion neurons.
• White matter: Bundles of axons.
• Mass: ~1.4 kg.
Parts of the Brain
• Cerebrum: Largest part, 85% of the brain.
• Cerebral Cortex: Involved in learning, intelligence, voluntary actions, emotions, and personality.
• Divided into left and right halves; controls opposite sides of the body.
• Cerebellum: Coordinates muscle actions, maintains balance and posture.
• Brain Stem: Connects spinal cord to the brain; regulates survival functions (breathing, heartbeat).
• Regions:
• Medulla Oblongata: Controls involuntary actions.
• Midbrain: Processes visual/auditory reflexes.
• Pons: Controls respiratory functions.
• Spinal Cord: Long bundle of nerves extending from the brain to the lower back; pathways for nerve impulse.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Divisions of PNS
• Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements; includes spinal and cranial nerves.
• Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary movements;
• Sympathetic: Activates stress response (e.g., increases heartbeat).
• Parasympathetic: Restores normal state (e.g., decreases heartbeat).
Lesson-8-Neurons-and-Nerve-Impulse
Neurons: Basic Overview
• Neurons are the basic functional units of the nervous system.
• They carry information in the form of nerve impulses.
Do Neurons Reproduce?
• Neurons cannot be replaced once damaged.
• The neurons we are born with are sufficient for a lifetime.
Parts of Neurons
• Dendrites: Tiny structures that receive information toward the cell body.
• Soma (Cell Body): Largest part, contains the nucleus and controls cell activities.
• Nucleus: Controls all cellular functions.
• Axon: Conducts nerve impulses away from the soma.
• Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon and increases impulse speed.
• Schwann Cell: Supports the axon.
• Nerve Ending (Axon Terminals): Pass on messages to dendrites of other neurons.
Types of Neurons
• Motor Neurons: Transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles/organs).
• Sensory Neurons: Carry sensory impulses from sense organs to the CNS.
• Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons and determine responses.
Sensory vs. Motor Neurons
• Sensory Neurons: Carry impulses from sensory organs to CNS.
• Motor Neurons: Carry impulses from CNS to effectors.
Integration of Nervous System
• Enables responses to environmental stimuli through sensory input and motor output.
• Sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin) play crucial roles in receiving information.
Nerve Impulses
• A wave of electrochemical signal traveling through neurons.
• Nerve impulses involve electrical charges and chemical reactions.
• Impulses cannot jump across neurons; neurotransmitters facilitate communication across synapses.
Neurotransmitters
• Chemical messengers transmitting signals between neurons.
• Essential for communication between nerve cells, muscle cells, and glands.
Important Neurotransmitters
• Dopamine: Affects emotion, pleasure, and motivation.
• Serotonin: Regulates mood, well-being, and sleep.
• GABA: Calming effects on the nervous system.
• Acetylcholine: Involved in learning and memory.
• Glutamate: Important for memory.
Lesson-9-Homeostasis
Homeostasis
• Definition: The state reached when each part of the body functions in equilibrium with others.
Mechanisms of Homeostasis
• Most body systems maintain homeostasis using feedback mechanisms.
• The brain restores internal systems to normal in response to internal changes.
Hormonal Regulation
• Hormone levels are controlled by feedback mechanisms.
• The nervous and endocrine systems regulate:
• Body temperature
• Water levels
• Metabolic waste
• Blood calcium levels
• Blood hormone levels
Meningitis
• Definition: Inflammation of the meninges surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
• Causes: Viral, bacterial, and fungal infections.
• Viral meningitis: Less life-threatening.
• Bacterial meningitis: Requires serious medical attention.
Rabies
• Definition: Viral infection transmitted through animal bites.
• Prevention: Immediate vaccination before symptoms develop.
Tetanus
• Definition: Infection caused by Clostridium tetani bacteria; neurotoxin affects muscles and nerves.
• Prevention: Immunization.
Seizures
• Definition: Neurological disorder causing seizures from faulty electrical impulses in the brain.
• Causes: Genetics, brain damage, brain infections, alcohol use disorder.
• Treatment: Medication, vagus nerve stimulation, surgery.
Parkinson's Disease
• Definition: Progressive degenerative disease affecting the basal ganglia of the brain.
• Associated with dopamine deficiency.
• Treatment: Medication, physical therapy, surgery (in some cases).
Alzheimer's Disease
• Definition: The most common type of dementia; starts with mild memory loss.
• Causes: Degeneration of brain tissues.
• Focus on improving quality of life.
• Alzheimer's accounts for 60-80% of dementia cases.
Cerebral Palsy
• Definition: A group of disorders affecting movement and balance.
• Cause: Infection or damage to the brain before/birth.
• Treatment: Therapy, assistive technologies, medications, surgery.
Multiple Sclerosis
• Definition: Disabling disease affecting the brain and spinal cord.
• Cause: Damage to the protective myelin sheath.
• Treatment: Medication, physical therapy.
Aneurysm
• Definition: Weak spot in blood vessel in the brain; can hemorrhage.
• Treatment: Medication, surgery.
Stephen Hawking
• Renowned physicist, diagnosed with ALS; passed away March 14, 2018.
Lesson-10-DNA-and-RNA
• 46 Chromosomes in Body Cells
• Chromatin: Uncondensed form of DNA
• Chromosome: Condensed structure of DNA
• Chromatin Fiber / DNA / Nucleosome: Fundamental structures of DNA organization
• Histone: Basic proteins that bind to DNA
DNA as Genetic Material
• Definition: DNA contains genes, which are segments responsible for hereditary information.
• Function: Controls expression of inherited characters.
Human Genome Facts
• 46 Chromosomes & 35,000 Genes: Average gene length is about 3,000 base pairs.
• Total Base Pairs: Approximately 3.2 billion in human chromosomes.
Proteins
• Structure: Made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
• Functions:
• Channel proteins in membranes for molecular movement.
• Structural proteins like hair and muscle.
• Hormones for cell regulation.
• Antibodies in immune response.
• Enzymes as biological catalysts.
DNA Structure
• Type of Nucleic Acid: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a polynucleotide.
• Components of Nucleotide:
• Five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose)
• Phosphate group
• Nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G)
DNA Formation
• Polynucleotides: Nucleotides linked into chains with non-coding (sugars & phosphates) and coding (nitrogenous bases) portions.
• Double Helix Model: Proposed by Watson and Crick:
• Rails: Alternating deoxyribose and phosphate molecules.
• Rungs: Paired nitrogenous bases (A-T and G-C).
Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics
• Sequence: DNA → RNA → Protein
• Processes:
• Replication: DNA copies itself.
• Transcription: DNA is copied to mRNA.
• Translation: mRNA is used to synthesize proteins.
RNA Details
• Type: Polynucleotide with ribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases (A, U, G, C).
• Types of RNA:
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Cell Types and Nucleus
• Cells may be prokaryotic (no nuclear membrane) or eukaryotic (true nucleus).
• MRNA is assembled in the nucleus during transcription.
Key Concepts to Emphasize
• DNA = two strands of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, bases) in a double helix.
• RNA = single stranded polynucleotide with three major types.
Lesson-11-DNA-Replication
Central Dogma of Molecular Genetics
• States the flow of genetic information:
• DNA → RNA → Proteins
• Key Processes:
• Transcription: DNA to RNA
• Translation: RNA to Protein
• Replication: DNA to DNA
Genetic Code
• Sequence of nitrogenous bases in a gene determines the type of protein produced.
• Genetic Code Table:
• Example codons and their corresponding amino acids:
• UUU - Phe (Phenylalanine)
• AUG - Met (Methionine)
• UAA, UAG, UGA - Stop Codons
Genotype vs. Phenotype
• Genotype: Genetic makeup of an organism.
• Phenotype: Observable physical traits.
DNA Processes
• Replication
• Requires enzymes: DNA polymerase and helicase.
• Produces two identical copies of DNA.
• Steps include unwinding, base pairing, and sealing of DNA strands.
Cell Cycle Phases
• G1 Phase: Growth and organelle production.
• S Phase: DNA is replicated.
• G2 Phase: Preparations for mitosis.
• M Phase: Mitosis occurs.
• Cytokinesis: Cell divides into two daughter cells.
Semiconservative Replication
• Each DNA strand serves as a template for the new strand.
• Enzymes are involved in unwinding and joining nucleotides:
• DNA ligase seals breaks.
• DNA polymerase adds nucleotides and proofreads.
Base Pairing Rules
• A pairs with T (Adenine and Thymine).
• C pairs with G (Cytosine and Guanine).
• In RNA, A pairs with U (Uracil instead of Thymine).
Coding of Genes
• Genes are coded by base triplets called codons.
• Information carried through specific sequences of nitrogenous bases.
Lesson-13-Genetic-Code-Table
Background: Making a Protein
• Genes provide instructions for proteins through a two-step process: transcription and translation.
• Transcription: DNA is converted to RNA.
• In eukaryotes, RNA undergoes further processing to become messenger RNA (mRNA).
• Translation: Nucleotide sequence of mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a protein.
Codons
• Codons are groups of three nucleotides in mRNA that encode amino acids.
• Most codons specify an amino acid.
• Three stop codons signal the end of a protein.
• Start codon (AUG) signals the beginning of a protein and codes for methionine.
Codon Reading during Translation
• mRNA is read from 5' to 3', starting at the start codon and ending at a stop codon.
• This specifies the order of amino acids in the polypeptide from N-terminus (methionine) to C-terminus.
The Genetic Code Table
• The genetic code details the relationship between codons and amino acids (or stop signals).
Reading Frame
• The reading frame indicates how mRNA is divided into codons during translation.
• The position of the start codon ensures the correct frame is chosen for decoding.
Discovery of the Genetic Code
• The triplet hypothesis was proposed by physicist George Gamow in the mid-1950s, suggesting that groups of 3 nucleotides code for one amino
acid.
Lesson-14-Chromosomal-Mutations
Chromosomal Mutation
• Definition: Chromosomal mutation occurs at the chromosomal level, resulting in alterations that may occur during an organism's cell
reproduction.
Cell Reproduction and Chromosomal Abnormalities
• Chromosome structure abnormalities may arise during cell reproduction processes, affecting normal functions. This may lead to chromosome
segments breaking and incorrectly reuniting.
Types of Chromosomal Mutations
• Duplication: A segment of the chromosome is duplicated.
• Deletion: Loss of a DNA segment or chromosome.
• Inversion: A chromosome segment is inverted or reversed.
• Translocation: A piece of chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome, involving two different chromosomes.
Duplication
• Involves duplication of a chromosome segment, which can cause genetic disorders.
Deletion
• Refers to loss of a segment of DNA/chromosome leading to potential disorder.
Inversion
• Occurs when a segment of a chromosome breaks and reattaches in the reverse orientation.
Translocation
• A piece of the chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome, potentially disrupting gene function.
Effects of Chromosomal Material Changes
• Changes in chromosomal number can lead to growth, development, and functional issues in organisms. This can result in genetic conditions.
Examples of Genetic Conditions
• Down Syndrome: Occurs due to an extra chromosome 21, impacting development and causing varying degrees of intellectual disability.
• Prevalence: 1 in every 800 babies born in the Philippines has Down syndrome.
• Cri du chat: Results from a deletion from the short arm of chromosome 5, leading to distinctive features and intellectual disability.
• Hemophilia B: A genetic disorder due to the lack of blood clotting factor IX, leading to excessive bleeding.
• Pallister Killian Syndrome: Caused by the abnormal number of chromosome 12, leading to specific developmental issues.
Lesson-15-Evolution
First Life Forms
• Significant early life forms in evolutionary history include:
• Australopithecus afarensis
• Homo habilis
• Homo erectus
• Homo neanderthalensis
• Homo sapiens
Emergence of New Traits
• New traits emerge through various evolutionary mechanisms.
• Variations in organisms may arise from:
• Mutation
• Genetic recombination
• Selection
Species Diversity
• There are numerous species of organisms due to:
• Evolutionary adaptations to diverse environments.
Biological Species Concept
• Biological species are groups of populations capable of interbreeding and reproductively isolated from others.
• Mating and production of fertile offspring is essential.
• Living organisms of the same species occupy a specific area concurrently.
Variation in Organisms
• Variation refers to deviations in characteristics from what is typical for a given group.
• Variations can stem from new traits or combinations of existing traits.
Mechanisms of Variation
• Variations are products of:
• Mutation: Changes in DNA, creating new traits.
• Recombination: New combinations of traits during reproduction.
• Selection: The process where beneficial traits become more common in a population over time.
Understanding Evolution
• Evolution is defined as a change in a population of organisms over time.
Antibiotic Resistance
• Antibiotic Resistance occurs through the following process:
• Some bacteria are inherently resistant to antibiotics.
• Antibiotics kill both harmful bacteria and beneficial bacteria in the body.
• Resistant bacteria thrive and multiply.
• Bacteria can transfer resistance traits to other bacteria.
Evolutionary Concepts
• Evolution is a continuous process that drives organisms to adapt to their environment.
• Diverse life forms exhibit evolutionary traits:
• Reptiles
• Birds
• Mammals
• Arthropods
• Bony Fish
• Annelids
• Echinoderms
• Amphibians
• Mollusks
• Nematodes
• Coelenterates
Theories of Evolution
Lamarck's Theory
• Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed:
• Characteristics acquired during an organism's life can be passed to offspring.
• Traits that are used develop further; unused traits disappear.
Cuvier's Theory
• Georges Cuvier contended that species' emergence and extinction could be explained by:
• Catastrophic events affecting the environment.
Darwin’s Natural Selection
• Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection suggests:
• Organisms evolve through natural selection.
Lesson-18-Biodiversity
Biodiversity Overview
• Etymology: The term "biodiversity" derives from Greek word BIOS (life) and Latin word DIVERSITAS (variety/difference).
• Definition: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life and can be expressed at different levels of biological organization:
• Genetics
• Species
• Ecosystem diversity
Importance of Individuals and Species
• An individual encompasses all taxonomically important characteristics of its species.
• Members of the same species interact and live together, often forming groups which helps in survival.
Community Interactions
• Organisms within a community engage in interactions that influence their survival. Important notes include:
• All organisms require food to survive.
• Species perform specific roles in feeding relationships.
Environmental Interactions
• The environment dictates:
• Which organisms can inhabit it.
• The population sizes of those organisms.
• Survival often depends on an organism's ability to tolerate environmental conditions and compete with others.
Ecosystem Characteristics
• The biome is a merging of all ecosystems, including the atmosphere, lithosphere, and ocean floor.
Values of Biodiversity
• Direct Values: Products for food, medicine, clothing, etc.
• Example: Medicines from plants.
• Indirect Values: Benefits provided without direct usage.
• Example: Mangroves maintain water quality, prevent soil erosion, and absorb pollutants.
• Aesthetic Values: Visual enjoyment from natural landscapes.
• Examples: Banaue Rice Terraces and Hundred Islands.
Genetic Diversity
• Variation is crucial; no two individuals are identical, enhancing adaptability.
• Key Parameters:
• Survivorship: Ability to maintain life.
• Reproductive success: Ability to produce fertile offspring.
Species Diversity
• Contributes to survival through:
• Food sources.
• Roles as decomposers, habitat providers, and breeding grounds.
• Connection: Extinction of one species risks loss of others.
Ecosystem Diversity
• An ecosystem is a basic unit of structure in ecology.
• Comprises communities interacting with each other and local abiotic factors.
Types of Diversity
• Genetic Diversity: Variety of genes within a species.
• Species Diversity: Variety among species in ecosystems.
• Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of habitats in a given area.
Adaptation Overview
• Adaptation Types:
• Structural: Physical body structures aiding survival.
• Behavioral: Responses or actions beneficial for survival.
• Significance: Adaptation is crucial for survival amid environmental changes.
Adaptation Mechanisms
• Camouflage: Disguising appearance to blend with surroundings.
• Mimicry: Imitating aspects of another species for protection.
• Defense Mechanisms:
• Chemical defenses: Harmful substances to predators.
• Body coverings: Protection from external factors.
• Learned Behaviors: Acquired through interaction, not inheritable.
L19_Biodiversity-and-Adaptation
Biodiversity and Its Importance
• Definition of Biodiversity: Refers to the variety of living things in a specific area.
Roles of Organisms in Biodiversity
• Maintain balance in ecosystems by performing specific roles.
• Contribute to the quality of water bodies.
• Prevent soil erosion and floods.
• Cycle minerals in soil and absorb pollutants.
• Control population of pests, leading to ecosystem stability.
Values of Biodiversity
Economic Value
• Direct Economic Value: Organisms provide products such as food, medicine, clothing, shelter, and energy.
• Example: Medicines from plants (e.g., coconut).
• Indirect Economic Value: Benefits from organisms without direct use.
• Example: Species that maintain water quality and prevent erosion (e.g., mangroves).
• Aesthetic Value: Provides visual enjoyment and beauty in natural landscapes.
• Example: Banaue Rice Terraces, Hundred Islands.
Levels of Biological Organization
• Genetic Diversity: Variation in phenotype and genotype within a population.
• Important for adaptability and survival in changing environments.
• Species Diversity: Each species has a role in the ecosystem, contributing to the survival of other species.
• Example: Decomposers return nutrients to the ecosystem.
• Ecosystem Diversity: Interactions between species and their abiotic environment.
• Basic structural unit in ecology.
Concepts in Ecosystem Diversity
• Integrative Levels: Interaction of smaller units at lower levels creates larger functional wholes.
• Unity in Diversity: Genetic diversity allows species to adapt; species diversity maintains community stability.
Adaptation
• Definition of Adaptation: The process of change in response to environmental conditions for survival.
• Adaptations can be structural (physical features), behavioral (responses to life needs), or physiological (internal processes).
Types of Adaptations
• Structural Adaptation: Physical features that enhance survival.
• Behavioral Adaptation: Responses to life needs, can be instinctive or learned.
• Examples of Behavioral Adaptation:
• Hibernation: Sleep during cold weather.
• Migration: Seasonal movement from one place to another.
• Learned Behaviors: Acquired through interaction with the environment.
